Environmental conflict is a conflict caused over environmental degradation in the course of mismanagement of environmental resources.[1][2][3] Usually several parties are involved, including environmental defenders who want to protect the environment, and those who want to or are mismanaging the environment for something else, typically extractive industry.[1] The mismanager of the environmental resources may be causing overuse or extraction of a renewable resource (i.e. overfishing or deforestation), causing overstrain on the ability of the environment to respond to pollution and other inputs, or degrading the living space for humans and nature.[4]
Frequently these conflicts focus on environmental justice issues related to the rights of indigenous people, the rights of peasants or threats to other livelihoods, such as those of fisherfolk or communities dependent on the natural resources of the ocean.[1] Environmental conflict, especially in contexts where communities have been displaced to create environmental migrants or geopolitical disputes, can amplify the complexity of other conflicts, violence or response to natural disaster.[5][3][4]
Frequency and types of conflicts
A 2020 paper mapped the arguments and concerns of environmental defenders in over 2743 conflicts found in the Environmental Justice Atlas (EJAtlas).[1] The analysis found that the industrial sectors most frequently challenged by environmental conflicts were mining (21%), fossil energy (17%), biomass and land uses (15%), and water management (14%).[1] Killings of environmental defenders happened in 13% of the reported cases.[1]
There was also a distinct difference in the types of conflict found in high and low income countries, There were more conflicts around conservation, water management, and biomass and land use in low income countries; while in high income countries almost half of conflicts focused on waste management, tourism, nuclear power, industrial zones, and other infrastructure projects.[1] The study also found that most conflicts start with self-organized local groups defending against infringement, with a focus on non-violent tactics.[1]
Water protectors and land defenders who defend indigenous rights are criminalized at a much higher rate than in other conflicts.[1]
Conflict resolution
A distinct field of conflict resolution called Environmental Conflict Resolution, focuses on developing collaborative methods for deescalating and resolving environmental conflicts.[6] As a field of practice, people working on conflict resolution focus on the collaboration, and consensus building among stakeholders.[6] An analysis of such resolution processes found that the best predictor of successful resolution was sufficient consultation with all parties involved.[7]
Critique
Some scholars critique the focus on natural resources used in descriptions of environmental conflict.[8] Often these approaches focus on the commercialization of the natural environment that doesn't acknowledge the underlying value of a healthy environment.[8]
See also
- US Institute for Environmental Conflict Resolution
- Inventory of Conflict and Environment
- Ecological distribution conflict
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Scheidel, Arnim; Del Bene, Daniela; Liu, Juan; Navas, Grettel; Mingorría, Sara; Demaria, Federico; Avila, Sofía; Roy, Brototi; Ertör, Irmak; Temper, Leah; Martínez-Alier, Joan (2020-07-01). "Environmental conflicts and defenders: A global overview". Global Environmental Change. 63: 102104. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102104. ISSN 0959-3780. PMC 7418451. PMID 32801483.
- ^ Lee, James R. (2019-06-12), "What is a field and why does it grow? Is there a field of environmental conflict?", Environmental Conflict and Cooperation, Routledge, pp. 69–75, doi:10.4324/9781351139243-9, ISBN 978-1-351-13924-3, S2CID 198051009, retrieved 2022-02-18
- ^ a b Libiszewski, Stephan. "What is an Environmental Conflict?." Journal of Peace Research 28.4 (1991): 407-422.
- ^ a b Mason, Simon; Spillman, Kurt R (2009-11-17). "Environmental Conflicts and Regional Conflict Management". WELFARE ECONOMICS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT – Volume II. EOLSS Publications. ISBN 978-1-84826-010-8.
- ^ "Environment, Conflict and Peacebuilding". International Institute for Sustainable Development. Retrieved 2022-02-18.
- ^ a b Dukes, E. Franklin (2004). "What we know about environmental conflict resolution: An analysis based on research". Conflict Resolution Quarterly. 22 (1–2): 191–220. doi:10.1002/crq.98. ISSN 1541-1508.
- ^ Emerson, Kirk; Orr, Patricia J.; Keyes, Dale L.; Mcknight, Katherine M. (2009). "Environmental conflict resolution: Evaluating performance outcomes and contributing factors". Conflict Resolution Quarterly. 27 (1): 27–64. doi:10.1002/crq.247. ISSN 1541-1508.
- ^ a b "Environmental Conflict: A Misnomer?". E-International Relations. 2016-05-12. Retrieved 2022-02-18.