Betsy Bakker-Nort | |
---|---|
![]() Betsy Bakker-Nort in 1922 | |
Member of the House of Representatives | |
In office 1922–1942 | |
Personal details | |
Born | Bertha Nort 8 May 1874 Groningen, the Netherlands |
Died | 23 May 1946 Utrecht, the Netherlands | (aged 72)
Political party | VDB |
Bertha "Betsy" Bakker-Nort[A] (8 May 1874 – 23 May 1946) was a Dutch feminist, lawyer, and politician who served as a member of the House of Representatives for the Free-thinking Democratic League (VDB) from 1922 to 1942. Born in Groningen, she became involved with the feminist movement in 1894, joining the Dutch women's suffrage association, Vereeniging voor Vrouwenkiesrecht (VVVK), where she was mentored by Aletta Jacobs, one of the pioneering activists of the 19th century. At age 34, Bakker-Nort started studying law at the University of Groningen, after realising that the fight for women's rights required a thorough understanding of the law. In the 1922 general election, the first in which women were allowed to vote, she received enough votes to be elected to parliament and became the VDB's first female representative. She was re-elected four times and during her time in the chamber mainly argued the case for more women's rights with respect to marriage law and labour law. She was active internationally as well, taking a leading role in preparing the International Woman Suffrage Alliance's actions for the 1930 League of Nations conference on international law. In 1933, she acted as a judge in a counter-trial in London of the arson case of the Reichstag fire. After the German invasion in May 1940, Bakker-Nort did not return to the House. From 1942 she was interned at Westerbork transit camp and a camp in Barneveld, before the Nazis moved her in September 1944 to the concentration camp Theresienstadt in Bohemia. She was liberated in June 1945. She died the following year.
Early life and activism
Early life
Bertha "Betsy" Nort was born on 8 May 1874 in Groningen, the Netherlands, the youngest of four daughters of a non-religious Jewish couple, Joseph Nort and Wilhelmina van der Wijk.[1][2][3][4] Her father, a merchant, died when she was very young and she grew up mostly around women, including two maids.[2][3][4] She later said that, as a young girl, it struck her as unfair that her independent mother was not allowed to vote in local council elections, "yet each man was, no matter how dumb".[5] After finishing secondary school, she travelled to Sweden to study Scandinavian languages. She translated around 40 Danish, Norwegian and Swedish works, including feminist novels and children's books, into Dutch.[2][3][6][7] She observed that in Scandinavia a woman's position in society was much better than in the Netherlands.[8]
Early activism
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20220628193229im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Group_photo_International_Woman_Suffrage_Alliance_June_1908_in_Amsterdam.jpg/220px-Group_photo_International_Woman_Suffrage_Alliance_June_1908_in_Amsterdam.jpg)
After returning to the Netherlands in 1894, Nort became actively involved in the women's rights movement. She joined the Dutch women's suffrage association Vereeniging voor Vrouwenkiesrecht (VVVK), and helped start its local Groningen chapter.[3][9] Together with Aletta Jacobs she went door to door to recruit new members.[10][11] Jacobs, a fellow Groninger who was 20 years Nort's senior, had made a name for herself as the first female student at a Dutch university, and was one of the founders of the VVVK. She became Nort's mentor.[10][12] In his 2007 history of the Free-thinking Democratic League (VDB), Meine Henk Klijnsma wrote that it was very likely that Jacobs recruited Nort for the VDB.[8] Together they went from town to town to make the case for women's rights in speeches in backrooms and town squares.[13] In 1899, Nort started writing about women's issues, drawing upon her Scandinavian experience; her early work was published as columns in the feminist magazine Belang en Recht ("The importance of the law"). Historian Marianne Braun wrote that this early work already showed her calm and determined approach and social-liberal orientation.[2] In 1904, she married Gerrid Bakker, a grain merchant, translator and fellow member of the VVVK, and changed her name to Bakker-Nort.[2][8] They had no children.[1]
In 1908, at age 34, Bakker-Nort started studying law at the University of Groningen, after realising that the fight for women's rights required a thorough understanding of the law.[2] She said that the husband's marital power was solely based on his ballot.[14] She was the 14th woman to enrol at the University of Groningen. In 1871, Jacobs had been the first.[15] She finished her studies four years later and another two years later she earned a doctorate from the University of Utrecht for her thesis on the legal position of married women across Western Europe.[3][16] Bakker-Nort was the first female to earn a doctorate in law at a Dutch university based on a fully-fledged research study.[17] From her comparative study she concluded that the position of Dutch married women was most unfavourable, not because the laws were that different, but because the Dutch courts interpreted them in a stricter way.[10] Unable to restrict herself to comparisons, she added a reasoned plea for abolishing the part of the marital law that declared married women "incompetent to act". As described in the 1838 civil code, the status of married women was legally similar to that of minors and people with severe mental health problems.[18][B] This meant, for instance, that married women could not open a bank account, apply for a mortgage or insurance, or sign a labour agreement without the permission of their husband. Similar laws existed in other countries.[22][23][24] After completing her thesis Bakker-Nort started to work as a lawyer and attorney in Groningen, which she would do until 1930, when the couple moved to the Hague, where she continued her legal work.[2][9] She made a name for herself as house lawyer for the VVVK.[2]
Bakker-Nort considered getting women the right to vote to be a principal means to achieve the overhaul of marriage law, a common view among the first wave feminists.[8][10][25] Getting the vote, however, was important not only in order to make progress on women's issues, she said; it was a fundamental right for women to have a say in all matters.[26] In 1917, Dutch women obtained the right to stand in elections, though they could not vote.[27] Bakker-Nort continued to campaign with the VVVK for active suffrage.[2] The women's suffrage campaign was won in 1919, when a corresponding law, introduced by the VDB's Henri Marchant, was adopted.[28] Once the VVVK had achieved its goal, it changed its name to Association of Women Citizens (VVS) and widened its scope to gain more rights for women.[27] Bakker-Nort co-authored a report for the VVS outlining what a modern marriage law should look like and wrote in a column in its monthly magazine that the old laws which made married women legally incapacitated and denied them any say over their own children and property needed to be reformed.[27][29][30] She singled out women's legal status of "incompetent to act", calling it humiliating.[27] She joined the Association of Women with Higher Education (VVAO), a more conservative group which did not always appreciate her progressive ideas and, for example, did not include her in their legal committee, despite her expertise.[31]
Political career
1918–1924
![Newspaper page with dozens of headshots](https://web.archive.org/web/20220628193229im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Tweede_Kamerleden_1922.jpg/220px-Tweede_Kamerleden_1922.jpg)
By 1918, Bakker-Nort was on the board of the VDB, one of two female board members, Mien van Itallie-Van Embden being the other.[32] In the 1918 general elections, the VDB reserved two spots for women on their candidate list and assigned them to Bakker-Nort and her mentor Jacobs. Both Bakker-Nort and Jacobs failed to be elected, but Suze Groeneweg of the Social Democratic Workers' Party did succeed and became the first female member of the House of Representatives.[33][34]
For the 1922 election, the first one in which women were able to vote, the VDB decided that a woman should be assigned the second position on its list of candidates, behind Marchant whose bill had given women the vote. Due to serious illness, Jacobs could not take the position and it was given to Bakker-Nort, whom Jacobs saw as her successor.[35][36][37] The party's election campaign focussed on legal reform, including abolition of the Senate, the introduction of referendums, and strengthening the legal position of women.[38] The VDB retained its five seats and Bakker-Nort was elected member of the House of Representatives in July 1922, the party's first female representative.[9][39] She was one of seven women elected altogether.[40] In her maiden speech she introduced parliament to her views of the "scandalous" marriage law.[2]
In her first year she introduced a bill for a so-called "sister-pension", to entitle sisters who had lived with and looked after brothers who were widowers the right to their pension once they died. The bill passed but failed in the Senate.[41][2] Also in her first year she tried to amend the Ruijs de Beerenbrouck government's bill for minor changes to the marriage law, proposing a wider reform with equal rights for women. The three Christian parties of the coalition government rejected her amendment.[42] Within the VDB she was a role model for younger female party members Corry Tendeloo and Nancy Zeelenberg.[41]
1925–1928
In the run-up to the 1925 election Bakker-Nort argued the case in parliament against a government bill to allow councils to fire female teachers at state schools once they married, but with the majority of the House being members of Christian parties, her arguments to stop the bill failed. She considered it morally unacceptable that the state forced women into economic dependency on their husbands, adding that the husband and wife themselves should decide, not the state.[43][44] Bakker-Nort was re-elected and the VDB went from holding five to seven seats in parliament.[45]
Soon after the formation of the First De Geer cabinet Bakker-Nort planned a new bill to reform marriage law. To that end she created a wider platform and organised a cross-party committee consisting of members of the Liberal State Party, the Democratic Party, and the VDB. She appointed a male, Samuel van Houten, an 89-year old veteran of Dutch politics, as the committee's president. Throughout 1927, members of the local chapters of the parties involved made and discussed proposals. However, when in 1928 Bakker-Nort again made a plea in parliament to end the legal incompetency of married women, it was rejected by the Christian majority.[46]
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20220628193229im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Peace_Palace_in_the_Hague_in_1922.jpg/220px-Peace_Palace_in_the_Hague_in_1922.jpg)
In 1928 she took a leading role in preparing the International Woman Suffrage Alliance's actions for the 1930 League of Nations conference on international law. Women from 35 countries were present at the conference at the Peace Palace in the Hague, though they were not formally invited. The Alliance's main focus was nationality law, as despite decades-long protests against laws that made married women automatically lose their own nationality and take on their husband's, in many countries little progress had been made towards achieving equality. The women staged protest marches, wearing their national flags and dresseswhose level of colour symbolically reflected the gap between the nationality law demanded by the Alliance, and the law of land they represented.. Bakker-Nort said the black dresses of the Dutch women amidst colourful ones of other nations created a "rather painful situation" for the hosts and showed how far behind the Netherlands were, as its laws were "still based on the obsolete principle of subjection of women to men".[47][48] The activists were able to get meetings with the League of Nations delegates, but eventually antagonised the president of the conference so much that he ordered the police to remove the women from the Peace Palace. The Hague Convention resulted in little progress, only preventing women from becoming stateless.[49] Bakker-Nort continued tofight for the right of a married woman to choose to keep her own nationality, but during her whole time in parliament she was a lone voice.[50]
1929–1933
At the end of the 1920s, Bakker-Nort was moderately optimistic about the future of women's rights in the Netherlands. While she expressed dismay at the fact that women still were banned from taking up public offices such as judge, notary, or mayor, she observed that women within the Catholic organisations were slowly taking up more feminist's viewpoints, and she welcomed the first female member of parliament for any Christian party, Frida Katz. Soon afterwards, her optimism disappeared when the Great Depression lead to fast-rising unemployment, and married women were fired to make way for male job-seekers.[51] She said that for the VDB, which since the 1929 election had two female members of parliament, with van Itallie-Van Embden joining Bakker-Nort, the economic downturn did not alter the principle of the individual’s right of self-determination, of equal pay for equal work, and of equal rights generally.[52]
During parliamentary debates on retracting the ban on women being appointed mayor, she ridiculed those who said that women lacked physical power by suggesting that if that was required, the minister should organise boxing or wrestling matches to appoint suitable candidates. She also pointed out how in neighbouring countries female mayors performed perfectly well. Following a vote, the ban was lifted.[53][54] In 1931 she introduced a bill to remove any requirements for women to be appointed notary, a cause she had been arguing for as early as 1917, and had most recently tried in 1927, but was voted down again.[3][9][55]
![Black and white photo of a building on fire](https://web.archive.org/web/20220628193229im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Reichstagsbrand.jpg/220px-Reichstagsbrand.jpg)
In 1933, Bakker-Nort accepted an invitation from German communist leader Willi Münzenberg to travel to London and join an international commission of foreign legal experts participating in a counter-trial of the arson case of the Reichstag fire.[56][57][58] Five men, all communists, were about to go on trial in Leipzig, but it was feared the Nazis would not give them a fair trial.[56] For one week Bakker-Nort and the other acting judges went through the evidence and concluded that the defendants were innocent and the Nazis were the instigators of the fire.[59] When the Leipzig judge invited commission members to the proceedings in Germany, Bakker-Nort declined.[57] She denied allegations of bias by critics of the counter-trial, and explained that she had taken part because the defendants lacked legal support in Germany, as many lawyers who had defended communists had been imprisoned in Nazi concentration camps, deterring others.[60] After the Leipzig trial found one of the defendants, the Dutchman Marinus van der Lubbe, guilty and the Nazis executed him, Bakker-Nort lamented the unfair trial, particular the unlawfulness of applying the death penalty on the basis of a law adopted only after the Reichstag fire. She urged people to value the freedom and justice that democracy provided and to fight all who aimed to curtail them.[61][C]
1934–1936
As the economic crisis continued, the government intervened on the labour market. Where councils previously had been given the ability to fire female teachers who married, they were now required to do so. This erosion of women's rights was particularly painful for Bakker-Nort because it happened during the Second Colijn cabinet, of which the VDB was one of the coalition parties. She had tried to at least put a time limit of five years on the law, but her amendment failed. According to Klijnsma, the VDB had made a mistake in not negotiating the protection of women's rights during the formation of the coalition.[63]
At a parliamentary budget review in 1935 Bakker-Nort condemned Nazi Germany's new marriage law, called the German Blood Protection Law, which banned Aryans from marrying Jews. Since in 1902 both the Netherlands and Germany had signed the Hague Marriage Convention, which laid out the rules for international marriages, parliament debated to what extent according to those rules the Nazi law would apply automatically to marriages involving German nationals. Bakker-Nort argued that because it was impossible to determine who was Jewish and who was Aryan, the rules of the treaty did not apply and the Dutch would not have to revoke the convention's agreement. She asked Minister Josef van Schaik to revoke it anyway, as a sign of protest. Van Schaik agreed with her that the Nazi law would not apply to Dutch Jews but decided to play a waiting game and not to revoke the agreement.[64]
1937–1940
In 1937 Bakker-Nort wrote a piece about fascism in the election issue of the VDB's monthly magazine entitled 'Democracy or dictatorship', in which she attacked the fascist party the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands (NSB) in an unusually sarcastic way. For the 1937 election the NSB used the image of its leader Anton Mussert and the slogan "Without this man, the Netherlands does not have a future." Bakker-Nort argued it should say "With this man, the Netherlands does not have a future, especially the women."[65] The NSB won four seats in parliament, fewer than expected; the VDB retained its six seats and did not return to the new coalition government, the Fourth Colijn cabinet.[66] The election results did not disappoint Bakker-Nort; she said voters had not punished the VDB and had understood why the party had to let erode some of the women's rights.[67] In early 1938 Minister Carl Romme prepared a bill to ban paid work for married women altogether. This rejuvenated the feminists inside the VDB, both in parliament and in the local chapters, spurred on by the activities of for instance the VVGS, whose youth committee's president Tendeloo and other feminists such as Willemijn Posthumus-van der Goot organised protests across the country.[68][69] Bakker-Nort said Romme pretended to base his exclusion of married women from the workforce on the principle grounds that the husband was the breadwinner and the wife had to look after the family, but illogically did not apply this principle when companies needed the women.[67][70] The feminists' efforts did not go unrewarded: Romme never introduced his bill.[69] In a later debate on labour issues, Bakker-Nort asked the government to address the widespread sexual harassment female factory workers were subjected to.[71]
The late 1930s saw a rise in antisemitism in the Netherlands, once many Jews fled Germany. The VDB attacked the NSB for it condoning the Nazis' actions. They did however argue against the formal banning of the NSB, admitting that in a true democracy even despicable voices should be allowed to be heard.[72] Bakker-Nort said in 1938 "We can not allow democracy to be murdered by its adversaries."[73] When in early 1940 fear of a Nazi invasion increased, parliament debated a possible new law for treason. Bakker-Nort argued against the death penalty; traitors should be deported according to her.[72] In May 1940, just days before the German invasion of the Netherlands, she announced that she would not stand again in the next election, leaving it to the next generation. Party members suggested Tendeloo would be a good candidate.[74] Her last day in parliament was 9 May 1940, when she debated the bill for punishment on treason and espionage.[75] The next day the Nazis invaded the Netherlands. The House and Senate no longer sat and the occupiers dissolved parliament officially on 25 June 1940.[2][76] Bakker-Nort had spent 18 years in the House, addressing parliament mainly on the issues of justice, education and labour, and for the majority of her stay was on the Standing Committee for Private and Criminal Law.[3][9]
Imprisonment
As the Nazi occupiers started to arrest and deport some Jewish Dutch citizens in the summer of 1940, Bakker-Nort must have felt threatened according to Klijnsma.[77] She never had belonged to a Jewish denomination and had renounced her Jewishness, but did value the Jewish traditions.[3][11][78] She was alone since 1939 when her husband had died.[2] In 1942 she was one of the few members of parliament who accepted an offer to resign taking their pension. This did not prevent her being arrested by the Nazis and imprisoned in Westerbork transit camp in the northeast of the Netherlands in December 1942. Following an intervention, possibly by VDB leader Dolf Joekes, she was made part of Plan Frederiks and moved to a camp in Barneveld in February 1943; Plan Frederiks was an agreement civil servant Karel Frederiks had made with the occupiers to keep a small group of Dutch Jews in the Netherlands and exclude them from deportation to the concentration camps.[77][71][79][80] However, in April 1944 the Nazis moved all Jews from Barneveld back to Westerbork, and then in September 1944 onwards to the concentration camp Theresienstadt in Bohemia in what is now the Czech Republic.[81] After the defeat of the Nazis, Bakker-Nort was found alive at the camp in June 1945, together with 400 other Dutch survivors.[77] She moved to Utrecht and did not return to parliament; her seat for the VDB was taken by Tendeloo.[71][77][82]
Death and legacy
Bakker-Nort died in Utrecht on 23 May 1946, aged 72.[9] While only one national newspaper published a short notice of her death, Tendeloo and former VDB chairman Pieter Oud wrote obituaries.[2][83][84][85] According to Oud, Bakker-Nort had successfully accomplished the task of leading the women's movement Jacobs had given her. He praised her drive to get women the vote, without the militant aspects of the English suffragettes, and her tireless efforts to reform marital law and labour laws. He urged the country's young women to realise how much they owed to the pioneers of the women's movement, of which Bakker-Nort was one of the most prominent.[86] In his 1968 memoirs, Oud wrote that her dedication to public office was equal to none, and that although he did not consider her oratory skills the best, she quickly became a competent parliamentarian through her high work rate.[37][41] Her successor Tendeloo was instrumental in ending married women's incompetency to act and mandatory dismissal of female civil servants once they married.[82]
Braun wrote in 2013 that in the 21st century Bakker-Nort is seen as a transition figure, someone who was part of the first wave of feminism in the Netherlands that got women the vote, but continued the fight for more rights. Once women suffrage was achieved, the strength of activism had greatly reduced: member numbers for groups such as the VVS dwindled. The newly acquired right to study quickly became normal, the fight almost forgotten. Despite the political climate in the 1920s and 1930s being dominated by Christian parties who aimed to reduce the rights of women based on the Bible, Bakker-Nort's efforts, in and outside parliament, were relentless.[2]
In 2003 many of the lost papers, notes, photos, pamphlets, and lectures which Bakker-Nort had kept, resurfaced. She had donated, at some point in the 1930s, her documents to the International Archives for the Women's Movement in Amsterdam, which also housed personal documents of, among others, Jacobs and Rosa Manus, as well as documents of women's organizations and journal issues.[87][88] In July 1940, the Nazis had taken the entire archives and transported them to Germany. After the Sovjet Red Army took Berlin in 1945, they moved all stolen materials to Moscow. In 1992 the feminists' materials were identified in the Russian Military State Archives and recorded on microfilm, and 10 years later returned to the International Archives of the Women's Movement.[89]
Publications
- Bakker-Nort, Betsy (1910). "Waarop berust de maritale macht?" [On what ground is the marital power based?]. Maandblad van de VVVK (in Dutch). 15 (2): 4.
- Bakker-Nort, Betsy (1915). Schets van de rechtspositie der getrouwde vrouw [Sketch of the legal position of married women] (in Dutch). the Hague: Belinfante.
- Bakker-Nort, Betsy (1917). Zijn vrouwen benoembaar tot notaris volgens de Nederlandsche wet? [Can women be appointed notary according to Dutch law?] (in Dutch).
- Bakker-Nort, Betsy (1920). Hoofdlijnen voor een moderne huwelijkswetgeving [Main points for a modern marriage law] (Report) (in Dutch). VVS.
- Bakker-Nort, Betsy (1926). "De vrouwen tegen den Code Napoléon, naklanken van het congres te Parijs" [Women against the Napoleonic Code, after effects of the Paris convention]. Het Nieuwe Leven (in Dutch). 12 (4/5): 97–109.
- Bakker-Nort, Betsy (1930). "Een belangrijk wetsontwerp" [An important bill]. De opbouw, democratisch tijdschrift voor nederland en Indië (in Dutch): 276–286.
- Bakker-Nort, Betsy (1931). Moet de maritale macht in onze huwelijkswetgeving behouden blijven of worden afgeschaft? [Should marital power be kept or abolished in our marriage law?] (in Dutch). pp. 1–16.
Footnotes
- ^ One source has "Elisabeth" as an alternative first name.[1]
- ^ In the country's first civil code, dating from 1809 and based on the Napoleonic Code, which in turn borrowed heavily from Roman private law, the rights of married women were limited in ways similar to what the Romans called "patria potestas".[19][20][21]
- ^ In 2008, 75 years after the fire, the German government granted Van der Lubbe a posthumous pardon.[62]
References
- ^ a b c "Betsy Bakker-Nort – biografie". Atria Institute on gender equality and women's history (in Dutch). 28 September 2018. Archived from the original on 20 June 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Braun 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Meijer 2019, p. 165.
- ^ a b Klijnsma 2007, p. 285.
- ^ von Bóné 2010, p. 545.
- ^ Broomans 2004, p. 308.
- ^ Braun 1992, p. 344.
- ^ a b c d Klijnsma 2007, p. 286.
- ^ a b c d e f "Mr. B. (Betsy) Bakker-Nort". Parlement.com. Archived from the original on 25 August 2019.
- ^ a b c d von Bóné 2010, p. 547.
- ^ a b van den Brand, Iris. "Betsy Bakker-Nort (1874 – 1946): Rechtvaardig Feministe". deverhalenvangroningen.nl (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
- ^ Bosch 2005a.
- ^ Posthumus-van der Goot & Waal 1968, p. 246.
- ^ Braun 1992, p. 268.
- ^ de Wilde 1998, pp. 262–265.
- ^ de Wilde 1998, p. 265.
- ^ Pitstra, Anneke (21 February 1987). "In het Spoor van Aletta Jacobs". Algemeen Dagblad]] (in Dutch). Retrieved 26 May 2022.
- ^ Sikkema 2011, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Holland (Kingdom) 1809, pp. 23–25.
- ^ Hartkamp 1975, p. 1059.
- ^ von Bóné 2010, p. 541.
- ^ Bosch 2005b, p. 82.
- ^ Oostveen, Margriet (1 June 2021). "Gezocht: De 'handelingsonbekwame' vrouwen en hun echtgenoten" [Wanted: The “Incompetent To Act” Women and Their Husbands]. de Volkskrant (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 25 September 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2021.
- ^ Stretton & Kesselring 2013, p. 4.
- ^ Cornelis & Hinderink 1989, pp. 14, 30, 35, 37.
- ^ de Jong 2005, p. 203.
- ^ a b c d von Bóné 2010, p. 548.
- ^ van der Kaaij 2012, p. 110.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, pp. 286–287.
- ^ van de Loo 2005, p. 31.
- ^ de Wilde 1993, p. 52.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 263.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 236.
- ^ Pass Freidenreich 1996, p. 189.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 269.
- ^ Posthumus-van der Goot & Waal 1968, p. 344.
- ^ a b Oud 1968, p. 24.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 280.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, pp. 282, 285.
- ^ Hemels 2018, p. 4.
- ^ a b c Klijnsma 2007, p. 287.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 290.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 306.
- ^ "Tweede Kamer". De Maasbode. 12 March 1925. Retrieved 21 May 2022.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 320.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 364.
- ^ DuBois 2013, p. 21.
- ^ Brennan 2020, pp. 46–51.
- ^ Brennan 2020, p. 51.
- ^ de Hart 2012, p. 48.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 365.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, pp. 401, 425.
- ^ Aerts 2005, p. 57.
- ^ "Herziening gemeentewet". Haagsche Courant (in Dutch). 9 May 1930. Retrieved 25 May 2022.
- ^ Braun 1992, p. 349.
- ^ a b Fay 1933, p. 226.
- ^ a b Rabinbach 2008, p. 114.
- ^ Klinghoffer & Klinghoffer2002, p. 19.
- ^ Costello 1988, p. 294.
- ^ "De Brand in den Rijksdag" [The fire in the Reichstag]. Het volk (in Dutch). 21 November 1933.
- ^ "Het proces Rijksdagbrand" [The Reichstag Fire Trial]. Het Volk (in Dutch). 12 January 1934. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
- ^ "75 years on, executed Reichstag arsonist finally wins pardon". the Guardian. 12 January 2008. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 475.
- ^ Lenaerts 2014, pp. 208–210.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 547.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 552.
- ^ a b "Vrijz. Democratische Bond". Leeuwarder Nieuwsblad (in Dutch). 14 January 1938. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
- ^ Hilhorst, Mariek (23 August 2008). "Corry Tendeloo". Atria Institute on gender equality and women's history (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
- ^ a b Klijnsma 2007, p. 568.
- ^ van Schaik 1998, p. 32.
- ^ a b c "Vechten voor vrouwenrechten: Betsy Bakker-Nort". tweedekamer.nl (in Dutch). 14 April 2020. Archived from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2022.
- ^ a b Klijnsma 2007, pp. 576–577.
- ^ Gijsenbergh 2019, p. 86.
- ^ "Mevr. B. Bakker-Nort" [Ms B. Bakker-Nort]. De Sumatra post (in Dutch). 4 May 1940. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
- ^ "Het Landverraadontwerp in den Tweede Kamer". de Volkskrant (in Dutch). 10 May 1940. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 616.
- ^ a b c d Klijnsma 2007, p. 626.
- ^ de Wilde 1998, pp. 45–46.
- ^ van Oord 2011, pp. 126–127.
- ^ Presser 1965, p. 440.
- ^ van Oord 2011, pp. 127.
- ^ a b "Mr. N.S.C. (Corry) Tendeloo". Parlement.com (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2021.
- ^ "Mevr. B. Bakker-Nort" [Mrs B. Bakker-Nort]. Algemeen Handelsblad. 24 May 1946. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
- ^ "Bakker-Nort". delpher.nl (in Dutch). Retrieved 28 May 2022.
- ^ Klijnsma 2007, p. 564.
- ^ Oud 1946, p. 6.
- ^ de Haan & Mevis2008, p. 42.
- ^ "Collectie Elisabeth Bakker-Nort 1924-1930". atria.nl. Archived from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 26 May 2022.
- ^ "Collectie Internationaal Archief voor de Vrouwenbeweging (IAV) in Moskou ca. 1890-1940". Atria (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
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