First Serbian Uprising | ||||||||||
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Part of Serbian Revolution Serbian-Turkish Wars |
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Orašac assembly - beginning of the First Serbian Uprising in 1804. |
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The First Serbian Uprising (Serbian: Први српски устанак, Prvi srpski ustanak) was an uprising of Serbs in the Sanjak of Smederevo against the Ottoman Empire from February 14, 1804 to October 7, 1813. Initially a local revolt against the renegade janissaries that had taken the rule through a coup, it evolved into a war for independence (the Serbian Revolution) after more than three centuries of Ottoman rule and short-lasting Austrian occupations.
The dahije (janissary commanders), murdered the Ottoman Vizier in 1801 and occupied the sanjak, ruling it independently from the Sultan. Tyranny ensued, the janissaries having suspended the rights granted to the Serbs by the Sultan earlier, increasing taxes, imposing forced labour, etc. In 1804, the janissaries feared that the Sultan would use the Serbs against them, so they murdered many Serbian chiefs. Enraged, an assembly chose Karađorđe as leader of the uprising, and the rebel army quickly defeated and took over towns throughout the sanjak, technically fighting for the Sultan. The Sultan then feared their power, and ordered all pashaliks in the region to crush them. The Serbs marched against the Ottomans and had major victories in 1805–06, and established a government and parliament that returned the land to the people, abolished forced labour and reduced taxes. Military success continued over the years, however, there was dissent between Karađorđe and other leaders; Karađorđe wanted absolute power, while his dukes, some of whom abused their privileges for personal gain, wanted to limit it. After the Russo-Turkish War ended and Russian support ceased, the Ottoman Empire exploited these circumstances and reconquered Serbia in 1813.
Although it was crushed, the uprising was continued by the Second Serbian Uprising in 1815, which resulted in the creation of the Principality of Serbia, as it gained semi-independence from Ottoman Empire in 1817 (formally in 1829).
Contents
Background
In 1788, during the Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791), Koča's frontier rebellion saw eastern Šumadija occupied by Austrian Serbian Free Corps and hajduks, and subsequently, most of the Sanjak of Smederevo was occupied by the Habsburg Monarchy (1788–91). The Siege of Belgrade from 15 September to 8 October 1789, a Habsburg Austrian force besieged the fortress of Belgrade. The Austrians held the city until 1791 when it handed Belgrade back to the Ottomans according to the terms of the Treaty of Sistova. With the return of the sanjak to the Ottoman Empire the Serbs expected reprisals from the Turks due to their support to the Austrians. Sultan Selim III had given complete command of the Sanjak of Smederevo and Belgrade to battle-hardened Janissaries that had fought Christian forces during the Austro-Turkish War and many other conflicts. Although Selim III granted authority to the peaceful Hadži Mustafa Pasha (1793), tensions between the Serbs and the Janissary command did not subside.[1]
In 1793 and 1796 Selim III proclaimed firmans which gave more rights to Serbs. Among other things, taxes were to be collected by the obor-knez (dukes); freedom of trade and religion were granted and there was peace. Selim III also decreed that some unpopular janissaries were to leave the "Belgrade Pashaluk" as he saw them as a threat to the central authority of Hadži Mustafa Pasha. Many of those janissaries were employed by or found refuge with Osman Pazvantoğlu, a renegade opponent of Selim III in the Sanjak of Vidin. Fearing the dissolution of the Janissary command in the Sanjak of Smederevo, Osman Pazvantoğlu launched a series of raids against Serbians without the permission of the Sultan, causing much volatility and fear in the region.[2] Pazvantoğlu was defeated in 1793 by the Serbs at the Battle of Kolari.[3] In the summer of 1797 the sultan appointed Mustafa Pasha on position of beglerbeg of Rumelia Eyalet and he left Serbia for Plovdiv to fight against the Vidin rebels of Pazvantoğlu.[4] During the absence of Mustafa Pasha, the forces of Pazvantoğlu captured Požarevac and besieged the Belgrade fortress.[4] At the end of November 1797 obor-knezes Aleksa Nenadović, Ilija Birčanin and Nikola Grbović from Valjevo brought their forces to Belgrade and forced the besieging janissary forces to retreat to Smederevo.[5][4]
However, on January 30, 1799, Selim III allowed the Janissaries to return, referring to them as local Muslims from the Sanjak of Smederevo. Initially the Janissaries accepted the authority of Hadži Mustafa Pasha, until a Janissary in Šabac, named Bego Novljanin, demanded from a Serb a surcharge and murdered the Serb when he refused to pay. Fearing the worst, Hadži Mustafa Pasha marched on Šabac with a force of 600 to ensure that the Janissary was brought to justice and order was restored. Not only did the other Janissaries decided to support Bego Novljanin but Osman Pazvantoğlu attacked the Belgrade Pasahaluk in support of the Janisaries.[6]
On 15 December 1801 Vizier Hadži Mustafa Pasha of Belgrade was killed by Kučuk-Alija, one of the four leading dahije.[7] This resulted in the Sanjak of Smederevo being ruled by these renegade janissaries independently from the Ottoman government, in defiance to the Sultan.[8] The janissaries imposed "a system of arbitrary abuse that was unmatched by anything similar in the entire history of Ottoman misrule in the Balkans".[9] The leaders divided the sanjak into pashaluks.[9] They immediately suspended the Serbian autonomy and drastically increased taxes, land was seized, forced labour (čitlučenje) was introduced, and many Serbs fled the janissaries in fear.
The tyranny endured by the Serbs caused them to send a petition to the Sultan, which the dahije learnt of.[10] The dahije started to fear that the Sultan would make use of the Serbs to oust them. To forestall this they decided to execute leading Serbs throughout the sanjak, in the event known as the "Slaughter of the Knezes", which took place in late January 1804.[8] According to contemporary sources from Valjevo, the severed heads of the murdered leaders were put on public display in the central square to serve as an example to those who might plot against the rule of the dahije.[8] This enraged the Serbs, who led their families into the woods and started murdering the subaşi (village overseers) that had been employed by the dahije, and also attacking Ottoman forces.[10] The dahije sent out the most diplomatic, Aganlija, with a strong force to frighten and calm them down, in order to avoid escalation into armed conflict which would be hard for the janissaries to manage, but to no avail.[9]
Uprising against the Dahije
On 14 February 1804, in the small village of Orašac near Aranđelovac, leading Serbs gathered and decided to undertake an uprising, choosing Karađorđe Petrović as their leader. The Serbs, at first technically fighting on the behalf of the Sultan against the janissaries, were encouraged and aided by a certain Ottoman official and the sipahi (cavalry corps).[11] The Sultan had a ferman issued on 12 March for their support. For their small numbers, the Serbs had great military successes, having taken Požarevac, Šabac, and charged Smederevo and Belgrade, in a quick succession.[11] The Sultan, who feared that the Serb movement might get out of hand, sent the former pasha of Belgrade, and now Vizier of Bosnia, Bekir Pasha, to officially assist the Serbs, but in reality to keep them under control.[11] Alija Gušanac, the janissary commander of Belgrade, faced by both Serbs and Imperial authority, decided to let Bekir Pasha into the city in July 1804.[11] The dahije had previously fled east to Ada Kale, an island on the Danube.[12] Bekir ordered the surrender of the dahije, meanwhile, Karađorđe sent his commander Milenko Stojković to the island.[13] The dahije refused, upon which Stojković attacked and captured them, and had them beheaded, on the night of 5–6 August 1804.[13] After crushing the power of the dahije, Bekir Pasha wanted the Serbs to be disbanded, however, as the janissaries still held important towns, such as Užice, the Serbs were unwilling to halt without guarantees.[12] The Sultan now ordered the surroundings pashaliks to suppress the Serbs, realizing the threat.[12] The Serbs sought foreign help, sending a delegation to St. Petersburg in September 1804, which returned with money and promise of diplomatic support.[12] The First Serbian Uprising, the first stage of the Serbian Revolution, had thus begun.
Uprising against the Ottomans
Eventually, the negotiations failed, and the Sultan organised a military campaign against the uprising. The first major battle of the uprising was the Battle of Ivankovac in 1805, where Karađorđe defeated the Turkish army and forced it to retreat toward Niš. In 1805 the Serbian rebels organized a basic government for administering Serbia during the combat. Rule was divided between the Narodna Skupština (People's Assembly), the Praviteljstvujušči Sovjet (Ruling Council), and Karađorđe himself. Land was returned, forced labour was abolished, and taxes were reduced. Apart from dispensing with poll tax on non-Muslims (jizya), the revolutionaries also abolished all feudal obligations in 1806, only 15 years after the French revolution, peasant and serf emancipation thus representing a major social break with the past.
The second major battle of the uprising was Battle of Mišar in 1806, in which the rebels defeated an Ottoman army from the Eyalet of Bosnia led by the Turkish Sipahi Suleiman-Pasa. At the same time, the rebels led by Petar Dobrnjac defeated Osman Pazvantoğlu and another Ottoman army sent from the south-east at Deligrad. The Ottomans continuously faced defeat despite their continuous efforts and support by Ottoman commanders led by Ibrahim Bushati and Ali Pasha's two sons Muktar Pasha and Veil Pasha. In 1806 the insurgents sent the Belgrade merchant Petar Ičko as their envoy to Ottoman government in Constantinople. He managed to obtain for them a favourable Ičko's Peace. However, the Serbian leaders preferred to reject the treaty and possibly poisoned Petar Ičko due to his acquaintance with the Ottomans. The Serbian rebels then joined the Russians as their allies in Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812). The Battle of Deligrad in December 1806 provided a decisive victory for the Serbs and bolstered the morale of the outnumbered Serbian rebels. To avoid total defeat, Ibrahim Pasha negotiated a six week truce with Karađorđe. By 1807 the demands for self-government within Ottoman Empire evolved into a war for independence backed by the military support of Russian Empire. Combining patriarchal peasant democracy with modern national goals the Serbian revolution was attracting thousands of volunteers among the Serbs from across the Balkans and Central Europe. The Serbian Revolution ultimately became a symbol of the nation-building process in the Balkans, provoking peasant unrests among the Christians in both Greece and Bulgaria. Following the successful siege with 25,000 men, on 8 January 1807 Karađorđe proclaimed Belgrade the capital of Serbia.
In 1808, Selim III was executed by Mustafa IV, who was subsequently deposed by Mahmud II. In midst of this political crisis, the Ottomans were willing to offer the Serbs a wide autonomy, however, the discussions led to no agreement between the two, as they couldn't agree on the exact boundaries of Serbia.[14] The Proclamation (1809)[when?] by Karađorđe in the capital Belgrade probably represented the apex of the first phase. It called for national unity, drawing on Serbian history to demand the freedom of religion and formal, written rule of law, both of which the Ottoman Empire had failed to provide. It also called on Serbs to stop paying taxes to the Porte, deemed unfair as based on religious affiliation. Karađorđe now declared himself hereditary supreme leader of Serbia, although he agreed to act in cooperation with the governing council, which was to also be the supreme court.[15] When the Ottoman-Russian War broke out in 1809, he was prepared to support Russia, the cooperation was, however, ineffective.[15] Karađorđe launched a successful offensive in Novi Pazar, but Serbian forces were subsequently defeated at Battle of Čegar.[15]
In March 1809, Hurşid Paşa was sent to the Sanjak of Smederevo in order to repress the revolt. The diverse Ottoman force included vast numbers of soldiers from many nearby Pashaliks (mostly from Albania and Bosnia) including servicemen such as Samson Cerfberr of Medelsheim, Osman Gradaščević and Reshiti Bushati. On 19 May 1809, 3,000 rebels led by commander Stevan Sinđelić were attacked by a large Ottoman force on Čegar Hill, located close to the city of Niš. Owing to a lack of coordination between commanders, the reinforcement of other detachments failed, although the numerically superior Ottomans lost thousands of troops in numerous attacks against the Serb positions. Eventually, the rebels were overwhelmed their positions were overrun; not wishing for his men to be captured and impaled, Sinđelić shot into his entrenchment's gun powder magazine resulting in an explosion that killed all the rebels and Ottoman troops in the vicinity. Afterward, Hurshid Pasha ordered that a tower be made from the skulls of Serbian revolutionaries – once complete, the ten-foot high Skull Tower contained 952 Serbian skulls embedded on four sides in fourteen rows.
In July 1810, Russian troops arrived in Serbia for the second time, this time some military cooperation followed; weapons, ammunition, and medical supplies were sent, and Marshal M. I. Kutuzov, the great commander, participated in the planning of joint actions.[15] The Russian assistance gave hope for a Serb victory, however, events in Europe were in the way.[15] In August 1809, an Ottoman army marched on Belgrade, prompting a mass exodus of people across the Danube, among them Russian agent Radofinikin.[14] Facing disaster, Karađorđe appealed to the Habsburgs and Napoleon, with no success.[14] At this point, the Serb rebels were on the defensive, their aim was to hold the territories and not make further gains.[14][15] Russia, faced with a French invasion, wished to sign definitive peace treaty, and acted against the interest of Serbia.[15] The Serbs were never informed of the negotiations; they learned the final terms from the Ottomans.[15] This, second Russian withdrawal, came at the height of Karađorđe's personal power, and rise of Serb expectations.[15] The negotiations that led to the Treaty of Bucharest (1812), had Article 8, dealing with the Serbs; It was agreed that Serb fortifications were to be destroyed, unless of value to the Ottomans, pre-1804 Ottoman installations were to be reoccupied and garrisoned by Ottoman troops, in return the Porte promised general amnesty and certain autonomous rights; The Serbs were to control "the administration of their own affairs" and the collection and delivery of a fixed tribute.[16] The reactions in Serbia was strong, the reoccupation of fortresses and cities was of particular concern and fearful reprisals were expected.[16]
Some of the leaders of the uprising later abused their privileges for personal gain. There was dissent between Karađorđe and other leaders; Karađorđe wanted absolute power, while his dukes wanted to limit it. After the Russo-Turkish War ended, and pressure of French invasion in 1812, the Russian Empire withdrew its support for the Serb rebels. The Ottoman Empire exploited these circumstances and reconquered Serbia in 1813 after Belgrade was retaken. The Ottoman forces burned down villages along main invading routes while their inhabitants were massacred or made refugees, with many women and children being enslaved. Karađorđe, along with other rebel leaders, fled to the Austrian Empire on 21 September 1813.
Aftermath
With the reestablishement of Ottoman control, many of the revolutionaries,(around a quarter of the population) including Karađorđe Petrović, fled to Habsburg Empire.[17] Recaptured by the Ottomans in October 1813, Belgrade became a scene of brutal revenge, with hundreds of its citizens massacred and thousands sold into slavery as far as Asia. Direct Ottoman rule also meant the abolition of all Serbian institutions and the return of Ottoman Turks to Serbia.
Tensions persisted. In 1814, veteran Hadži Prodan launched a revolt which failed. After a riot at a Turkish estate in 1814, the Ottoman authorities massacred the local population and publicly impaled 200 prisoners at Belgrade.[17] By March 1815, Serbs held several meetings and decided upon continued revolt, the Second Serbian Uprising of 1815, which eventually succeeded in securing Serbian autonomy.
Government
Rule was divided between Grand Leader Karađorđe, the Narodna Skupština (People's Assembly) and the Praviteljstvujušči Sovjet (Ruling Council), established in 1805.
Ruling Council
The Ruling Council was established by recommendation of the Russian Minister for Foreign Affairs Chartorisky and on the proposal of some of the dukes (Jakov and Matija Nenadović, Milan Obrenović, Sima Marković).[18] The idea of Boža Grujović, the first secretary, and Matija Nenadović, the first president, was that the council would become the government of the new Serbian state.[19] It had to organize and supervise the administration, the economy, army supply, order and peace, judiciary, and foreign policy.[19]
Gallery
See also
- Media related to First Serbian Uprising at Wikimedia Commons
- List of Serbian Revolutionaries
- History of the Serbian-Turkish wars
References
- ^ The Ottoman Empire and the Serb Uprising, S J Shaw in The First Serbian Uprising 1804-1813 Ed W Vucinich p. 72
- ^ Ranke 1847.
- ^ Roger Viers Paxton (1968). Russia and the First Serbian Revolution: A Diplomatic and Political Study. The Initial Phase, 1804-1807. - (Stanford) 1968. VII, 255 S. 8°. Department of History, Stanford University. p. 13.
- ^ a b c Ćorović 2001.
- ^ Filipović, Stanoje R. (1982). Podrinsko-kolubarski region. RNIRO "Glas Podrinja". p. 60.
Ваљевски кнезови Алекса Ненадовић, Илија Бирчанин и Никола Грбовић довели су своју војску у Београд и учествовали у оштрој борби са јаничарима који су се побеђени повукли.
- ^ Ranke 1847, p. 115.
- ^ Ćorović 2001, ch. Почетак устанка у Србији.
- ^ a b c Ranke 1847, p. 119–120.
- ^ a b c Nicholas Moravcevich (2005). Selected essays on Serbian and Russian literatures and history. Stubovi kulture. pp. 217–218.
- ^ a b Morison 2012, p. xvii.
- ^ a b c d Morison 2012, p. xviii.
- ^ a b c d Morison 2012, p. xix.
- ^ a b Petrovich 1976, p. 34.
- ^ a b c d Jelavich 1983, p. 201.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Jelavich & Jelavich 1977, p. 34.
- ^ a b Jelavich & Jelavich 1977, p. 35.
- ^ a b http://staff.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/lecture5.html
- ^ Janković 1955, p. 18.
- ^ a b Čubrilović 1982, p. 65.
Sources
- Ćorović, Vladimir (2001) [1997]. Историја српског народа (in Serbian). Belgrade: Јанус.
- Čubrilović, Vasa (1982). Istorij̀a političke misli u Srbij̀i XIX veka. Narodna kn̂iga.
- Janković, Dragoslav (1955). Istorija države i prava Srbije u XIX veku. Nolit.
- Jelavich, Barbara (1983). History of the Balkans:. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27458-6.
- Jelavich, Charles; Jelavich, Barbara (1977). The Establishment of the Balkan National States: 1804-1920. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-80360-9.
- Morison, W. A. (2012) [1942]. The Revolt of the Serbs Against the Turks: (1804-1813). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-67606-0.
- Petrovich, Michael Boro (1976). A history of modern Serbia, 1804-1918. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
- Ranke, Leopold von (1847). History of Servia, and the Servian Revolution: From Original Mss. and Documents. J. Murray.
Bibliography
- Божидар Ковачевић (1949). Први српски устанак. Ново поколење.
- Јован Јанчикин (1996). Први српски устанак у народној књижевности. Српски демократски савез у Мађарској.
- Dragoslav Janković (1981). Први српски устанак. Коларчев народни универзитет.
- Vuk Stefanović Karadžić (1947). Први И Други Српски Устанак. [With a Portrait.].
- Vladimir Stojančević (1994). Prvi srpski ustanak: Ogledi i studije. Vojna knj.
- Andrej Vujnović (2004). Први српски устанак и обнова српске државе. Галерија србске академије наука и уметности. ISBN 978-86-82925-10-1.
- Vladimir Stojančević (2004). Srbija i srpski narod u vreme prvog ustanka. Matica srpska.
- Владимир Ћоровић (2003). Карађорђе и први српски устанак. Свет књиге. ISBN 978-86-7396-057-9.
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