Father Rale's War (1722–1725), also known as Lovewell's War, Dummer's War, Greylock's War, the Three Years War, the 4th Indian War[2] or the Wabanaki-New England War of 1722–1725,[3] was a series of battles between New England and the Wabanaki Confederacy (specifically the Mi'kmaq, Maliseet, and Abenaki), who were allied with New France. The eastern theatre of the war was fought primarily in Maine at the border between New England and Acadia as well as in Nova Scotia; the western theatre was fought in northern Massachusetts and Vermont at the border between Canada (New France) and New England. (During this time Massachusetts included present-day Maine and Vermont.)[4]
The root cause of the conflict on the Maine frontier was over the border between Acadia and New England, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine.[5] After the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, mainland Nova Scotia came under British control, but both present-day New Brunswick and virtually all of present-day Maine remained contested territory between New England and New France. To secure New France's claim to the region, it established Catholic missions (churches) among the four largest native villages in the region: one on the Kennebec River (Norridgewock); one further north on the Penobscot River (Penobscot), one on the St. John River (Medoctec).[6][7] and one at Shubenacadie (Saint Anne's Mission).[8] (Similarly, during Father Le Loutre's War, New France established three forts along the border of present-day New Brunswick to protect it from a British attack from Nova Scotia.)
Complicating matters further, on the Nova Scotia frontier, the treaty that ended Queen Anne's War had been signed in Europe and had not involved any member of the Wabanaki Confederacy. While the Abenaki signed the Treaty of Portsmouth (1713), none had been consulted about British ownership of Nova Scotia, and the Mi'kmaq protested through raids on New England fishermen and settlements.[9]
The war began on two fronts as a result of the expansion of New England settlements along the coast of Maine, and at Canso, Nova Scotia. The New Englanders were led primarily by Lt. Governor of Massachusetts William Dummer, Lt. Governor of Nova Scotia John Doucett and Captain John Lovewell. The Wabanaki Confederacy and other native tribes were led primarily by Father Sébastien Rale, Chief Gray Lock and Chief Paugus.
As a result of the war, Maine fell to the New Englanders with the defeat of Father Rale at Norridgewock and the subsequent retreat of the native population from the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers to St. Francis and Becancour, Quebec.[10] In present-day New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, the treaty that ended the war marked a significant shift in European relations with the Mi'kmaq and Maliseet. For the first time a European power formally acknowledged that its dominion over Nova Scotia would have to be negotiated with the region's indigenous inhabitants.[11]
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Historical context
The war occurred as a result of an expansion of New England settlements along the Kennebec River (in present-day Maine) and of the movement of more New England fishermen into Nova Scotia waters. The establishment of a permanent British settlement at Canso was particular sore spot with the local Mi'kmaq. The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, which ended Queen Anne's War and included the cession of peninsular Nova Scotia to Great Britain, had facilitated this expansion. The treaty, however, had been signed in Europe and had not involved any member of the Wabanaki tribes. None had been consulted about the expansion of British settlements, and they protested through raids on British fishermen and settlements.[12] For the first and only time, Wabanaki would fight New Englanders and the British on their own terms and for their own reasons and not principally to defend French imperial interests.[13] In response to Wabanaki hostilities toward the expansion, the governor of Nova Scotia, Richard Philipps, built a fort in traditional Mi'kmaq territory at Canso in 1720, and Massachusetts Governor Samuel Shute built forts on traditional Abenaki territory around the mouth of the Kennebec River: Fort George at Brunswick (1715),[14] St. George's Fort at Thomaston (1720), and Fort Richmond (1721) at Richmond.[15] The Jesuits helped the Abanaki to their land claims by building a church in the Abenaki village of Norridgewock (present-day Madison, Maine) on the Kennebec River, maintaining a mission at Penobscot on the Penobscot River, and building a church in the Maliseet village of Medoctec on the St. John River.[6][7]
These fortifications and Catholic missions escalated the conflict. In Nova Scotia, the Mi'kmaq raided the new fort at Canso in 1720. A Jesuit missionary named Sébastien Rale (also spelled Rasles) was stationed at Norridgewock, while an Abenaki named Gray Lock led raids against the encroaching New England settlements. In the fall of 1721, the Abenakis burned the farms and killed livestock in the settlements around Casco Bay.[16]
Undeclared war
Towards the end of January 1722, Governor Shute launched a punitive expedition against Father Rale at Norridgewock.[17] Under the command of Colonel Thomas Westbrook of Thomaston, the New England Rangers were unsuccessful in capturing Father Rale, but they plundered the church and Rale's cabin.[18] While most of the tribe was away hunting, Westbrook's 300 soldiers surrounded Norridgewock to capture Rale, but he was forewarned and escaped into the forest. Found among the priest's possessions, however, was his strongbox. In it was discovered a hidden compartment containing letters implicating Rale as an agent of the French government, promising Indians enough ammunition to drive the English from their settlements.
In response, on June 13, the Abenakis from Norridgewock raided Fort George.[19] The fort was under the command of Captain John Gyles. The Abenakis burned the homes of the village and took 60 prisoners.[20]
On 15 July 1722, Father Lauverjat from Penobscot led 500-600 natives from Penobscot and Medunic (Maliseet) laid siege to Fort St. George for twelve days. They burned a saw-mill, a large sloop, and sundry houses, and killed many of their cattle. Five New Englanders were killed and seven were taken prisoner, while the New Englanders killed twenty Maliseet and Penobscot warriors. After the raid, Westbrook was given command of the fort.[21] Following this raid, Brunswick was raided again and burned before the warriors returned to Norridgewock.[22]
In response to the New England attack on Father Rale at Norridgewock in March 1722, 165 Mi'kmaq and Maliseet troops gathered at Minas (Grand Pre, Nova Scotia) to lay siege to Annapolis Royal.[23] Under potential siege, in May 1722, Lieutenant Governor John Doucett took 22 Mi'kmaq hostage to prevent the provincial capital from being attacked.[24] In July 1722 the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq blockaded Annapolis Royal with the intent of starving the capital.[25] The natives captured 18 fishing vessels and prisoners in raids from Cape Sable Island to Canso. They also seized prisoners and vessels working in the Bay of Fundy.[26]
As a result of the escalating conflict, Massachusetts Governor Shute officially declared war on the Abenaki on July 25, 1722.[27] Shute, who had ongoing political disputes with the Massachusetts assembly, abruptly sailed for England on January 1, 1723, leaving Lieutenant Governor William Dummer to manage Massachusetts involvement in the war.
Eastern theatre (Maine and New Hampshire)
1722
On September 10, 1722, in conjunction with Father Rale at Norridgewock, 400 or 500 St. Francis (Odanak, Quebec) and Mi'kmaq Indians fell upon Arrowsic, Maine. Captain Penhallow discharged musketry from a small guard, wounding three of the Indians and killing another. This defense gave the inhabitants of the village time to retreat into the fort. In full possession of the undefended village, the Indians killed fifty head of cattle and set fire to twenty-six houses outside the fort. The Indians then assaulted the fort, killing one New Englander, but otherwise making little impression.
That night Col. Walton and Capt. Harman arrived with thirty men, to which were joined about forty men from the fort under Captains Penhallow and Temple. The combined force of seventy men attacked the natives but were overwhelmed by their numbers. The New Englanders then retreated back into the fort. Viewing further attacks on the fort as useless, the Indians eventually retired up the river.[28]
During their return to Norridgewock the natives attacked Fort Richmond.[28] Fort Richmond was attacked in a three-hour siege. Houses were burned and cattle slain, but the fort held. Brunswick and other settlements near the mouth of the Kennebec were destroyed.
On March 9, 1723, Colonel Thomas Westbrook led 230 men to the Penobscot River and traveled approximately 32 miles (51 km) upstream to the Penobscot Village. They found a large Penobscot fort—70 yards (64 m) by 50 yards (46 m), with 14-foot (4.3 m) walls surrounding 23 wigwams. There was also a large chapel (60 by 30 feet). The village was vacant of people, and the soldiers burned it to the ground.[29]
Northeast Coast Campaign (1723)
Throughout 1723 Father Rale and the Wabanaki Confederacy of Acadia orchestrated a total of fourteen raids on the English settlements along the border of New England, primarily in present-day Maine. The campaign started in April and lasted until December. Through the various raids, thirty people were killed or taken captive. The Native campaign was so successful along the Maine frontier that Dummer ordered its evacuation to the blockhouses in the spring of 1724.[30]
Northeast Coast Campaign (1724)
During the spring of 1724, Father Rale and the Wabanaki Confederacy orchestrated ten raids on the Maine frontier which killed, wounded or imprisoned over 30 New Englanders. On March 23, the fort at Cape Porpoise was attacked and a sergeant was killed. On April 17 a farmer was killed at Black Point, while his two sons were imprisoned at Norridgewock. In Kennebunk harbor, a sloop was taken, and the whole crew was put to death. About the same time, three men were killed at a saw-mill on the same river.[31]
At Berwick in May, a father was killed, one of his children was imprisoned, and the other escaped being scalped but was seriously wounded. Another man also survived a scalping attempt although his body was badly mangled. One other person was killed.[32]
In the spring of 1724 the command of St. George's Fort at Thomaston was given to Capt. Josiah Winslow. On 30 April 1724, Winslow and Sergeant Harvey and 17 men in two whale boats left George's Fort and went downriver several miles to Green Island. The following day, the two whale boats became separated and approximately 200-300 Abenaki descended on Harvey's boat, killing Harvey and all of his men except three native guides who escaped to the Georges fort. Captain Winslow was then surrounded by 30 to 40 canoes, several with four or six men apiece aboard, which came off from both sides of the river and attacked him with great fury. With the Indians closing on him with their canoes, Winslow fired upon them when they were almost aboard him. After hours of fighting, Winslow and his men were killed, except for three friendly Indians who escaped back to the fort (one was named Wm. Jeffries of Harwich). The native Tarrantines were reported to have lost over 25 warriors.[33]
On May 27 at Purpooduck (present-day South Portland, Maine), the natives killed one man and wounded another. On the same day, a man was killed at Saco.
On July 17 at Spurwick, one New Englander was killed and one native.[34]
During this campaign, assisted by the Mi'kmaq from Cape Sable Island, the natives also engaged in a naval campaign. In just a few weeks they had captured 22 vessels, killing 22 New Englanders and taking more prisoner.[35] They also made an unsuccessful siege of St. George's Fort.
The Native campaign was so successful along the Maine frontier that Dummer ordered its evacuation to the blockhouses in the spring of 1724.[30]
Battle of Norridgewock
In the second half of 1724, the New Englanders launched an aggressive campaign up the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers. Never before had the New Englanders been so successful in penetrating Abenaki lands.[36]
On August 22, 1724, Captains Jeremiah Moulton and Johnson Harmon[37] led 200 rangers to Norridgewock, to kill Father Rale and destroy the settlement. There were 160 Abenaki, many of whom chose to flee rather than fight. At least 31 chose to fight, which allowed the others to escape. Most of the defenders were killed.[38] Rale was killed in the opening moments of the battle, a leading chief was killed, and the rangers massacred nearly two dozen women and children.[39] The English had casualties of two militiamen and one Mohawk.[40] Harmon destroyed the Abenaki farms, and those who had escaped were forced to abandon their village and moved northward to the Abenaki village of St. Francis and Becancour, Quebec.[41]
Raid on Lake Winnipesaukee
During the war Captain John Lovewell made three expeditions against the natives. On their first expedition in December of 1724, Lovewell and his militia company (often called "snowshoe men") of 30 men left Dunstable, New Hampshire, trekking to the north of Lake Winnipesaukee ("Winnipiscogee Lake") into the White Mountains of New Hampshire. On December 10, 1724, Captain Lovewell along with a company of rangers killed two Abenakis.[42] On December 19, 40 miles (64 km) north of Winnipesaukee, the troop came upon a wigwam, where they killed and scalped an Abenaki man and took an Abenaki boy captive in response to the abduction of two men from Dunstable and the ambush and killing of eight others by Abenaki warriors. The company was paid 200 pounds for the scalp (150 pounds plus 50 pounds over and above).
In February 1725, Lovewell made a second expedition to the area and killed another ten Indians near Lake Winnipesaukee.[42]
On February 20 they came across a recently inhabited wigwam and followed tracks for some five miles. On the banks of a pond at the head of the Salmon Falls River in the present town of Wakefield, New Hampshire they came upon more wigwams with smoke rising from them. Some time after 2:00 AM Lovewell gave the order to fire. A short time later ten Indians lay dead. The Indians were said to have had numerous extra blankets, snowshoes, moccasins, a few furs and new French muskets, which would seem to indicate that they were on their way to attack frontier settlements. Preventing such an attack is probably the true success of this expedition.
Early in March Lovewell's troops arrived in Boston. They paraded their Indian scalps through the streets, Lovewell himself wearing a wig made of Indian scalps. The bounty paid was 1000 pounds (100 per scalp).
Battle of Pequawket
Lovewell's third expedition consisted of only 46 men and left from Dunstable on April 16, 1725. They built a fort at Ossipee and left 10 men, including the doctor and John Goffe, to garrison the fort while the rest left to raid the Pequawket tribe at Fryeburg, Maine. On May 9, as the militiamen were being led in prayer by chaplain Jonathan Frye, a lone Abenaki warrior was spotted. Lovewell's men waited until the warrior was close and fired at him but missed. The Abenaki returned fire, killing Lovewell and seven others. Ensign Seth Wyman, Lovewell's second in command, killed the warrior with the next shot. Chaplain Frye then scalped the dead Indian. The militia had left their packs a ways back so as to be unencumbered by them in battle. Two returning war parties of Abenaki led by Paugus and Nat found them and waited in ambush for the returning militia. The battle continued for more than 10 hours until Ensign Wyman killed the Indian war chief Paugus. With the death of Paugus the rest of the Indians soon vanished into the forest. Only 20 of the militiamen survived the battle; three died on the retreat home. The Abenaki losses except for Paugus are unknown. The Abenaki deserted the town of Pequawket after the battle and fled to St. Francis.
Western theatre (Vermont and northern Massachusetts)
The western theatre of the war has also been referred to as "Gray Lock's War".[43]
On August 13, 1723, Gray Lock first entered the war by raiding Northfield, Massachusetts, and four warriors killed two citizens near Northfield. The next day they attacked Joseph Stevens and his four sons in Rutland. Stevens escaped, two boys were killed, and the other two sons were captured.[44]
On October 9, 1723, Gray Lock struck two small forts near Northfield, inflicting casualties and carrying off one captive.[45] In response, Governor Dummer ordered the construction of Fort Dummer where Brattleboro, Vermont is now. The fort became a major base of operations for scouting and punitive expeditions into Abenaki country.[45] Fort Dummer was present-day Vermont's first permanent European settlement, made under the command of Lieutenant Timothy Dwight.[46]
On June 18, 1724, Grey Lock attacked a group of men working in a meadow near Hatfield, Massachusetts. Grey Lock retired from the area and killed men at Deerfield, Northfield, and Westfield over the summer. In response to the raids, Dummer ordered more soldiers for Northfield, Brookfield, Deerfield and Sunderland.[47]
On October 11, 1724, seventy Abenakis attacked Fort Dummer and killed 3 or 4 soldiers.[48]
In September 1725, a scouting party of six men was sent out from Fort Dummer. Grey Lock and 14 others ambushed them just west of the Connecticut River, killing two and wounding and capturing three others. One man escaped, while two Indians were killed.[49]
Nova Scotia theatre
In response to the blockade of Annapolis Royal, New England launched a campaign to end the blockade at the end of July 1722, and retrieved over 86 New England prisoners taken by the natives. One of these operations resulted in the Battle at Winnepang (Jeddore Harbour), in which 35 natives and five New Englanders were killed.[50] Only five native bodies were recovered from the battle, and the New Englanders decapitated the corpses and set the severed heads on pikes surrounding Canso's new fort.[51]
During the war a church was erected at the Catholic mission in the Mi'kmaq village of Shubenacadie (Saint Anne's Mission). In 1723, the village of Canso was raided again by the Mi'kmaq, who killed five fishermen. In this same year, the New Englanders built a twelve-gun blockhouse to guard the village and fishery.[52]
The worst moment of the war for Annapolis Royal came on 4 July 1724 when a group of sixty Mi'kmaq and Maliseets raided the capital. They killed and scalped a sergeant and a private, wounded four more soldiers, and terrorized the village. They also burned houses and took prisoners.[53] The British responded by executing one of the Mi'kmaq hostages on the same spot the sergeant was killed. They also burned three Acadian houses in retaliation.[54] As a result of the raid, three blockhouses were built to protect the town. The Acadian church was moved closer to the fort so that it could be more easily monitored.[55]
In 1725, sixty Abenakis and Mi'kmaq launched another attack on Canso, destroying two houses and killing six people.[56]
Aftermath
On 31 July 1725, Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor Dummer announced a cessation of arms.[57] Negotiations began in Boston on 11 November, and peace treaties were signed in Maine on 15 December 1725 and on 15 June 1726 in Nova Scotia.
As a result of the war, western Maine came more strongly under British control with the defeat of Father Rale at Norridgewock and the subsequent retreat of the native population from the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers. In present-day New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, the treaty that ended the war marked a significant shift in European relations with the Mi'kmaq and Maliseet. For the first time a European power formally acknowledged that its dominion over Nova Scotia would have to be negotiated with the region's indigenous inhabitants.[11]
The Mi'kmaq and Maliseet of Nova Scotia refused to declare themselves British subjects.[58] The war was as much a native victory in Nova Scotia as it was a New England victory in Maine, but the New Englanders were forced to acknowledge that the natives had a right to possess their land.[59]
The goal of the colonies was less the defeat of the aboriginal populations than influencing the Wabanaki to become allies of the British king and enemies of the French.[60]
Although the French lost their footholds in Maine, present-day New Brunswick would remain under French control for a number of years. The peace in Nova Scotia would last for eighteen years.[61] At the end of Father Le Loutre's War, with the defeat of Le Loutre at Fort Beausejour, the British took control of present-day New Brunswick.
Legacy
The final major battle of the war—the Battle of Pequawket, or "Lovewell's Fight"—was so important in western Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts, that colonists celebrated the victory in song and story. Its importance was not eclipsed until the American Revolution. More than one hundred years later Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (poem, "The Battle of Lovells Pond"), Nathaniel Hawthorne (story, "Roger Malvin's Burial") and Henry David Thoreau (passage in the book A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers) all wrote about Lovewell's Fight.[62] The town of Lovell, Maine, is named after John Lovewell.
Paugus Bay, the town of Paugus Mill (now part of Albany, New Hampshire) and Mount Paugus in New Hampshire were named after Chief Paugus.[63]
See also
References
- Sources
- William Durkee Williamson. The history of the state of Maine: from its first discovery, A.D ..., Volume 2. 1832.
- Haynes, Mark. The Forgotten Battle: A History of the Acadians of Canso/ Chedabuctou. British Columbia: Trafford. 2004
- John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire. University of Oklahoma Press. 2008
- John Grenier. The first way of war: American war making on the frontier, 1607-1814. 2003. 47-52.
- William Wicken. Mi'kmaq Treaties on Trial. University of Toronto Press. 2002.
- John Mack Faragher. A Great and Noble Scheme. New York; W. W. Norton & Company, 2005.
- William Wicken. "Mi'kmaq Decisions: Antoine Tecouenemac, the Conquest, and the Treaty of Utrecht". In John Reid et al. (eds). The Conquest of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial and Aboriginal Constructions. University of Toronto Press. 2004.
- Cyrus Eaton. Annals of the town of Warren
- The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600-1800: War, Migration, and the survival of an Indian people, by Colin G. Calloway (University of Oklahoma Press, 1990)
- The Original Vermonters: Native Inhabitants, Past and Present, by William A. Haviland and Marjory W. Power (University Press of New England, 1994)
- In Search of New England's Native Past: Selected Essays, by Gordon M. Day (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998)
- Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
- Endnotes
- ^ Hatch, Louis Clinton (ed.) (1919). Maine: A History. American Historical Society. p. 53. http://books.google.com/books?id=EcUMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA53. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
- ^ The three previous Indian Wars were King Philip's War or the First Indian War in 1675, King William's War or the Second Indian War, and the Queen Anne's War or Third Indian War, 1703-1711;.
- ^ William Wicken uses the latter name to refer to the war. See Wicken, 2002, p. 71.
- ^ The Nova Scotia theatre of the Dummer War is named the "Mi'kmaq-Maliseet War" by John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia 1710-1760. University of Oklahoma Press. 2008.
- ^ William Williamson. The history of the state of Maine. Vol. 2. 1832. p. 27; Griffiths, E. From Migrant to Acadian. McGill-Queen's University Press. 2005. p.61; Campbell, Gary. The Road to Canada: The Grand Communications Route from Saint John to Quebec. Goose Lane Editions and The New Brunswick Heritage Military Project. 2005. p. 21.
- ^ a b "Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic National Historic Site of Canada". Parks Canada. http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=14831. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
- ^ a b John Grenier, The Far Reaches of Empire. University of Oklahoma Press, 2008, p. 51, p. 54.
- ^ http://www.northeastarch.com/sainte_anne.html
- ^ William Wicken. "Mi'maq Decisions: Antoine Tecouenemac, the Conquest, and the Treaty of Utrecht". in John Reid et al (eds). The Conquest of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial and Aboriginal Constructions. University of Toronto Press. 2004. pp. 96
- ^ While New Englanders safely settled the land, not until the treaty of 1752 did Massachusetts officially lay claim to the entire Penobscot watershed, and in 1759 the Pownall Expedition, led by Governor Thomas Pownall, established Fort Pownall on Cape Jellison in what is now Stockton Springs.
- ^ a b William Wicken, 2002, p. 72.
- ^ William Wicken. "Mi'kmaq Decisions: Antoine Tecouenemac, the Conquest, and the Treaty of Utrecht". In John Reid et al (eds). The Conquest of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial and Aboriginal Constructions. University of Toronto Press. 2004. p. 96.
- ^ William Wicken, p. 96. Wicken acknowledges, however, that while France was not officially involved, the French did offer material support for the Wabanaki. See Mi'kmaq Treaties on Trial, University of Toronto, 2002, p.73.
- ^ Fort George replaced Fort Andros which was built during King William's War (1688).
- ^ The history of the state of Maine: from its first discovery, A.D ..., Volume 2, by William Durkee Williamson. 1832. p.88, 97.
- ^ Faragher, p. 163
- ^ http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?BioId=35180
- ^ John Grenier, p. 55
- ^ Grenier, p. 55; William Williamson, p. 114; Portland in the past By William Goold, p. 184-185
- ^ The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607-1890: A Political ... edited by Spencer C. Tucker, James Arnold, Roberta Wiener, p. 249; Williamson, p. 114
- ^ Grenier, p. 59; William Williamson, p. 115; Also see History of Thomaston, Rockland, and South Thomaston, Maine: from ..., Volume 1, by Cyrus Eaton, p. 30, and Grenier, 2008, p. 56; Williamson, p. 115
- ^ William Williamson, p. 116
- ^ John Grenier. First Way of War. 2003. p. 47; Grenier. 2008, p. 56
- ^ Grenier, p. 56
- ^ Beamish Murdoch. History of Nova Scotia or Acadia, p. 399
- ^ Beamish Murdoch. History of Nova Scotia or Acadia, p. 399. William Wicken notes that between June 25 and 24 September 1722, the three Boston newspapers printed thirteen separate stories describing violent altercations along the east coast of mainland Nova Scotia. See Wicken, 2002, p. 83.
- ^ Carr, James Revell (2008-10-14). Seeds of discontent: the deep roots of the American Revolution, 1650-1750. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-8027-1512-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=HRR_j-glWhMC&pg=PA134. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
- ^ a b William Williamson, p. 119
- ^ (William Williamson, p. 120)
- ^ a b Grenier. 2003. p. 49
- ^ William Williamson, p. 125
- ^ (William Williamson, p. 125)
- ^ History of Thomaston, Rockland, and South Thomaston, Maine: from ..., Volume 1, by Cyrus Eaton p. 30; William Williamson, p.126.
- ^ (William Williamson. p. 127)
- ^ Willliam Williamson, p. 127
- ^ William Wicken. Mi'kmaq Treaties on Trial. p. 80
- ^ Col. Johnson Harmon Sr - was born about 1675 and died on 17 Apr 1751 . He was the son of John Harmon and Deborah Johnson. Col. Johnson married Mary Moulton in 1702. Mary was born on 14 Jan 1681/1682 in York, York Co., ME. She is the daughter of Jeremiah Moulton and Mary Young. Col. Johnson - was a noted Indian fighter of Maine. Soon after he was commissioned a colonel, by the Colonial Government. He was a representative to the General Court of Mass., and Legislature of Maine, in 1727, He settled in Harpswell in 1727, but did not live there long. In 1737 he was living in Merriconeag Neck with his daughter. (See Harmon Geneaology )
- ^ William Wicken, 2002, p. 80
- ^ John Grenier, p. 84
- ^ The Boston authorities gave a reward for the scalps, and Harmon was promoted. Harmon was known for his bloodthirsty attitude towards the Indians. In 1715, male members of the Harmon family massacred Native Americans at a pow-wow in York. The local minister, Samuel Moody, stated that God would punish the Harmons so that there would be no more males to carry on the name.
- ^ William Wicken, 2002, p. 81; The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600-1800: War, Migration, and the Survival... p. 123 –
- ^ a b John Grenier, p. 65
- ^ See Colin G. Calloway, 1990
- ^ The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600-1800: War, Migration, and the Survival... p. 117
- ^ a b The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600-1800: War, Migration, and the Survival... p. 119
- ^ http://www.facts-about.org.uk/history-us-state-vermont.htm
- ^ William Williamson, p. 121
- ^ Brattleboro History - WordPress & Atahualpa 2012
- ^ William Williamson, p. 126
- ^ Beamish Murdoch. A history of Nova-Scotia, or Acadie, Volume 1, p. 399
- ^ Geoffrey Plank, An Unsettled Conquest, p. 78
- ^ Benjamin Church, p. 289; John Grenier, p. 62
- ^ Faragher, John Mack, A Great and Noble Scheme. New York; W. W. Norton & Company, 2005, pp. 164-165.
- ^ Brenda Dunn, p. 123
- ^ Brenda Dunn, pp. 124-125
- ^ Haynes, p. 159
- ^ William Wicken, 2002, p. 83
- ^ John Grenier, p. 70
- ^ John Grenier, p. 71
- ^ William Wicken, 2002, p. 87
- ^ John Faragher, p. 167
- ^ http://www.imaginemaine.com/ImagineMaine/Lovewells_Fight.html
- ^ http://www.kancamagushighway.com/history/ ; The Indian heritage of New Hampshire and northern New England, Tadeusz Piotrowski, p. 186
External links
- A Military History of the United States of America: Dummer's War, 1724-1725 at Motherbedford.com
- Facts about the History of Vermont at Facts-about.org.uk
- Fort Dummer State Park, Vermont State Parks Bureau
- Lake Champlain, Lake George, and Richelieu River History Timeline; Part 1 - New France and New England: Discovery and Exploration, Time Span 1609-1645, James P. Millard, Historiclakes.org
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