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Flag_of_the_Commonwealth |- | '''Official languages''' | British English |- | '''Secretary-General''' | Don_McKinnon (since 1999) |- | '''Established''' | informally as "British" Commonwealth in 1926, the modern Commonwealth began in 1949. |- | '''Member states''' | 53 |- | '''Headquarters''' | Westminster, London |- | '''Official site''' | thecommonwealth.org |} The '''Commonwealth of Nations''', usually known as '''The Commonwealth''', is an association of independent Sovereign_states, almost all of which are former territories of the British_Empire. It was once known as the '''British Commonwealth of Nations''' or '''British Commonwealth''', and some still call it by that name, either for historical reasons or to distinguish it from the other Commonwealths around the world, such as the Commonwealth_of_Australia and the Commonwealth_of_The_Bahamas. Queen Elizabeth II, who is the Head of State of 16 Commonwealth_Realms, is the Head_of_the_Commonwealth; this title, however, does not imply any political power over member nations, and does not automatically belong to the British_monarch. The Commonwealth is primarily an Organisation in which countries with diverse economic backgrounds have an opportunity for close and equal interaction. The primary activities of the Commonwealth are designed to create an atmosphere of economic cooperation between member nations, as well as the promotion of Democracy, Human_rights, and good Governance in them. The Commonwealth is not a political union of any sort, and does not allow the United_Kingdom to exercise any power over the affairs of the organisation's other members. While some nations of the Commonwealth, known as Commonwealth_Realms, recognize the British_Monarch as their Head_of_state, the majority do not. ==Origins== Although performing a vastly different function, the Commonwealth is the successor of the British_Empire. In 1884, whilst visiting Adelaide, South_Australia, Lord_Rosebery described the changing British Empire, as its former colonies became more independent, as a "Commonwealth of Nations". The formal organisation of the Commonwealth has its origins in the Imperial_Conferences of the late 1920s (conferences of British and colonial Prime Ministers had occurred periodically since 1887), where the independence of the self-governing colonies and especially of Dominions was recognized, particularly in the Balfour Declaration at the Imperial Conference in 1926, when the United Kingdom and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". This relationship was eventually formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931. Image:commonthen.jpg After World_War_II, the Empire was gradually dismantled, partly owing to the rise of independence movements in the then-subject territories (such as that started in India under the influence of the Mohandas_Gandhi and Mohammad_Ali_Jinnah), and partly owing to the British Government's strained circumstances resulting from the cost of the war. The word "British" was dropped in 1946 from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect the changing position. Burma (1948) and Aden (1967) are the only former colonies not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Among the former Protectorates and mandates, Egypt (1953), Israel (1948), Iraq (1932), Bahrain (1971), Qatar (1971), United_Arab_Emirates (1971), Jordan (1946), Kuwait (1961) and Oman (1971) never became members of the Commonwealth. The Republic_of_Ireland was a member but left the Commonwealth upon becoming a Republic in 1949. However, the Ireland_Act_1949 was passed by the Parliament of Westminster and gave citizens of the Republic of Ireland a status similar to that of other citizens of the Commonwealth in UK_law. The issue of Republican status within the Commonwealth was resolved in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London. India agreed that when it became a republic in January 1950 it would accept the King as ‘symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such Head of the Commonwealth’. The other Commonwealth countries in turn recognised India's continuing membership of the association. (At Pakistan’s insistence, India was not regarded as an exceptional case and it was assumed that other states would be accorded the same treatment as India.) The London Declaration is often seen as marking the beginning of the modern Commonwealth. As the Commonwealth grew, the United Kingdom and the pre-1945 Dominions (a term that was formally dropped in the 1940s) became informally known as the "Old_Commonwealth", particularly in the 1960s onwards when some of them differed with poorer, Afro-Asian (or New_Commonwealth) members over various issues at Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government meetings. Accusations that the old, "White" Commonwealth has different interests from African Commonwealth nations in particular, as well as charges of Racism and Colonialism, arose during heated debates concerning Rhodesia in the 1970s, the imposition of Sanctions against Apartheid-era South Africa in the 1980s and, more recently, over the issue of whether to press for democratic reforms in Nigeria and then Zimbabwe. The term "New Commonwealth" is also used in Britain in debates over non-white Immigration from these countries. In recent years, the term "White_Commonwealth" has been used in a derogatory sense to imply that the wealthier, white nations of the Commonwealth had different interests and goals from the non-white, and particularly the African members. Zimbabwean President Robert_Mugabe has used the term frequently to allege that the Commonwealth's attempts to catalyse political changes in his country is motivated by Racism and colonialist attitudes and that the White Commonwealth dominates the Commonwealth of Nations as a whole. In Britain, the term New_Commonwealth was used in the 1960s and 1970s to refer to recently decolonised countries that were predominantly non-white and underdeveloped. The term was often used in reference to Immigration to Britain from "New Commonwealth" countries. ==Membership== Image:Commonwealth_of_Nations.png The Commonwealth encompasses a population of approximately 1.8 billion people, making up about 30% of the world's total. India is the most populous member, with a billion people at the 2001 census, while Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nigeria each contain more than 100 million people; Tuvalu, by contrast, the smallest, has only 11,000 inhabitants. The land area of the Commonwealth nations equals about a quarter of the world's land area, with Australia, Canada (the world's second-largest nation by area) and India each having more than 1.5 million square miles. Membership is open to countries that accept the association's basic aims. Members are also required to have a present or past constitutional link to the United Kingdom or to another Commonwealth member. Not all members have had direct constitutional ties to the United Kingdom: some South Pacific countries were formerly under Australian or New Zealand administration, while Namibia was governed by South Africa from 1920 until independence in 1990. Cameroon joined in 1995 although only a fraction of its territory had formerly been under British administration through the League_of_Nations_mandate of 1920–46 and United_Nations Trusteeship arrangement of 1946–61. There is only one member of the present Commonwealth which has never had any constitutional link to the British Empire or a Commonwealth member. Mozambique, a former Portuguese Colony was admitted in 1995 on the back of the triumphal re-admission of South_Africa and Mozambique's first democratic elections, held in 1994. The move was supported by Mozambique's neighbours, all of whom were members of the Commonwealth and who wished to offer assistance in overcoming the losses incurred as a result of the country's opposition to white minority regimes in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa. In 1997, amid some discontent, Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that Mozambique's admission should be seen as a special case and should not set a precedent. ==Non-members== Tongue in cheek, Charles_de_Gaulle twice suggested that France, though it was never a member of the British Empire (even if for centuries English/British monarchs claimed the title 'King of France') should apply for Commonwealth membership; this idea was never realised, but may be seen as a follow-up to a proposal made by Churchill to join the British and French governments during World_War_II, instead of the puppet regime of Vichy_France. David_Ben-Gurion suggested that Israel join the Commonwealth, but this proposal was opposed by most Israelis for suggesting dependence upon the United Kingdom, and by the organisation as suggesting a firmer support for Israel than it actually offered. Egypt and Iraq have never shown an interest in joining the Commonwealth, despite their histories of British rule. Similarly Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, and Oman are not members. Nor is the United_States, which was formed from former British colonies in 1776 and maintains close cultural ties with the United Kingdom. Hong_Kong also did not join the Commonwealth following the end of British rule in 1997, as it became a Special_administrative_region of the People's_Republic_of_China. ===Suspension=== In recent years the Commonwealth has suspended several members "from the Councils of the Commonwealth" for failure to uphold democratic government. Suspended members are not represented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and ministers, although they remain members of the organisation. Fiji, which had ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth 1987–1997 as a result of a republican ''coup d'etat'', was suspended 2000–2001, after a military coup, as was Pakistan from 1999 until 2004. Nigeria was suspended between 1995 and 1999. Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 over concerns with the electoral and land reform policies of Robert_Mugabe's Zanu-PF government, before withdrawing from the organisation in 2003. ===Termination of membership=== As membership is purely voluntary, member governments can choose at any time to leave the Commonwealth. Pakistan left the Commonwealth in 1972 in protest at Commonwealth recognition of breakaway Bangladesh, but rejoined in 1989. Zimbabwe left the Commonwealth in 2003 when Commonwealth Heads of Government refused to lift the country's suspension on human rights and governance grounds. Although Heads of Government have the power to suspend member states, the Commonwealth has no provision for the expulsion of members. However, Commonwealth_Realms which become republics automatically cease to be members unless, like India in 1950, they obtain the permission of other members to remain in the organisation as a republic. The Republic_of_Ireland did not apply for re-admittance after becoming a republic in 1949, as the Commonwealth at the time did not allow republican membership. However the leader of its Opposition at the time, Eamon_de_Valera, believed the Republic of Ireland's decision not to apply to stay was a mistake. He and his successor as Taoiseach, Sean_Lemass, both considered re-applying. Éamon_Ó_Cuív, a minister in the present Irish Government (and himself de Valera's grandson), raised the issue of the Republic's possible reapplication a number of times in the 1990s. However, the issue arouses both some hostility and indifference in Ireland, where some people still associate the Commonwealth with British imperialism, even though the majority of member states are now republics. The Republic of Ireland was the first nation ever to leave the Commonwealth and not rejoin. South_Africa was effectively prevented from continuing as a member after it became a republic in 1961 as a result of hostility from many members, particularly those in Africa and Asia as well as Canada, to its policy of Apartheid. The South African government withdrew its application to remain in the organisation as a republic when it became clear at the 1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference that any such application would be rejected. South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in 1994, after the end of apartheid in 1990. The declaration of a republic in the Fiji Islands in 1987, after military coups designed to deny Indo-Fijians in Fiji political power, was not accompanied by application to remain. Commonwealth membership was held to have lapsed until 1997, after racialist provisions in the republican constitution were repealed and reapplication for membership made. ==Organisation and objectives== {| align=right | Image:Ac.thequeen.jpg |- | Image:Don_McKinnon.jpg |} Queen Elizabeth II is the nominal Head_of_the_Commonwealth. Some members of the Commonwealth, known as Commonwealth_Realms, also recognize the Queen as their Head_of_state. However, the majority of members are Republics, and a handful of others are indigenous monarchies. The Queen's position as Head of the Commonwealth is not hereditary, and when and if the present Prince of Wales becomes King, it will be for Commonwealth Heads of Government to decide whether he assumes the role of Head of the Commonwealth. Since 1965 there has been a London-based Secretariat. The current (2005) Commonwealth_Secretary-General is Don_McKinnon, a former Foreign Minister of New_Zealand. The organisation is celebrated each year on Commonwealth_Day, the second Monday in March. The Commonwealth has long been distinctive as an international forum where highly developed economies (the United_Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New_Zealand) and many of the world's poorer countries seek to reach agreement by consensus. This aim has sometimes been difficult to achieve, as when disagreements over Rhodesia in the 1970s and over apartheid South Africa in the 1980s led to a cooling of relations between the United Kingdom and African members. The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government_Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth presidents or prime ministers assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM is the successor to the Prime Ministers' Conferences and earlier Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers, etc. The most important statement of the Commonwealth's principles is the 1991 Harare_Declaration, which dedicated the organisation to democracy and good government, and allowed for action to be taken against members who breached these principles. Before then the Commonwealth's collective actions had been limited by the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of other members. ==Benefits of membership and contemporary concerns== The Commonwealth has often been likened to an English gentlemen's club, and the issue of membership - who is and who is not a member of the organisation - often seems to be more important, and certainly attracts much more attention, than what the organisation actually does. This is because the main benefit of membership is the opportunity for close and relatively frequent interaction, on an informal and equal basis, between members who share many ties of language, culture, and history. In its early days, the Commonwealth also constituted a significant economic bloc. Commonwealth countries accorded each others' goods privileged access to their markets ("Commonwealth Preference"), and there was a free or preferred right of migration from one Commonwealth country to another. These rights have been steadily eroded, but their consequences remain. Within most Commonwealth countries, there are substantial communities with family ties to other members of the Commonwealth, going beyond the effects of the original colonization of parts of the Commonwealth by settlers from the British Isles. Furthermore, consumers in Commonwealth countries retain many preferences for goods from other members of the Commonwealth, so that even in the absence of tariff privileges, there continues to be more trade within the Commonwealth than might be predicted. On the United Kingdom's entry to the European_Union, the Lomé_Convention preserved some of the preferential access rights of Commonwealth goods to the UK market. In more recent decades there has been a mutual decline of interest in maintaining active inter-Commonwealth relations, and the organisation's direct political and economic importance has declined. Realist critics have argued that in the 21st_Century the organisation is an inherently arbitrary alliance with members that are united only through a historical accident of British colonialism. They argue that the organisation lacks a balanced membership, and point out that it is very unusual for any International_organisation to exclude highly important regions of the world such as most of Western_Europe and South_America from membership. Indeed, many Commonwealth members look increasingly to regional partners, non-Commonwealth as well as Commonwealth, to form their most important alliances. The United Kingdom has forged closer relationships with other European countries through the European Union; the UK's entry was widely felt as a betrayal by citizens of the "Old Commonwealth" whose economies had been developed on the assumption of access to British markets. Similarly, former British colonies have forged closer relationships with non-Commonwealth trading partners and closer geographic neighbours. Reaction to immigration from the new Commonwealth countries into the United Kingdom in the 1950s and early 1960s led to the restriction of the right of migration. The Commonwealth today mainly restricts itself to encouraging community between nations and to placing moral pressure on members who violate international laws, such as Human_rights laws, and abandon democratically-elected government. Key activities today include training experts in developing countries and assisting with and monitoring elections. Some Commonwealth countries give Commonwealth citizens privileges that are not accorded to aliens: for example, in the United Kingdom, the right to vote is given to all Commonwealth citizens resident in that country. This is reciprocated mainly in the Commonwealth Caribbean, even to the point where in some of the countries (including the UK) resident Commonwealth citizens may even be elected or appointed to the national legislature. However, these privileges are largely not on a reciprocal basis, and it is up to each country to decide what privileges it accords to Commonwealth citizenship, with the exception of the Commonwealth_Scholarship. Other privileges that the United Kingdom grants Commonwealth citizens include access to immigration programmes such as the Working_holidaymaker_visa. Some of the privileges offered by the individual countries have eroded over the last few decades, although most countries continue to afford special treatment in the area of immigration (e.g. right of abode in UK for some) and visas. ==Cultural Links== The Commonwealth is also useful as an International_organisation that represents significant cultural and historical links between wealthy first-world countries and poorer developing nations with diverse social and religious backgrounds. The common inheritance of the English_language and literature, the common law, and British systems of administration all underpin the club-like atmosphere of the Commonwealth. Mostly as a result of their history of British rule, many Commonwealth nations share certain identifiable traditions and customs that are elements of a shared Commonwealth culture. Examples include common sports such as Cricket and rugby, driving on the left, parliamentary and legal traditions, and the use of British rather than American spelling conventions (see Commonwealth_English). None of these is universal within the Commonwealth countries, nor exclusive to them, but all of them are more common in the Commonwealth than elsewhere. The Commonwealth countries share many links at non-governmental levels, with over a hundred non-governmental organisations that are organised on a Commonwealth wide basis, notably in the areas of sport, culture, education, and other charitable sectors. A multi-sports championship called the Commonwealth_Games is held every four years, two years after each Olympic_Games. As well as the usual athletic disciplines, the games include sports popular throughout the Commonwealth such as Bowls. The Association_of_Commonwealth_Universities is an important vehicle for academic links, particularly through offering scholarships, principally the Commonwealth_Scholarship, for students to study in universities in other Commonwealth countries. There are also many non-official associations that bring together individuals who work within the spheres of law and government, such as the Commonwealth_Lawyers_Association and the Commonwealth_Parliamentary_Association. In recent years the Commonwealth model has inspired similar initiatives on the part of France and Portugal and their respective ex-colonies, and in the former case, other sympathetic governments: the ''organisation internationale de La_Francophonie'' and the ''Comunidade_dos_Países_de_Língua_Portuguesa'' (Community of Portuguese-speaking countries). ===Literature=== The shared history of British rule has also produced a substantial body of writing in many languages - Commonwealth literature. There is an Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies (ACLALS) with nine chapters worldwide. ACLALS holds an international conference every three years. The 13th Triennial was held in Hyderabad, India, in August 2004; the next will be held in 2007 in Calgary, Canada. In 1987, the Commonwealth Foundation established the Commonwealth Writers Prize "to encourage and reward the upsurge of new Commonwealth fiction and ensure that works of merit reach a wider audience outside their country of origin." Caryl_Phillips won the Commonwealth Writers Prize 2004 for ''A_Distant_Shore''. Mark_Haddon won the Commonwealth Writers Prize 2004 Best First Book prize worth £3,000 for ''The_Curious_Incident_of_the_Dog_in_the_Night-time''. Although not affiliated with the Commonwealth in an official manner, the prestigious Booker_Prize is awarded annually to an author from a Commonwealth country. This honour is one of the highest in literature. ==Commonwealth Business Council== The Commonwealth_Business_Council (CBC) was formed at the Edinburgh CHOGM in 1997. The aim was to utilise the global network of the Commonwealth more effectively for the promotion of global trade and investment for shared prosperity. The CBC acts as a bridge for cooperation between business and government, concentrating efforts on these specific areas: * Enhancing Trade * Mobilising Investment * Promoting Corporate_Citizenship * Facilitating ICT_for_Development * Public_Private_Partnerships Commonwealth countries are major stakeholders in the process and success of the Doha_Development_Agenda. Together the Commonwealth’s 53 member countries account for 30 per cent of the world’s population and about 25 per cent of its international trade and investment. Commonwealth countries account for 40 per cent of WTO membership. CBC’s trade development objectives include encouraging trade facilitation and further liberalisation of services; encouraging developing countries to play an active role in the WTO, and in new trade rounds, by maximising their negotiating strength through cooperative action. The CBC helps to mobilise investment into Commonwealth countries through measures including ensuring access to international capital markets; strengthening 26 domestic capital markets; encouraging regional integration; committing the private sector to work together with governments to help achieve a successful market economy for generating investment. A key feature of CBC is its global membership, comprising corporate members from both developed and Developing_countries. This gives CBC the capacity to make a special contribution to the debate on corporate citizenship, dominated by Developed_countries. The CBC has been working to involve Private_sector engagement in facilitating the implementation of an Information Communications Technologies for Development programme. The CBC programme enhances collaborative partnerships between the various stakeholders including governments, private sector, donor agencies and Civil_society. Major goals include: * Bridge the Digital_divide for both social and economic development. * Promote ICT_for_development in Commonwealth countries. * Promote an experience exchange among stakeholders in Commonwealth countries. * Promote business and government cooperation for development. * Create awareness and enhance the knowledge of policy makers regarding economic, technical and legal aspects of implementation of ICT for development. * Provide and facilitate training and Capacity_building. CBC believes that there remains a significant gap for independent support to emerging market governments in the structuring and transacting of ICT infrastructure opportunities. The key CBC objectives are: * Examine how support from highly experienced individuals can assist through the creation of an infrastructure technical advisory unit. * Provide senior-level government support to provide focused advice. * Provide mechanisms that will help governments leverage the huge capacity of the private sector to address the demand for better infrastructure. The CBC has a dedicated team, CBC_Technologies, based in London focused on the international technology and global services industry throughout the Commonwealth. ==List of Commonwealth members== * List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations_by_continent * List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations_by_date_joined * List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations_by_name ==See also== *Anglosphere *British_Empire *British_Empire_and_Commonwealth_Museum *British Overseas Territory *Commonwealth_of_Independent_States *Community_of_Portuguese_Language_Countries *Dominion *La_Francophonie *High_Commissioner *List_of_Commonwealth_visits_made_by_Queen_Elizabeth_II ==References== *''The Constitutional Structure of the Commonwealth'', by K C Wheare. Clarendon Press, 1960. ISBN 0313236240 ==Further Reading== * ''The Commonwealth in the World'', by J D B Miller. Harvard University Press, 1965. ISBN 0674147006 * ''The Commonwealth Experience: From British to Multiracial Commonwealth'', by N Mansergh. University of Toronto Press, 1982. ISBN 0802024920 * ''Making the New Commonwealth'', by R J Moore. Clarendon Press, 1988. ISBN 0198201125 ==External links== *The Commonwealth Secretariat *The Commonwealth Institute, London *The Royal Commonwealth Society *The Royal Commonwealth Society (of Canada) *British Empire & Commonwealth Museum, Bristol, England *Association of Commonwealth Universities *University of London Institute of Commonwealth Studies *Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies *The Commonwealth as a popular club *What is the Commonwealth *The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association *The Commonwealth Meeting in Malta, 2005 {{Commonwealth of Nations}} Category:International_organizations Category:Foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom Category:British_Empire Category:Current_British_colonies Category:Former_British_colonies Af:Britse_Statebond An:Mancomunidá_Britanica_de_Nazions Ast:Mancomunidá_Británica_de_Naciones Bg:Общност_на_нациите Ca:Commonwealth Cs:Commonwealth Cy:Y_Gymanwlad Da:Commonwealth_of_Nations De:Commonwealth_of_Nations Et:Rahvaste_Ühendus Es:Mancomunidad_Británica_de_Naciones Eo:Komunumo_de_Nacioj Fr:Commonwealth Ko:영국_연방 Id:Negara-Negara_Persemakmuran Is:Breska_samveldið It:Commonwealth_delle_nazioni He:חבר_העמים_הבריטי Lt:Tautų_Sandrauga Hu:Nemzetközösség Ms:Negara-negara_Komanwel Nl:Gemenebest_van_Naties Ja:イギリス連邦 No:Samveldet_av_nasjoner Pl:Wspólnota_Narodów Pt:Commonwealth Ru:Содружество_наций Sk:Spoločenstvo_národov Fi:Kansainyhteisö Sv:Samväldet Vi:Khối_Thịnh_vượng_chung_Anh Tr:İngiliz_Milletler_Topluluğu Zh:英联邦
Flag_of_the_Commonwealth |- | '''Official languages''' | British English |- | '''Secretary-General''' | Don_McKinnon (since 1999) |- | '''Established''' | informally as "British" Commonwealth in 1926, the modern Commonwealth began in 1949. |- | '''Member states''' | 53 |- | '''Headquarters''' | Westminster, London |- | '''Official site''' | thecommonwealth.org |} The '''Commonwealth of Nations''', usually known as '''The Commonwealth''', is an association of independent Sovereign_states, almost all of which are former territories of the British_Empire. It was once known as the '''British Commonwealth of Nations''' or '''British Commonwealth''', and some still call it by that name, either for historical reasons or to distinguish it from the other Commonwealths around the world, such as the Commonwealth_of_Australia and the Commonwealth_of_The_Bahamas. Queen Elizabeth II, who is the Head of State of 16 Commonwealth_Realms, is the Head_of_the_Commonwealth; this title, however, does not imply any political power over member nations, and does not automatically belong to the British_monarch. The Commonwealth is primarily an Organisation in which countries with diverse economic backgrounds have an opportunity for close and equal interaction. The primary activities of the Commonwealth are designed to create an atmosphere of economic cooperation between member nations, as well as the promotion of Democracy, Human_rights, and good Governance in them. The Commonwealth is not a political union of any sort, and does not allow the United_Kingdom to exercise any power over the affairs of the organisation's other members. While some nations of the Commonwealth, known as Commonwealth_Realms, recognize the British_Monarch as their Head_of_state, the majority do not. ==Origins== Although performing a vastly different function, the Commonwealth is the successor of the British_Empire. In 1884, whilst visiting Adelaide, South_Australia, Lord_Rosebery described the changing British Empire, as its former colonies became more independent, as a "Commonwealth of Nations". The formal organisation of the Commonwealth has its origins in the Imperial_Conferences of the late 1920s (conferences of British and colonial Prime Ministers had occurred periodically since 1887), where the independence of the self-governing colonies and especially of Dominions was recognized, particularly in the Balfour Declaration at the Imperial Conference in 1926, when the United Kingdom and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". This relationship was eventually formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931. Image:commonthen.jpg After World_War_II, the Empire was gradually dismantled, partly owing to the rise of independence movements in the then-subject territories (such as that started in India under the influence of the Mohandas_Gandhi and Mohammad_Ali_Jinnah), and partly owing to the British Government's strained circumstances resulting from the cost of the war. The word "British" was dropped in 1946 from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect the changing position. Burma (1948) and Aden (1967) are the only former colonies not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Among the former Protectorates and mandates, Egypt (1953), Israel (1948), Iraq (1932), Bahrain (1971), Qatar (1971), United_Arab_Emirates (1971), Jordan (1946), Kuwait (1961) and Oman (1971) never became members of the Commonwealth. The Republic_of_Ireland was a member but left the Commonwealth upon becoming a Republic in 1949. However, the Ireland_Act_1949 was passed by the Parliament of Westminster and gave citizens of the Republic of Ireland a status similar to that of other citizens of the Commonwealth in UK_law. The issue of Republican status within the Commonwealth was resolved in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London. India agreed that when it became a republic in January 1950 it would accept the King as ‘symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such Head of the Commonwealth’. The other Commonwealth countries in turn recognised India's continuing membership of the association. (At Pakistan’s insistence, India was not regarded as an exceptional case and it was assumed that other states would be accorded the same treatment as India.) The London Declaration is often seen as marking the beginning of the modern Commonwealth. As the Commonwealth grew, the United Kingdom and the pre-1945 Dominions (a term that was formally dropped in the 1940s) became informally known as the "Old_Commonwealth", particularly in the 1960s onwards when some of them differed with poorer, Afro-Asian (or New_Commonwealth) members over various issues at Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government meetings. Accusations that the old, "White" Commonwealth has different interests from African Commonwealth nations in particular, as well as charges of Racism and Colonialism, arose during heated debates concerning Rhodesia in the 1970s, the imposition of Sanctions against Apartheid-era South Africa in the 1980s and, more recently, over the issue of whether to press for democratic reforms in Nigeria and then Zimbabwe. The term "New Commonwealth" is also used in Britain in debates over non-white Immigration from these countries. In recent years, the term "White_Commonwealth" has been used in a derogatory sense to imply that the wealthier, white nations of the Commonwealth had different interests and goals from the non-white, and particularly the African members. Zimbabwean President Robert_Mugabe has used the term frequently to allege that the Commonwealth's attempts to catalyse political changes in his country is motivated by Racism and colonialist attitudes and that the White Commonwealth dominates the Commonwealth of Nations as a whole. In Britain, the term New_Commonwealth was used in the 1960s and 1970s to refer to recently decolonised countries that were predominantly non-white and underdeveloped. The term was often used in reference to Immigration to Britain from "New Commonwealth" countries. ==Membership== Image:Commonwealth_of_Nations.png The Commonwealth encompasses a population of approximately 1.8 billion people, making up about 30% of the world's total. India is the most populous member, with a billion people at the 2001 census, while Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nigeria each contain more than 100 million people; Tuvalu, by contrast, the smallest, has only 11,000 inhabitants. The land area of the Commonwealth nations equals about a quarter of the world's land area, with Australia, Canada (the world's second-largest nation by area) and India each having more than 1.5 million square miles. Membership is open to countries that accept the association's basic aims. Members are also required to have a present or past constitutional link to the United Kingdom or to another Commonwealth member. Not all members have had direct constitutional ties to the United Kingdom: some South Pacific countries were formerly under Australian or New Zealand administration, while Namibia was governed by South Africa from 1920 until independence in 1990. Cameroon joined in 1995 although only a fraction of its territory had formerly been under British administration through the League_of_Nations_mandate of 1920–46 and United_Nations Trusteeship arrangement of 1946–61. There is only one member of the present Commonwealth which has never had any constitutional link to the British Empire or a Commonwealth member. Mozambique, a former Portuguese Colony was admitted in 1995 on the back of the triumphal re-admission of South_Africa and Mozambique's first democratic elections, held in 1994. The move was supported by Mozambique's neighbours, all of whom were members of the Commonwealth and who wished to offer assistance in overcoming the losses incurred as a result of the country's opposition to white minority regimes in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa. In 1997, amid some discontent, Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that Mozambique's admission should be seen as a special case and should not set a precedent. ==Non-members== Tongue in cheek, Charles_de_Gaulle twice suggested that France, though it was never a member of the British Empire (even if for centuries English/British monarchs claimed the title 'King of France') should apply for Commonwealth membership; this idea was never realised, but may be seen as a follow-up to a proposal made by Churchill to join the British and French governments during World_War_II, instead of the puppet regime of Vichy_France. David_Ben-Gurion suggested that Israel join the Commonwealth, but this proposal was opposed by most Israelis for suggesting dependence upon the United Kingdom, and by the organisation as suggesting a firmer support for Israel than it actually offered. Egypt and Iraq have never shown an interest in joining the Commonwealth, despite their histories of British rule. Similarly Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, and Oman are not members. Nor is the United_States, which was formed from former British colonies in 1776 and maintains close cultural ties with the United Kingdom. Hong_Kong also did not join the Commonwealth following the end of British rule in 1997, as it became a Special_administrative_region of the People's_Republic_of_China. ===Suspension=== In recent years the Commonwealth has suspended several members "from the Councils of the Commonwealth" for failure to uphold democratic government. Suspended members are not represented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and ministers, although they remain members of the organisation. Fiji, which had ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth 1987–1997 as a result of a republican ''coup d'etat'', was suspended 2000–2001, after a military coup, as was Pakistan from 1999 until 2004. Nigeria was suspended between 1995 and 1999. Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 over concerns with the electoral and land reform policies of Robert_Mugabe's Zanu-PF government, before withdrawing from the organisation in 2003. ===Termination of membership=== As membership is purely voluntary, member governments can choose at any time to leave the Commonwealth. Pakistan left the Commonwealth in 1972 in protest at Commonwealth recognition of breakaway Bangladesh, but rejoined in 1989. Zimbabwe left the Commonwealth in 2003 when Commonwealth Heads of Government refused to lift the country's suspension on human rights and governance grounds. Although Heads of Government have the power to suspend member states, the Commonwealth has no provision for the expulsion of members. However, Commonwealth_Realms which become republics automatically cease to be members unless, like India in 1950, they obtain the permission of other members to remain in the organisation as a republic. The Republic_of_Ireland did not apply for re-admittance after becoming a republic in 1949, as the Commonwealth at the time did not allow republican membership. However the leader of its Opposition at the time, Eamon_de_Valera, believed the Republic of Ireland's decision not to apply to stay was a mistake. He and his successor as Taoiseach, Sean_Lemass, both considered re-applying. Éamon_Ó_Cuív, a minister in the present Irish Government (and himself de Valera's grandson), raised the issue of the Republic's possible reapplication a number of times in the 1990s. However, the issue arouses both some hostility and indifference in Ireland, where some people still associate the Commonwealth with British imperialism, even though the majority of member states are now republics. The Republic of Ireland was the first nation ever to leave the Commonwealth and not rejoin. South_Africa was effectively prevented from continuing as a member after it became a republic in 1961 as a result of hostility from many members, particularly those in Africa and Asia as well as Canada, to its policy of Apartheid. The South African government withdrew its application to remain in the organisation as a republic when it became clear at the 1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference that any such application would be rejected. South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in 1994, after the end of apartheid in 1990. The declaration of a republic in the Fiji Islands in 1987, after military coups designed to deny Indo-Fijians in Fiji political power, was not accompanied by application to remain. Commonwealth membership was held to have lapsed until 1997, after racialist provisions in the republican constitution were repealed and reapplication for membership made. ==Organisation and objectives== {| align=right | Image:Ac.thequeen.jpg |- | Image:Don_McKinnon.jpg |} Queen Elizabeth II is the nominal Head_of_the_Commonwealth. Some members of the Commonwealth, known as Commonwealth_Realms, also recognize the Queen as their Head_of_state. However, the majority of members are Republics, and a handful of others are indigenous monarchies. The Queen's position as Head of the Commonwealth is not hereditary, and when and if the present Prince of Wales becomes King, it will be for Commonwealth Heads of Government to decide whether he assumes the role of Head of the Commonwealth. Since 1965 there has been a London-based Secretariat. The current (2005) Commonwealth_Secretary-General is Don_McKinnon, a former Foreign Minister of New_Zealand. The organisation is celebrated each year on Commonwealth_Day, the second Monday in March. The Commonwealth has long been distinctive as an international forum where highly developed economies (the United_Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New_Zealand) and many of the world's poorer countries seek to reach agreement by consensus. This aim has sometimes been difficult to achieve, as when disagreements over Rhodesia in the 1970s and over apartheid South Africa in the 1980s led to a cooling of relations between the United Kingdom and African members. The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government_Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth presidents or prime ministers assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM is the successor to the Prime Ministers' Conferences and earlier Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers, etc. The most important statement of the Commonwealth's principles is the 1991 Harare_Declaration, which dedicated the organisation to democracy and good government, and allowed for action to be taken against members who breached these principles. Before then the Commonwealth's collective actions had been limited by the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of other members. ==Benefits of membership and contemporary concerns== The Commonwealth has often been likened to an English gentlemen's club, and the issue of membership - who is and who is not a member of the organisation - often seems to be more important, and certainly attracts much more attention, than what the organisation actually does. This is because the main benefit of membership is the opportunity for close and relatively frequent interaction, on an informal and equal basis, between members who share many ties of language, culture, and history. In its early days, the Commonwealth also constituted a significant economic bloc. Commonwealth countries accorded each others' goods privileged access to their markets ("Commonwealth Preference"), and there was a free or preferred right of migration from one Commonwealth country to another. These rights have been steadily eroded, but their consequences remain. Within most Commonwealth countries, there are substantial communities with family ties to other members of the Commonwealth, going beyond the effects of the original colonization of parts of the Commonwealth by settlers from the British Isles. Furthermore, consumers in Commonwealth countries retain many preferences for goods from other members of the Commonwealth, so that even in the absence of tariff privileges, there continues to be more trade within the Commonwealth than might be predicted. On the United Kingdom's entry to the European_Union, the Lomé_Convention preserved some of the preferential access rights of Commonwealth goods to the UK market. In more recent decades there has been a mutual decline of interest in maintaining active inter-Commonwealth relations, and the organisation's direct political and economic importance has declined. Realist critics have argued that in the 21st_Century the organisation is an inherently arbitrary alliance with members that are united only through a historical accident of British colonialism. They argue that the organisation lacks a balanced membership, and point out that it is very unusual for any International_organisation to exclude highly important regions of the world such as most of Western_Europe and South_America from membership. Indeed, many Commonwealth members look increasingly to regional partners, non-Commonwealth as well as Commonwealth, to form their most important alliances. The United Kingdom has forged closer relationships with other European countries through the European Union; the UK's entry was widely felt as a betrayal by citizens of the "Old Commonwealth" whose economies had been developed on the assumption of access to British markets. Similarly, former British colonies have forged closer relationships with non-Commonwealth trading partners and closer geographic neighbours. Reaction to immigration from the new Commonwealth countries into the United Kingdom in the 1950s and early 1960s led to the restriction of the right of migration. The Commonwealth today mainly restricts itself to encouraging community between nations and to placing moral pressure on members who violate international laws, such as Human_rights laws, and abandon democratically-elected government. Key activities today include training experts in developing countries and assisting with and monitoring elections. Some Commonwealth countries give Commonwealth citizens privileges that are not accorded to aliens: for example, in the United Kingdom, the right to vote is given to all Commonwealth citizens resident in that country. This is reciprocated mainly in the Commonwealth Caribbean, even to the point where in some of the countries (including the UK) resident Commonwealth citizens may even be elected or appointed to the national legislature. However, these privileges are largely not on a reciprocal basis, and it is up to each country to decide what privileges it accords to Commonwealth citizenship, with the exception of the Commonwealth_Scholarship. Other privileges that the United Kingdom grants Commonwealth citizens include access to immigration programmes such as the Working_holidaymaker_visa. Some of the privileges offered by the individual countries have eroded over the last few decades, although most countries continue to afford special treatment in the area of immigration (e.g. right of abode in UK for some) and visas. ==Cultural Links== The Commonwealth is also useful as an International_organisation that represents significant cultural and historical links between wealthy first-world countries and poorer developing nations with diverse social and religious backgrounds. The common inheritance of the English_language and literature, the common law, and British systems of administration all underpin the club-like atmosphere of the Commonwealth. Mostly as a result of their history of British rule, many Commonwealth nations share certain identifiable traditions and customs that are elements of a shared Commonwealth culture. Examples include common sports such as Cricket and rugby, driving on the left, parliamentary and legal traditions, and the use of British rather than American spelling conventions (see Commonwealth_English). None of these is universal within the Commonwealth countries, nor exclusive to them, but all of them are more common in the Commonwealth than elsewhere. The Commonwealth countries share many links at non-governmental levels, with over a hundred non-governmental organisations that are organised on a Commonwealth wide basis, notably in the areas of sport, culture, education, and other charitable sectors. A multi-sports championship called the Commonwealth_Games is held every four years, two years after each Olympic_Games. As well as the usual athletic disciplines, the games include sports popular throughout the Commonwealth such as Bowls. The Association_of_Commonwealth_Universities is an important vehicle for academic links, particularly through offering scholarships, principally the Commonwealth_Scholarship, for students to study in universities in other Commonwealth countries. There are also many non-official associations that bring together individuals who work within the spheres of law and government, such as the Commonwealth_Lawyers_Association and the Commonwealth_Parliamentary_Association. In recent years the Commonwealth model has inspired similar initiatives on the part of France and Portugal and their respective ex-colonies, and in the former case, other sympathetic governments: the ''organisation internationale de La_Francophonie'' and the ''Comunidade_dos_Países_de_Língua_Portuguesa'' (Community of Portuguese-speaking countries). ===Literature=== The shared history of British rule has also produced a substantial body of writing in many languages - Commonwealth literature. There is an Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies (ACLALS) with nine chapters worldwide. ACLALS holds an international conference every three years. The 13th Triennial was held in Hyderabad, India, in August 2004; the next will be held in 2007 in Calgary, Canada. In 1987, the Commonwealth Foundation established the Commonwealth Writers Prize "to encourage and reward the upsurge of new Commonwealth fiction and ensure that works of merit reach a wider audience outside their country of origin." Caryl_Phillips won the Commonwealth Writers Prize 2004 for ''A_Distant_Shore''. Mark_Haddon won the Commonwealth Writers Prize 2004 Best First Book prize worth £3,000 for ''The_Curious_Incident_of_the_Dog_in_the_Night-time''. Although not affiliated with the Commonwealth in an official manner, the prestigious Booker_Prize is awarded annually to an author from a Commonwealth country. This honour is one of the highest in literature. ==Commonwealth Business Council== The Commonwealth_Business_Council (CBC) was formed at the Edinburgh CHOGM in 1997. The aim was to utilise the global network of the Commonwealth more effectively for the promotion of global trade and investment for shared prosperity. The CBC acts as a bridge for cooperation between business and government, concentrating efforts on these specific areas: * Enhancing Trade * Mobilising Investment * Promoting Corporate_Citizenship * Facilitating ICT_for_Development * Public_Private_Partnerships Commonwealth countries are major stakeholders in the process and success of the Doha_Development_Agenda. Together the Commonwealth’s 53 member countries account for 30 per cent of the world’s population and about 25 per cent of its international trade and investment. Commonwealth countries account for 40 per cent of WTO membership. CBC’s trade development objectives include encouraging trade facilitation and further liberalisation of services; encouraging developing countries to play an active role in the WTO, and in new trade rounds, by maximising their negotiating strength through cooperative action. The CBC helps to mobilise investment into Commonwealth countries through measures including ensuring access to international capital markets; strengthening 26 domestic capital markets; encouraging regional integration; committing the private sector to work together with governments to help achieve a successful market economy for generating investment. A key feature of CBC is its global membership, comprising corporate members from both developed and Developing_countries. This gives CBC the capacity to make a special contribution to the debate on corporate citizenship, dominated by Developed_countries. The CBC has been working to involve Private_sector engagement in facilitating the implementation of an Information Communications Technologies for Development programme. The CBC programme enhances collaborative partnerships between the various stakeholders including governments, private sector, donor agencies and Civil_society. Major goals include: * Bridge the Digital_divide for both social and economic development. * Promote ICT_for_development in Commonwealth countries. * Promote an experience exchange among stakeholders in Commonwealth countries. * Promote business and government cooperation for development. * Create awareness and enhance the knowledge of policy makers regarding economic, technical and legal aspects of implementation of ICT for development. * Provide and facilitate training and Capacity_building. CBC believes that there remains a significant gap for independent support to emerging market governments in the structuring and transacting of ICT infrastructure opportunities. The key CBC objectives are: * Examine how support from highly experienced individuals can assist through the creation of an infrastructure technical advisory unit. * Provide senior-level government support to provide focused advice. * Provide mechanisms that will help governments leverage the huge capacity of the private sector to address the demand for better infrastructure. The CBC has a dedicated team, CBC_Technologies, based in London focused on the international technology and global services industry throughout the Commonwealth. ==List of Commonwealth members== * List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations_by_continent * List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations_by_date_joined * List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations_by_name ==See also== *Anglosphere *British_Empire *British_Empire_and_Commonwealth_Museum *British Overseas Territory *Commonwealth_of_Independent_States *Community_of_Portuguese_Language_Countries *Dominion *La_Francophonie *High_Commissioner *List_of_Commonwealth_visits_made_by_Queen_Elizabeth_II ==References== *''The Constitutional Structure of the Commonwealth'', by K C Wheare. Clarendon Press, 1960. ISBN 0313236240 ==Further Reading== * ''The Commonwealth in the World'', by J D B Miller. Harvard University Press, 1965. ISBN 0674147006 * ''The Commonwealth Experience: From British to Multiracial Commonwealth'', by N Mansergh. University of Toronto Press, 1982. ISBN 0802024920 * ''Making the New Commonwealth'', by R J Moore. Clarendon Press, 1988. ISBN 0198201125 ==External links== *The Commonwealth Secretariat *The Commonwealth Institute, London *The Royal Commonwealth Society *The Royal Commonwealth Society (of Canada) *British Empire & Commonwealth Museum, Bristol, England *Association of Commonwealth Universities *University of London Institute of Commonwealth Studies *Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies *The Commonwealth as a popular club *What is the Commonwealth *The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association *The Commonwealth Meeting in Malta, 2005 {{Commonwealth of Nations}} Category:International_organizations Category:Foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom Category:British_Empire Category:Current_British_colonies Category:Former_British_colonies Af:Britse_Statebond An:Mancomunidá_Britanica_de_Nazions Ast:Mancomunidá_Británica_de_Naciones Bg:Общност_на_нациите Ca:Commonwealth Cs:Commonwealth Cy:Y_Gymanwlad Da:Commonwealth_of_Nations De:Commonwealth_of_Nations Et:Rahvaste_Ühendus Es:Mancomunidad_Británica_de_Naciones Eo:Komunumo_de_Nacioj Fr:Commonwealth Ko:영국_연방 Id:Negara-Negara_Persemakmuran Is:Breska_samveldið It:Commonwealth_delle_nazioni He:חבר_העמים_הבריטי Lt:Tautų_Sandrauga Hu:Nemzetközösség Ms:Negara-negara_Komanwel Nl:Gemenebest_van_Naties Ja:イギリス連邦 No:Samveldet_av_nasjoner Pl:Wspólnota_Narodów Pt:Commonwealth Ru:Содружество_наций Sk:Spoločenstvo_národov Fi:Kansainyhteisö Sv:Samväldet Vi:Khối_Thịnh_vượng_chung_Anh Tr:İngiliz_Milletler_Topluluğu Zh:英联邦