{{this article is about|the Chinese civilization. For the modern-day state commonly referred to as '''''China''''', see People's_Republic_of_China. For other meanings, see China_(disambiguation).}}
Image:Greatwall-SA3.jpg, stretching over 6700 km, was first erected in the 3rd_century_B.C. to protect the north from Nomadic invaders and has been rebuilt several times since.]]
'''China''' {{Audio|zh-zhongguo.ogg|listen}} ({{zh-tspw|t=中國|s=中国|p=''Zhōngguó''|w=''Chung-kuo''}}) refers to a number of states and cultures that have existed and are viewed as having succeeded one another in Continental East_Asia, dating back at least 3,500 years. China as it exists today has been variously described in different points of view as a single Civilization or multiple civilizations, as a single State or multiple states, and as a single Nation or multiple nations.
With one of the world's longest periods of mostly uninterrupted civilization and the world's longest continuously used written language system, China's history has been largely characterized by repeated divisions and reunifications amid alternating periods of Peace and War, and violent Imperial dynastic change. The Country's territorial extent expanded outwards from a core area in the North_China_Plain, and varied according to its moving fortunes to include multiple regions of East, Northeast, and Central_Asia. For centuries, Imperial China was also one of the world's most technologically advanced civilizations, and East Asia's dominant cultural influence, with an impact lasting to the present day throughout the region.
By the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, however, China's political, economic, and military influence declined relative to growing regional power Japan and the influence of Western powers. Semi-colonialism developed by the late nineteenth century in parts of China, and the country was invaded by the Empire_of_Japan during World_War_II. The imperial system in China ended with the establishment of the Republic_of_China (ROC) under Sun_Yat-sen in 1912; however, the next four decades of ROC rule were marred by warlord control, the Second_Sino-Japanese_War (WWII), and the Chinese_Civil_War which pitted Chinese Nationalists against the Communist forces.
After its victory in the Chinese_Civil_War, the Communist_Party_of_China under Mao_Zedong established the People's_Republic_of_China (PRC) in 1949, forcing the Republic_of_China (ROC) to retreat to the island of Taiwan, which it had governed since the end of World_War_II. Since then, the ROC has maintained administrative control over Taiwan, the Pescadores, several islands off the coast of Fujian province, and some islands in the South_China_Sea.
==Terminology==
{{main|Name of China in various languages}}
==="Zhongguo"===
Image:Belvedere_of_the_God_of_Literature,_Summer_Palace.jpg, or ''Yihe Yuan'', Beijing, China.]]
China is called ''Zhongguo'' in Mandarin Chinese (Simplified: 中国, Traditional: 中國; also romanized as ''Jhongguo'' or ''Chung-kuo''), which is usually translated as "Middle Kingdom", but could also be translated as "Central State" or "Central Country". ''Zhong'' (中) means "middle" or "center" while ''guo'' (国 or 國) means "country," "kingdom," "state," or "land", referring to the claim that China stood at the centre of that society's "known world", surrounded by lesser Tributary_states.
The term has not been used consistently throughout Chinese history, however, and carries certain cultural and political connotations both positive and negative, some ideological, and early states considered part of Chinese history are not called "Zhongguo". During the Spring_and_Autumn_Period, it was used only to describe the states politically descended from the Western_Zhou_Dynasty, in the Yellow_River (Huang He) valley, to the exclusion of states such as Chu and Qin. The "Chinese" thus defined their nation as culturally and politically distinct from - and as the Axis_mundi of surrounding nations; a concept that continued well into the Qing_Dynasty, although being continually redefined while the central political influence expanded territorially, and its culture assimilated alien influences.
Thus ''Zhongguo'' quickly came to include areas farther south, as the cultural and political unit (not yet a "nation" or "country" in the modern sense) spread in a southerly direction, including the Yangtze_River and Pearl River systems, and by the Tang_Dynasty it even included "Barbarian" regimes such as the Xianbei and Xiongnu. Inner_Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet, and the island of Taiwan, over time, came to be dominated (to a greater or lesser extent) by, or officially ruled by, imperial China, and are often included as a part of ''Zhongguo'', though acceptance or denial of such claims remains politically controversial, especially where ''Zhongguo'' means PRC.
During the Han_Dynasty and before, ''Zhongguo'' had three distinctive meanings:
# The area around the capital or imperial domain. The ''Book_of_Poetry'' explicitly gives this definition.
# Territories under the direct authority of the "central" authorities. The ''Historical_Records'' states: "Eight mountains are famed in the empire. Three are with the Man and Yi barbarians. Five are in ''Zhongguo''."
# The area now called the North_China_Plain. The ''Sanguo_Zhi'' records the following monologue: "If we can lead the host of Wu and Yue (the area of southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang) to oppose ''Zhongguo'', then we should break off relations with them soon." In this sense, the term is synonymous with ''Hua'' (華) and ''Xia'' (夏).
During the period of division after the fall of the Han Dynasty, the term ''Zhongguo'' was subjected to transformation as a result of the surge of nomadic peoples from the northern frontier. This was doubly so after the loss of the Yellow River valley, the cradle of Chinese civilization, to these peoples. For example, the Xianbei called their Northern Wei regime ''Zhongguo'', contrasting it with the Southern_Dynasties, which they called the ''Yi'' (夷), meaning "barbarian". The southern dynasties, for their part, recently exiled from the north, called the Northern Wei ''Lu'' (虏), meaning "criminal" or "prisoner". In this way ''Zhongguo'' came to represent political legitimacy. It was used in this manner from the tenth century onwards by the competing dynasties of Liao, Jin and Song. The term ''Zhongguo'' came to be related to geographic, cultural and political identity and less to ethnic origin.
The Republic of China, as it controlled mainland China, and later, the People's Republic of China, have used ''Zhongguo'' as an entity existing theoretically to mean all the territories and peoples within their political control as well as those outside of it (people in the Republic of China on Taiwan now usually use Zhongguo to refer to the PRC and use Taiwan to refer to itself). Thus it is asserted that all 56 officially recognized ethnic groups are ''Zhongguo ren'' (中國人), or ''Zhongguo'' people. Their disparate histories are collectively the history of ''Zhongguo''.
==="China"===
Image:XiAn_CityWall_DiLou.jpg, known as Chang'an in ancient times, was the imperial capital of 13 different historical dynasties (including the Han and Tang dynasties) in China.]]
English and many other languages use forms of the name ''China'' (and the Prefix ''Sino-''), which is believed to have derived from the name of the ''Qin'' dynasty that first unified the country, even though it is not completely resolved and the origins are still controversial to an extent http://www.bartleby.com/61/80/C0298000.html. Despite the fact that the Qin dynasty was short-lived and was often regarded as overly tyrannical it unified the written language in China and gave the supreme ruler of China the title of "Emperor", hence, the subsequent Silk Road traders would identify themselves by that name. Alternate theories on the origin of the word "China" exist.
In any circumstance, the word ''China'' passed through many languages along the Silk_Road before it finally reached Europe and England. The Western "China", transliterated to Shina (支那) has also been used by Japanese since the nineteenth century, and has since evolved into a derogatory term in that language.
The term "China" can narrowly mean China_proper, or, often, China proper and Manchuria, Inner_Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang, a combination essentially coterminous with the 20th and 21st century political entity ''China''; the boundaries between these regions do not necessarily follow provincial boundaries. In many contexts, "China" is commonly used to refer to the People's Republic of China or mainland China, while "Taiwan" is used to refer to the Republic of China. Informally, in Economic or Business contexts, "the Greater_China region" (大中華地區) refers to Mainland_China, Hong_Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.
Sinologists usually use "Chinese" in a more restricted sense, more akin to the classical usage of ''Zhongguo'', or to the meaning of the "Han ethnic group", who make up the bulk of Mainland China.
In many contexts it may be more appropriate to speak of "Mainland_China" (中國大陸,''zhōngguó dàlù'' in Mandarin), especially when contrasting it with other, politically different regions like Hong_Kong, Macau, and territories administered by the Republic of China (Taiwan).
==History==
:''Main articles: History_of_China, History_of_the_Republic_of_China (1912–1949; 1949–Present on Taiwan), History_of_People's_Republic_of_China (1949–Present)''
Image:Qinshihuang.jpg.]]
China was one of the earliest centers of human Civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing independently, the others being ancient Mesopotamia (Sumerians), India (Indus_Valley_Civilization), the Mayans, and, some hold, Ancient_Egypt—though it may have been learned from the Sumerians.
The first Dynasty according to Chinese historical sources was the Xia_Dynasty.
Until scientific excavations were made at early Bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province, it was difficult to separate myth from reality in regard to the existence of the Xia Dynasty. But since then, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the possible existence of the Xia dynasty at the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts.
However, the first confirmed dynasty is the Shang, who settled along the Huang_He river, dating from the 18th to the 12th centuries BC. The Shang were in turn invaded by the Zhou (12th to 5th centuries BC), whose centralized authority was slowly eroded by the ceding of state-like authority to warlords ruling small states; eventually, in the Spring_and_Autumn_period, many strong independent states, in continuous war, paid but nominal deference to the Zhou_state as the Imperial centre. They were all unified under one emperor in 221_BC by Qin_Shi_Huang, ushering in the Qin_Dynasty, the first unified centralized Chinese state.
This state, however, did not last for long, as it was way too authoritarian, destroying many sources of competition for power that were also sources of good governance and development, such as scholars and intellectuals. After the fall of authoritarian Qin Dynasty in 207 BC came the Han Dynasty which lasted until 220 AD. A period of disunion followed again. In 580, China was reunited under the Sui. Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, China reached its golden age. For a long period of time, especially between the 7th and 14th centuries, China was one of the most advanced Civilizations in the world in technology, literature, and art. The Song Dynasty fell to the invading Mongols in 1279. The Mongols, under Kublai_Khan, established the Yuan_Dynasty. A peasant named Zhu_Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming_Dynasty, which lasted until 1644. After the Ming dynasty, came the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, which lasted until the overthrow of Puyi in 1911.
Oftentimes regime change was violent and strongly opposed and the ruler class needed to take special measures to ensure their rule and the loyalty of the overthrown dynasty. For example, after the foreign Qing (Manchus) conquered China, because they were ever suspicious of the Han_Chinese, the Qing rulers put into effect measures aimed at preventing the absorption of the Manchus into the dominant Han Chinese population. However, these restrictions proved ineffective against the assimilation of Manchus into the Chinese identity and culture.
In the 18th century, China achieved a decisive technological advantage over the peoples of Central_Asia, which it had been at war with for several centuries, while simultaneously falling behind Europe in that respect. This set the stage for the 19th century, in which China adopted a defensive posture against European Imperialism while itself engaging in imperialistic expansion into Central Asia. See Imperialism_in_Asia.
However the primary cause of the decline of the Chinese empire was not European and American interference, as the ethnocentric Western historians would lead many to believe. On the contrary it was a series of internal upheavals. Most prominent of these was the Taiping Civil War which lasted from 1851 to 1862. The civil war was started by an extremist believer in a school of thought partly influenced by Christianity who believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the imperial forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history - costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the First_World_War). Prior to this conflict a number of Islamic Rebellions, especially in Central Asia, had occurred. Later, a second major rebellion took place, although this latter uprising was considerably smaller than the cataclysmic Taiping Civil War. This second conflict was the Boxer_Rebellion which aimed to repel Westerners. Although secretly supporting the rebels, the Empress, Ci_Xi, aided foreign forces in suppressing the uprising.
Image:China2C_Mao_.jpg announcing the founding of the People's Republic of China on October_1, 1949.]]
In 1912, after a prolonged period of decline, the institution of the Emperor_of_China disappeared and the Republic_of_China was established. The following three decades were a period of disunion — the Warlord Era, the Sino-Japanese War, and the Chinese_Civil_War. The latter ended in 1949 with the Communist_Party_of_China in control of Mainland_China. The CPC established a Communist_state—the People's Republic of China—that laid claim to be the Successor_state of the Republic of China. Meanwhile, the disorganized and potentially corrupt ROC government of the Kuomintang fled to Taiwan, where it continued to be recognized as the legitimate government of all China by the Western_bloc and the United Nations until the 1970s, when most nations and the UN switched recognition to the PRC.
The United_Kingdom and Portugal transferred their colonies of Hong_Kong and Macau on the southern Chinese coast to the PRC in 1997 and 1999, respectively. ''China'' used in a modern context often refers to just the territory of the PRC, or to "Mainland_China" (the territory of the PRC excluding Hong Kong and Macau).
The PRC does not recognize the ROC, as it claims to have succeeded the ROC as the legitimate governing authority of all of China including Taiwan. On the other hand, the ROC—while never formally renouncing its earlier claims or changing official maps that show its territory as including both the modern-day PRC, Mongolia and Tibet—has moved away from this former identity representing its rule over all of China, and increasingly identifies itself as ''Taiwan''. The PRC has historically resisted the ROC's identification of itself as Taiwan, especially in light of the movement supported by residents of Taiwan and others who advocate Taiwan's identity as an independent political entity. Significant disputes persist as to the nature and extent of ''China'', possible Chinese_reunification and the political status of Taiwan.
{{seealso5|Timeline of Chinese history|Dynasties in Chinese history|History of Hong Kong|History of Macau|History of Taiwan}}
==Chinese Pre-history==
Archeological evidence suggests that the earliest occupants in China date as long as 2.24 million to 250,000 years ago by an ancient human relative (Hominin) known as Homo_erectus. One particular cave in Zhoukoudian (now known as Peking) has fossilised evidence dating to 300,000 and 550,000 years old. Evidence of primitive stone tool technology and animal bones in association to H. erectus have been studied since the late 18th century to 19th century in various areas of Eastern_Asia including Indonesia (in particular the Island of Java) and Malaysia. Originally it is thought that these early hominis first evolved in Africa during the Pleistocene. It is thought that Human_evolution first took place in Africa expanding 7 million years. By 2 million years ago the first wave of migration from the species in association with H. erectus settled into various areas in the Old_World.
Fully modern Humans (''homo sapiens'') are believed to originally have evolved roughly 200,000 and 168,000 years ago in Ethiopia or Southern_Africa (ei. Homo_sapiens_idaltu). By 100,000 to 50,000 years ago modern human beings settled in all parts of the Old world (including the New_World, Americas 25,000 to 11,000 BCE). By less than 100,000 years ago all ''proto-human'' populations disappeared as modern humans took over or drove other human species into extinction.
It remains a controversial subject to whether fully modern humans evolved from separate H. erectus populations (known as "multiregional") as some evidence in ancient bones show a transitional change from H. erectus to H. sapiens having archaic features. However it is now more widely accepted that all modern humans genetically share a direct ancestor, a female nicknamed "Mitochondrial_Eve" from Eastern_Africa 150,000 years BCE. This model is known as Mitochondrial_Eve_Hypothesis.
The earliest evidence examples of fully modern humans in China come from Liujiang, China where a cranium dates 67,000 years BCE. Another is a partial skeleton from Minatogawa being just 18,000 years old.
==Political history==
{{main|Politics of Imperial China|Politics of the People's Republic of China|Politics of Taiwan|Political status of Taiwan}}
Before unification by the Qin_Dynasty in 221_BC, "China" did not exist as a coherent entity. The Chinese civilization consisted of a patchwork of several states, each ruled by a king (王), Duke (公), Marquess (侯), or Earl (伯). Although there was a central king who held nominal power, and powerful Hegemons sometimes held considerable influence, each State was ruled as an independent political entity. This is also the time of the beginnings of Confucian philosophy and that of many other philosophies that greatly influenced Chinese philosophy-political thought.
This ended with the Qin Dynasty unification, during which the office of the Emperor was set up, and a system of Bureaucratic administration established. After the Qin, China experienced about 13 more dynasties, many of which continued the extensive system of kingdoms, dukedoms, Earldoms, and marquisates. The territory varied with several expansions and contractions depending on the strength of each emperor and dynasty. However the emperor had ultimate, supreme, and unquestionable authority as the political and religious leader of China. The emperor also consulted civil and martial ministers, especially the Prime_minister. Political power sometimes fell into the hands of powerful officials, Eunuchs, or imperial Relatives, often at the expense of a child heriditary emperor. This happened especially since the emperor often was many layers of power removed from the outside world, making him susceptible to manipulation because his sources for information could manipulate that information causing him to make incorrect decisions, especially when their age at becoming emperor often had no bottom limit, with rule passing heriditarily but also given "in trust" to another relative.
Political relations with dependencies (tributary kingdoms) were maintained by international marriages, military aids, treaties, and gifts. (see section "Geography, Political" below for examples),
Luoyang, Chang'an (today's Xi'an), Nanjing, and Beijing are the four cities most commonly designated as Capitals_of_China over the course of history. Chinese was the official language, though periods of Mongol and Manchu conquest saw the arrival of Mongol and Manchu as alternate Official_languages.
On January_1, 1912, the Republic of China (ROC) was established, signaling the end of the Manchu-dominated Qing Empire. Sun_Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party), was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, Yuan_Shikai, a former Qing general who had defected to the revolutionary cause, soon forced Sun to step aside and took the presidency for himself (formally it was a negotiation where Sun agreed to step aside for what was then perceived as a strong reformer, Yuan). Before long, Yuan attempted to have himself proclaimed emperor of a new dynasty; however, he died soon of natural causes before fully taking power over all of the Chinese empire.
After Yuan's downfall, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally-recognized, but virtually powerless, national government seated in Beijing (thus failing to fit the definition of a State). Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories.
Image:National_People's_Congress.JPG
In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang_Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to Nanjing and implementing "Political_tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang with heavy Leninist influences. Ironically, both the Kuomintang and the CCP have heavy Leninist influences. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Chinese_Civil_War between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China (CPC), many provisions of the 1947 ROC constitution were never put into actual practice on the mainland.
By early 1950, the CPC had defeated the Kuomintang on the mainland, and the ROC government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Beginning in the late 1970s, Taiwan began the implementation of full, multi-party, Representative_democracy in the territories still under ROC control (i.e., Taiwan_Province, Taipei, Kaohsiung and some offshore islands of Fujian province). Today, the political scene in the ROC is vibrant, with active participation by all sectors of society. But rather than the usual Conservative-Liberal policy distinctions that are the hallmarks of most democracies around the world, the main cleavage in ROC politics is the unification with China in the long-run vs. formal independence issue. However, Greens are generally more liberal (i.e. more environmentally friendly) and Blues are generally regarded as more conservative.
Image:PRC_coa.png
Meanwhile, Mao_Zedong, the leader of the communists, proclaimed the People's_Republic_of_China (PRC) on October_1, 1949 in Beijing, saying China had stood up. From the beginning, the PRC has been a Dictatorial One-party_state under the Communist Party. However, post-1978 reforms have led to the relaxation, in varying degrees, of party control over many areas of society. Nonetheless, the Communist Party still has absolute control over political aspects of society, and it continuously seeks to eradicate threats to its rule. Examples of this include the jailing of political opponents and journalists, general control of the press, regulation of religions and other non-party organizations, Censorship of the press, literature and film, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, a popular demonstration held in Beijing at Tiananmen_Square was violently put to an end by the Chinese government. Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989 The attempted eradication of the Falun_Gong movement is also held by its supporters to be motivated by fear of Falun Gong's growing influence. Today, however, there is much more freedom in intellectual thought in non-political areas and Propaganda, while still continuing, has lessened.
{{seealso5|Chinese nationalism|Propaganda in the People's Republic of China|Imperialism in Asia|Chinese sovereign|Chinese law}}
==Territory==
{{main2|Political divisions of China|History of the political divisions of China}}
===Historical overview===
Image:Map-Chinese_World.png made by China, Taiwan, Hong kong, Singapour, and countries culturally link to Chinese culture.]]
The Zhou_Dynasty, which preceded the unification of China by Shi_Huangdi, was originally the region around the Yellow_River. Since then, the territory has expanded outward in all directions, and was largest during the Tang, Yuan, and Qing dynasties. The Qing Dynasty included parts of modern Russian_Far_East and Central_Asia (west of Xinjiang).
Image:China_administrative.png
Along with provincial administrators, some foreign Monarchs sent Envoys to offer gifts to the Emperor of China and the Emperor returned Compliments to them. The Chinese thought that the barbarians attached themselves to the Virtue of the Emperor, while the foreign governments sometimes disagreed. Since the end of the 19th century, China has tried to reinterpret this relationship as Suzerainty or Suzerainty-Dependency, but this no longer has any real conception in modern international political theories.
The Qing_Empire reduced the territorial value of the Great_Wall_of_China as a barrier of China_proper after they merged their homeland (Manchuria) north of the wall with China_proper south of it. In 1683 after the surrender of the Kingdom_of_Tungning established by Koxinga, Taiwan including the Pescadores became a part of the Qing Empire, originally as one Prefecture, then two, and later a province. Taiwan was subsequently ceded to Japan after the First_Sino-Japanese_War in 1895. At the end of the Second_Sino-Japanese_War in 1945, Japan relinquished the Sovereignty of the island in the San_Francisco_Peace_Treaty, and the Republic_of_China took over. Since then, the de jure sovereignty of Taiwan has been under dispute between the PRC, and the now democratic ROC and Taiwan independence supporters.
{{seealso3|Taiwan|Republic of China|Tibet}}
===Historical political divisions===
Historically, top-level political divisions of China have altered as the administration changed. Top levels included circuits and provinces. Below that, there have been prefectures, Subprefectures, Departments, Commanderies, districts, and counties. Recent divisions also include Prefecture-level_cities, County-level_cities, towns and townships (see below for examples).
Historically, most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known by the politically-correct term of China_proper (since it doesn't include places it doesn't control, such as Mongolia or Taiwan). Various dynasties also exhibited Expansionism by engaging in incursions into more peripheral territories like Inner_Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and Tibet. The Manchu-established Qing_Dynasty and its successors, the Republic_of_China and the People's_Republic_of_China cemented the incorporation of these territories into China. These territories are separated by borders that are vague at best, and do not correspond well to contemporary political divisions. China proper is generally thought to be bounded by the Great_Wall and the edge of the Tibetan_plateau; Manchuria and Inner_Mongolia are found to the north of the Great_Wall_of_China, and the boundary between them can either be taken as the present border between Inner_Mongolia and the northeast Chinese provinces, or the more historic border of the World_War_II-era Puppet_state of Manchukuo; Xinjiang's borders correspond to today's administrative Xinjiang; and historic Tibet is conceived as occupying all of the Tibetan_Plateau. China is also traditionally thought of as comprising North_China (北方) and South_China (南方), the geographic boundary between which north and south is largely generalized as Huai_River (淮河) and Qinling_Mountains (秦岭).
===Geography and climate===
{{main|Geography of China}}
China is composed of a vast variety of highly different Landscapes, with mostly Plateaus and Mountains in the west, and lower lands on the east. As a result, principal Rivers flow from west to east, including the Yangtze (central), the Huang_He (central-east), and the Amur (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl River, Mekong_River, and Brahmaputra), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the Pacific.
Most of China's arable lands lie along the two major rivers, the Yangtze and the Huang He, and each are the centers around which are founded China's major ancient civilizations.
In the east, along the shores of the Yellow_Sea and the East_China_Sea are found extensive and densely populated Alluvial plains; the shore of the South_China_Sea is more mountainous and southern China is dominated by Hill_country and lower Mountain_ranges.
To the west, the north has a great Alluvial plain, and the south has a vast Calcareous Tableland traversed by Hill ranges of moderate elevation, with the Himalayas, containing the highest point Mount_Everest. The northwest also has high plateaus among more arid Desert landscapes such as the Takla-Makan and the Gobi_Desert, which has been expanding. Due to a prolonged Drought and perhaps poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring in China. Dust blows all the way to southern China, Taiwan, and has even been measured on the West Coast of the United_States.
Image:Giant_Panda.jpg is an Endangered_species native to the Bamboo forests of central and southern China.]]
During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high Mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan, which separate modern China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam.
The Climate of China varies greatly. The northern zone (within which lies Beijing) has a climate with winters of Arctic severity. The central zone (within which Shanghai is situated) has a generally Temperate climate. The southern zone (within which lies Guangzhou and other southern provinces) has a generally Subtropical climate.
The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits are Estuarine and Freshwater or else of Terrestrial origin. Groups of Volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaux.
==Demographics==
{{main2|Ethnic groups in Chinese history|Nationalities of China}}
Image:Crowded_Nanjing_Road_in_Shanghai.jpeg in Shanghai.]]
Over a hundred ethnic groups have existed in China. In terms of numbers, however, the pre-eminent ethnic group in China is the Han, which is a group so diverse in its culture and language that some conceive of it as a larger overarching group bringing together many smaller, distinct ethnic groups sharing common traits in language and culture. Throughout history, many ethnic groups have been assimilated into neighbouring ethnicities or disappeared without a trace. Several previously distinct ethnic groups have been Sinicized into the Han, causing its population to increase dramatically; at the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions, though still identifying as Han. Many times in the past millenia many foreign groups have, in turn, shaped Han language and culture, for example the queue is a pig tail hairstyle strictly enforced by the Manchurians on the Han populace. The term Zhonghua_Minzu is sometimes used to describe a notion of a "Chinese nationality" transcending ethnic divisions.
The government of the People's_Republic_of_China now officially recognizes a total of 56 ethnic groups, of which the largest is the Han_Chinese. China's overall population is 1.3 billion. With the global human population currently estimated at about 6.4 billion, China is home to approximately 20%, or one-fifth of the human Species, Homo_sapiens.
The lack of birth control and promotion of population growth during the rule of Mao_Zedong resulted in a demographic explosion, culminating in over 1.3 billion people today. As a response to the problems this is causing, the government of the PRC has enacted a Birth_control policy, commonly known as the One-child_policy.
The Han speak several mutually unintelligible tongues, classified by modern linguists as being separate languages, but regarded within the Chinese languages as "dialects" or "local languages" (topolects) within a single Chinese_language (the word for "area languages" has an implication of dialect rather than a separate language, although on the basis of use, these topolects can be found to be separate and mutually unintelligible, and are so classified by many linguists). The various spoken varieties of Chinese share a common written standard, "Vernacular_Chinese" or "''baihua''", which has been used since the early 20th Century and is based on Standard_Mandarin, the standard spoken language, in grammar and vocabulary. In addition, another, more ancient written standard, Classical_Chinese, was used for writing Chinese by the literati for thousands of years before the 20th Century. Classical_Chinese is no longer the predominant form of written Chinese, though it continues to be a part of high school curricula and is hence intelligible to some degree to many Chinese people. Other than Standard Mandarin, spoken variants are usually not written; the exception is Standard_Cantonese, which is sometimes written as Written_Cantonese in informal contexts.
Image:Confuciustempleapricotplatform.jpg, Shandong_Province.]]
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of China}}
===Religion===
{{main|Religion in China}}
The major religions of China are:
*Taoism - exact numbers unknown
*Buddhism - exact numbers unknown [about 8%]
*Christianity - 2 to 4% (this is a Western number, the Chinese official number is much smaller than 1%)
*Islam - 1% to 2%
*Falun_Gong - exact numbers unknown
(claim not to be a "religion", though from a scholarly perspective is a spiritual practice, claimed numbers of followers of the Falun Dafa are also regarded as unreliable)
While the People's Republic of China is officially Atheist it does allow religion under strict supervision. Historically, Taoism and Buddhism has been the dominant religion of Chinese societies, and continues to be so in Chinese societies outside of direct PRC control.
In recent years, Falun_Gong, a spiritual practice drawing upon Buddhism and Taoism, has attracted great controversy after the government of the People's Republic of China labeled it an evil Cult and began an attempt to eradicate it. The Falun Gong itself denies that it is a cult or a religion, even though there is solid evidence that determines Falun_Gong as a rather" abormal" cult, several members have been seen to burn themselves alive even before the Chinese government has reacted to Falun_Gong, unfortuantely, most people are oblivious of this fact and even a majority of members are oblivious to this. The Falun_Gong says that it has approximately 70-100 million followers, which is a bit higher than estimates by outside groups, though exact numbers are unknown. They regularly protest against their suppression, both domestically and internationally.
{{seealso5|Confucianism|Catholicism in China|Protestantism in China|Chinese folk religion|Way of former Heaven Sects}}
===Arts, scholarship, and literature===
Image:Porcelain_Workshop,_Jingdezhen,_Jiangxi,_China.jpg city, Jiangxi_Province.]]
Chinese_literature has a long and prolific continuous history, in part because of the development of Printmaking during the Song_Dynasty. Before that, manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist) were manually written by Ink_brush (previously scratching shells) and distributed. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on these works in both printed and written form. Members of royalty frequently participated in these discussions. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant and more, from Oracle_bones to Qing edicts, are discovered each day, which had been formally ground up for use in Chinese medicine.
Image:Pekingoper2.jpg mask.]]
For centuries, opportunity for economic and social advancement in China could be provided by high performance on the Imperial_examinations. This led to a Meritocracy, though in practice this was possible only among those who were not female or too poor to afford test preparation, as doing well still required tutorship. Nevertheless it was a system distinct from the European system of blood nobility. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as ''jinshi,'' a highly esteemed socio-economic position.
Chinese philosophers, writers, and poets have been, for the most part, highly respected, and played a key role in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities. (See List_of_Chinese_authors, and List_of_Chinese_language_poets).
The Chinese have created numerous Musical_instruments, such as the zheng, xiao, and Erhu, that have spread throughout East and Southeast_Asia, and especially areas under its influence. The sheng is the basis for several Western Free-reed_instruments.
Chinese_characters have had many variants and styles throughout the Chinese history, and were "simplified" in the mid-20th_century on mainland China. Calligraphy is a major art-form in China, above that of Painting and Music. Because of its association with elite scholar-official bosses, it later on became commercialized, where works by famous artists became prized Possessions.
The great variation and beauty in the Chinese landscape is often the inspiration for great works of Chinese art. See Chinese_painting for more details.
Calligraphy, Sushi, and Bonsai are all millennia-old art that later spread to Japan and Korea.
==Science and technology==
Image:Yang_Liwei_space_suit.JPG astronaut Yang Liwei. China was the third nation to launch a person into orbit.]]
{{main|Science and technology in China}}
In addition to the cultural innovations mentioned above, technological inventions from China include:
{{col-begin|width=}}
{{col-break}}
* Compass
* Block Printmaking / Printing_Technology
* Paper
* Asian Abacus
* Gunpowder
* Crossbow
* Stirrup
* Lacquer
{{col-break}}
* Rudder
* Seismograph
* Silk
* Porcelain
* Paper_money
* The Glider
* The Hot_air_balloon
* Fireworks
* Parachute
{{col-end}}
Other areas of technological study:
* The main applications of Mathematics in traditional China were Architecture and Geography. Pi (π) was calculated by 5th_century mathematician Zu_Chongzhi to the seventh digit. The Decimal_system was used in China as early as 14 Century BC. "Pascal's" Triangle was discovered by mathematician Liu_Ju-Hsieh, long before Pascal was born.
* Studies in Biology have been extensive, and historic records are consulted even today, such as Pharmacopoeias of medicinal plants.
* Traditional medicine and Surgery were highly advanced at various points in history, and in some fields are still seen as innovative. They continue to play a growing role in the international medical community, and have achieved recognition over the last few decades in the West as Alternative_and_complementary_therapies. An example is Acupuncture, although it is somewhat controversial in some quarters. However, Autopsy was unacceptable, because of the common belief that a Corpse should not be violated. Nevertheless, there were several doctors who have increased the understanding of internal Anatomy by violating this autopsy Taboo.
* Alchemy was Taoist Chemistry, very different from modern chemistry.
* Chinese_astrology and constellations were often used for divination
* Military innovations include the Crossbow and the Grid_sight, crossbow Stirrup, Repeating_crossbows, Poison_gas (smoke from burning dried mustard), Tear_gas made from powdered lime, Relief_maps for battle planning, manned Kites, fire lance, rockets, gunpowder incendiaries, gunpowder grenades, proto-handguns, various gun-related ammunition types and the Cannon.
==Miscellaneous topics==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-4}}
* Confucianism
* List_of_China-related_topics
* Chinese_dragons
* Chinese_names
{{col-4}}
* Chinese_language
* Chinese_nationalism, cultural, historiographical, and political theories, movements and beliefs that assert the idea of a cohesive, unified Chinese people and Culture under state(s) that are primarily Chinese.
* Environment_of_China
{{col-4}}
* Cormorant_fishing
* Giant_pandas
* Imperialism_in_Asia
* Military_history_of_China
{{col-4}}
* Overseas_Chinese
* Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_China
* Price_of_tea_in_China
* Shanghai_woman
* List_of_Chinese_battles
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin|width=}}
{{col-break}}
==See also==
*Buddhism_in_China
*Islam_in_China
*Chinese_mythology
*Chinese_art
*Chinese_paper_art
*Chinese_poetry
*Chinese_painting
* Chinese Music
*List_of_Chinese_provinces
*Political_divisions_of_China
*Chinese_democracy_movement
{{col-break}}
==External links==
* China Digital Times
* World History Database Chronology of China
* Internet Guide for Chinese Studies
* 1911 EB "China"
* China History Forums!
* Mondophoto.net - 4200 photos of China
* China taxes, businee and economy.
* China Yellow Pages and Business Directory.
* Portal dedicated to chinese culture, history and news.
{{col-break}}
{{Wikinewscat|China}}
{{wikisourcecat}}
{{East Asia}}
{{col-end}}
Category:Ancient_history
*
Category:East_Asian_countries
Ar:صين
Ast:China
Bg:Китай
Bn:চীন
Chr:ᏥᎾ
Cs:Čína
Cy:Tsieina
Da:Kina
De:China
Et:Hiina
El:Κίνα
Eo:Ĉinio
Es:China
Eu:Txina
Fa:جمهوری_خلق_چین
Fi:Kiina
Fr:Chine
Gl:China
He:סין
Hi:चीन
Ht:Chin
Hu:Kína
Id:China
Ia:China
Io:Chinia
Is:Kína
It:Cina
Ja:中国
Ka:ფაიფური
Ko:중국
Kw:Cheyna
La:Sina
Ms:China
Nl:China
No:Kina
Pl:Chiny
Pt:China
Ru:Китай
Sa:चीन
Simple:China
Sk:Čína_(civilizácia)
Sl:Kitajska
Sv:Kina
Ta:சீனா
Tr:Çin_Halk_Cumhuriyeti
Vi:Trung_Quốc
Zh:中国
Zh-min-nan:Tiong-kok