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{{Short description|Geopolitical conflict in Central Asia}} |
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{{multiple issues|{{unreliable sources|date=September 2015}}{{POV|date=September 2015}}}} |
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{{About|recent unrest and fighting in Xinjiang|the uprisings and battles in Xinjiang during the 1930s and 1940s|Xinjiang Wars}} |
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{{EngvarB|date=March 2024}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}} |
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{{Update|date=March 2024|reason=Updates needed past April 27, 2021}} |
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{{Infobox military conflict |
{{Infobox military conflict |
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| title = East Turkistan/Xinjiang conflict |
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| partof = |
| partof = [[Terrorism in China]], and the [[War on Terror]] |
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| image = |
| image = Xinjiang in China (de-facto).svg |
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| image_size = 300px |
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| caption = Xinjiang, highlighted red, shown within China |
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| date = 1949 – present |
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| place = [[Xinjiang]], [[People's Republic of China]] |
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| place = [[Xinjiang]] |
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| coordinates = |
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| status = ''[[List of ongoing military conflicts|Ongoing]]'' |
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| map_type = |
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* Violent clashes including terrorist attacks between 1949 and 2006 |
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| map_relief = |
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* Second wave of violent clashes and incidents in Xinjiang between 2007 and 2016 |
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| latitude = |
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* Limited occurrence of Xinjiang-related violence, including the [[2015 Bangkok bombing]], outside of China |
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| longitude = |
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* Reduction in terrorist attacks from 2016 onwards<ref>{{cite news |title=China says number of 'terror attacks' is down, but threat remains high |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-security-idUSKBN16S0C5 |website=Reuters |date=21 March 2017 |access-date=2 February 2023}}</ref> |
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| map_size = |
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*Establishment of [[Xinjiang internment camps|internment camps]] in Xinjiang since 2017 |
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| map_marksize = |
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| combatant1 = {{Flagdeco|China}} '''[[China|People's Republic of China]]''' (from 1949) |
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| map_caption = |
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: {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Chinese Communist Party.svg|Chinese Communist Party}} [[Chinese Communist Party]] |
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| map_label = |
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: {{Flagicon image|Flag of the People's Police of the People's Republic of China.svg|Chinese People's Police}} [[People's Police of the People's Republic of China|People's Police]] |
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| territory = |
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: {{Flagicon image|People's Armed Police Flag.svg|Chinese People's Armed Police Force}} [[People's Armed Police]] |
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| result = |
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: {{Flagicon image|People's Liberation Army Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|Chinese People's Liberation Army}} [[People's Liberation Army]] |
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| status = [[List of ongoing conflicts|Ongoing]] |
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: {{Flagdeco|China}} [[Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps]] |
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| combatants_header = |
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---- |
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| combatant1 = {{flagdeco|China}} [[China|PRC]] |
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{{flagdeco|ROC}} '''[[Nationalist government|Republic of China]]''' (until 1950s, limited involvement) |
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| combatant2 = {{flagicon image|Red_flag.svg}} [[East Turkestan People's Revolutionary Party|ETPRP]] (1969-1989)<br>{{flagicon image|Red_flag.svg}} [[United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan|URFET]] (1969-1989)<br>'''Supported by:'''<br>{{flagicon|Soviet Union}} [[Soviet Union]] (1969-1989)<br>{{flagicon|Mongolia|1924}} [[Mongolian People's Republic]] (1960-1989) |
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: {{Flag|Kuomintang}} |
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| combatant3 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Turkistan Islamic Party.svg}} [[East Turkestan Islamic Movement]]<br> |
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: {{Flagdeco|ROC|army}} [[National Revolutionary Army]] (1931–1947) |
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{{flagicon image|Kokbayraq flag.svg}} [[East Turkestan Liberation Organization|ETLO]] (disbanded)<br>'''Supported by:'''<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} [[al-Qaeda]]<ref name="Potter 2013">[http://www.au.af.mil/au/ssq/digital/pdf/winter_13/2013winter-Potter.pdf Potter 2013], pp. 71-74.</ref><ref name="state.gov">[http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/65479.pdf FOREIGN TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS p. 237.]</ref><br>{{flagicon image|Flag_of_Tehrik-i-Taliban.svg}} [[Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan]]<ref name="au.af.mil">[http://www.au.af.mil/au/ssq/digital/pdf/winter_13/2013winter-Potter.pdf Potter 2013], p. 74.</ref><br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} [[Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan]]<ref name="Jamestown Foundation">{{cite web|url=http://www.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=42416&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=13&cHash=3537435877336eb86052d24d34622e98#.VDSR9ek9Imw|title=Beijing, Kunming, Urumqi and Guangzhou: The Changing Landscape of Anti-Chinese Jihadists|publisher=[[Jamestown Foundation]]|date=23 May 2014}}</ref><br> |
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: {{Flagdeco|ROC|army}} [[Republic of China Army]] (1947–1950s) |
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{{flagicon image|Kokbayraq flag.svg}} [[Eastern Turkestan Education and Solidarity Association|ETESA]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zenn|first1=Jacob|title=An Overview of Chinese Fighters and Anti-Chinese Militant Groups in Syria and Iraq|journal=China Brief|date=October 10, 2014<!-- 04:11 PM-->|volume=14|issue=19|url=http://www.jamestown.org/regions/middleeast/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=42944&tx_ttnews[backPid]=49&cHash=266cbf52f118868715823bbffd809caf#.VX3kqEZGR9g|accessdate=14 June 2015|publisher=The Jamestown Foundation}}</ref><br> |
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: {{Flagdeco|Kuomintang}} [[Ma clique]] (1931–1949) |
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{{flagicon image|Kokbayraq flag.svg}} [[East Turkestan Information Center|ETIC]]<br> |
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: {{flagdeco|ROC}} [[Xinjiang Province, Republic of China|Xinjiang]] (1912–1933; 1944–1949) |
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{{flagicon image|Ülkü Ocakları Eğitim ve Kültür Vakfı Logosu.png}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]]<br> |
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{{flagicon image|HizbTahrir logo main.jpg}}[[Hizb ut-Tahrir]]<ref>{{cite news |last=张 |first=竹力 |date= 2008-07-12 06:43|title=新疆警方毙俘15名“圣战分子” |url= http://qnck.cyol.com/content/2008-07/12/content_2262124.htm |newspaper= 中青报订阅 |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=张 |first=竹力 |date=2008年07月12日13:34 |title=乌鲁木齐警方通报捣毁“圣战”分子据点经过 |url=http://politics.people.com.cn/GB/14562/7503138.html |newspaper=青年参考 |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=2008 年 7 月 13 日 星期 日 |title= 新疆警方直捣“圣战培训班” |url=http://epaper.citygf.com/szb/html/2008-07/13/content_32854971.htm |newspaper=佛山日报 | page= A3 location= 乌鲁木齐 |access-date= }}</ref> |
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{{Flagicon image|Flag of Xinjiang-Shicai.svg}} '''[[Xinjiang Province, Republic of China|Xinjiang]]''' (1933–1944) |
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| commander1 = {{flagdeco|China}} [[Xi Jinping]]<br>{{flagdeco|China}} [[Mao Zedong]]<br>{{flagdeco|China}} [[Deng Xiaoping]]<br> {{flagdeco|China}} [[Jiang Zemin]]<br> |
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: [[People's Anti-Imperialist Association]] |
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{{flagdeco|China}} [[Hu Jintao]] |
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{{Ubl|'''Support by:'''|{{Flag|Soviet Union|1936}} {{avoid wrap|(until 1944)}}| |
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| commander2 = {{flagicon image|Red_flag.svg}} Yusupbek Mukhlisi |
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{{Flagdeco|Russian Empire}} [[White movement|White Russian]] forces}} |
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| commander3 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Turkistan Islamic Party.jpg}} [[Abdullah Mansour]]<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/23/us-china-attack-claim-idUSBRE9AM0B520131123 | work=Reuters | first=William | last=MacLean | title=Islamist group calls Tiananmen attack 'jihadi operation': SITE | date=2013-11-23}}</ref><br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Turkistan Islamic Party.jpg}} [[Hasan Mahsum]] [[Killed in Action|†]]<br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of Turkistan Islamic Party.jpg}} [[Abdul Haq (ETIP)|Abdul Haq]] [[Killed in Action|†]]<br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of Turkistan Islamic Party.jpg}} [[Abdul Shakoor al-Turkistani]] [[Killed in Action|†]] |
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| combatant2 = {{Flagicon image|Kokbayraq flag.svg}} '''[[East Turkestan independence movement]]''' |
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| strength1 = Ethnic Uighurs make up much of the police body in southern Xinjiang.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Domínguez|first1=Gabriel|title=Targeting of Islamic customs reflects 'misdiagnosis' of Uighur discontent|url=http://www.dw.com/en/targeting-of-islamic-customs-reflects-misdiagnosis-of-uighur-discontent/a-18444227|accessdate=24 June 2015|agency=DW|date=2015-05-11}}</ref> |
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* {{ubl|[[File:Flag of Turkistan Islamic Party.svg|21px]] [[Turkistan Islamic Party]]|(1997–present) }} |
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| strength2 = Xinjiang Minority Refugee Army<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA96#v=onepage&q&f=false ed. Starr 2004], [https://books.google.com/books?id=FOvqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT139#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 96.]</ref> |
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* {{ubl|[[File:The Flag of East Turkistan Republic.png|21px]] [[East Turkestan Liberation Organization]]|(2000–2003)<ref name="sf1" /> }} |
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| strength3 = |
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{{ubl| |
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| casualties1 = |
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'''Supported by:'''| |
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| casualties2 = |
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{{Flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} [[Al-Qaeda]]|<small>(1990–present)</small><ref name="Potter 2013" />| |
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| casualties3 = |
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{{Flagicon image|Flag of Tehrik-i-Taliban.svg}} [[Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan]]|<small>(2007–present)</small><ref name="Potter 2013" />| |
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| casualties4 = 800 killed (since 2009)<ref>[http://www.systemicpeace.org/warlist/warlist.htm/ CSP - Major Episodes of Violence 1946 - 2014]</ref> |
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[[File:AQMI Flag asymmetric.svg|21px]] [[Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan]]|<small>(1996–2015)</small>| |
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| notes = |
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[[File:Flag of Jihad.svg|21px]] [[Islamic Jihad Union]]|<small>(2002–present)</small>| |
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| campaignbox = |
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[[File:Flag of Hizb ut-Tahrir.svg|21px]] [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]]|<small>(1990–present)</small>}} |
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}} |
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{{Campaignbox Xinjiang conflict}} |
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The '''Xinjiang conflict'''<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS015.pdf | title = The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur identity, Language, Policy, and Political discourse | publisher = East West center | format = PDF}}</ref> is an ongoing<ref name=american.edu>{{Citation | url = http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/xinjiang.htm | title = Uyghur Separatist conflict | publisher = American}}</ref> separatist conflict in the [[China|People's Republic of China]] (PRC) far-west province of [[Xinjiang]].<ref>{{Citation | page = 52 | last1 = Ismail | first1 = Mohammed Sa'id | first2 = Mohammed Aziz | last2 = Ismail | title = Moslems in the Soviet Union and China | others = Translated by U.S. Government, Joint Publications Service | place = Tehran, [[Iran|IR]] | type = Privately printed pamphlet | volume = 1 | year = 1960 |origyear=Hejira 1380}} translation printed in Washington: JPRS 3936, 19 September 1960.</ref> A group of [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]] separatists claim that the region, which they refer to as [[East Turkestan]], is not a part of China, but that the Soviet supported [[Second East Turkestan Republic]] was [[Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China|incorporated]] by the PRC in 1949 and has since been under Chinese occupation. The [[East Turkestan independence movement]] is led by [[Turkic people|Turkic]] [[Islamism|Islamist]] [[militant (word)|militant]] organizations, most notably the [[East Turkestan Islamic Movement]], against the [[Government of China|national government in Beijing]]. |
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[[File:The Flag of East Turkistan Republic.png|21px]] [[East Turkistan Education and Solidarity Association]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zenn |first=Jacob |date=7 September 2018 |title=The Turkistan Islamic Party in Double-Exile: Geographic and Organizational Divisions in Uighur Jihadism |url=https://jamestown.org/program/the-turkistan-islamic-party-in-double-exile-geographic-and-organizational-divisions-in-uighur-jihadism/ |journal=Terrorism Monitor |publisher=Jamestown Foundation |volume=16 |issue=17}}</ref>{{avoid wrap|(denied by ETESA<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Shohret Hoshur |last2=Joshua Lipes |date=2 November 2012 |title=Exile Group Denies Terror Link |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/terror-11022012185646.html |publisher=[[Radio Free Asia]]|author1-link=Shohret Hoshur }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2018 |title=We Strongly Dismiss the Slanderous Article Against Our Association; It Is an Example of Irresponsibility |url=https://maarip.org/english/blog/2018/09/12/we-strongly-dismiss-the-slanderous-article-against-our-association-it-is-an-example-of-irresponsibility/ |publisher=[[East Turkistan Education and Solidarity Association]]}}</ref>}}) |
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==History== |
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{{ubl|{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Second East Turkestan Republic.svg}} [[East Turkestan People's Revolutionary Party]]|(1968–1989)| |
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{{Flagicon image|The Flag of East Turkistan Republic.png}} [[United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan]]|(1968–2004)| |
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{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Second East Turkestan Republic (2).svg}} [[Second East Turkestan Republic]] (1944–1949)| |
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Various small groups{{sfnp|Reed|Raschke|2010|p=37}} }} |
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'''Supported by:''' |
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{{ubl|{{Flag|Soviet Union}}|(1944–1949; 1968–1989) |
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|{{Flagdeco|Mongolian People's Republic}} [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolia]]|(1946–1948; 1968–1989) |
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|{{Flagdeco|Democratic Republic of Afghanistan}} [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]|(1979–1989)}} |
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{{main|Islamicisation and Turkicisation of Xinjiang}} |
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{{Flag|First East Turkestan Republic}} (1933–1934) |
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'''Supported by:''' |
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The area known as Xinjiang had been a [[protectorate]] of China as early as 60 BC during the Han dynasty when it was part of the [[Protectorate of the Western Regions]] and also a protectorate of [[Tang dynasty]] China when it was part of the [[Protectorate General to Pacify the West]], though there are numerous periods of independence from China. The historical area of what is modern day Xinjiang consisted of the distinct areas of the [[Tarim Basin]] and [[Dzungaria]], and was originally populated by Indo-European Tocharian and Iranic Saka peoples who practiced the [[Buddhist]] religion. The area was subjected to Turkification and Islamification at the hands of invading Turkic Muslims during the [[Islamicisation and Turkicisation of Xinjiang]]. In the 18th century the [[Qing Dynasty]] reorganized the territory as a province, [[Xinjiang]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2003-05/26/content_887226.htm|title=China issues white paper on history, development of Xinjiang (Part One)|agency=[[Xinhua]]|date=2003-05-26|accessdate=2010-07-31}}</ref> |
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{{flagicon|Kingdom of Afghanistan}} [[Kingdom of Afghanistan]] (1933–1934) |
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==Previous uprisings== |
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| commander1 = {{Flagdeco|PRC}} [[Xi Jinping]] ([[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP General Secretary]], [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|CMC Chairman]]: 2012–present) |
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: [[Ma Xingrui]] ([[Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary|CCP Regional Secretary]]: 2021–present) |
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: [[Chen Quanguo]] ([[Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary|CCP Regional Secretary]]: 2016–2021) |
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{{Collapsible list |
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| titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:left; |
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| title = Previous leaders |
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|{{Flagdeco|PRC}} [[Hu Jintao]] (2002–2012) |
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|{{Flagdeco|PRC}} [[Jiang Zemin]] (1989–2002) |
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|{{Flagdeco|PRC}} [[Deng Xiaoping]] (1978–1989) |
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|{{Flagdeco|PRC}} [[Hua Guofeng]] (1976–1978) |
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|{{Flagdeco|PRC}} [[Mao Zedong]] (1949–1976) |
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|{{Flagdeco|ROC}} [[Chiang Kai-shek]] |
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|{{Flagdeco|ROC}} [[Li Zongren]] |
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|{{Flagicon image|Flag of Xinjiang-Shicai.svg}} [[Sheng Shicai]] |
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|{{Flagdeco|ROC}} [[Zhang Zhizhong]] |
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|{{Flagdeco|ROC}} [[Ma Chengxiang]] |
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|{{Flagdeco|ROC}} [[Ospan Batyr]] |
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|{{Flagdeco|ROC}} [[Yulbars Khan]] |
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|{{Flagdeco|ROC}} [[Masud Sabri]] |
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}} |
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| commander2 = {{ubl| |
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|{{Flagicon image|The Flag of East Turkistan Republic.png}} [[Yusupbek Mukhlisi]] (1960–2004){{KIA}} |
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{{Flagicon image|Flag of Turkistan Islamic Party.svg}}[[Abdul Haq al-Turkistani]]|{{Flagicon image|Flag of Turkistan Islamic Party.svg}} [[Abdullah Mansour]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=MacLean |first=William |date=23 November 2013 |title=Islamist group calls Tiananmen attack 'jihadi operation': SITE |work=Reuters |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-attack-claim-idUSBRE9AM0B520131123 |url-status=live |access-date=24 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226062755/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-attack-claim/islamist-group-calls-tiananmen-attack-jihadi-operation-site-idUSBRE9AM0B520131123 |archive-date=26 December 2018}}</ref>}}{{collapsible list |
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| titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:left; |
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| title = Previous leaders |
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|{{Flagicon image|Flag of Turkistan Islamic Party.svg}} [[Hasan Mahsum]]{{KIA}} |
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|{{Flagicon image|Flag of Turkistan Islamic Party.svg}} [[Abdul Shakoor al-Turkistani]]{{KIA}} |
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}} |
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| units1 = {{ubl|{{Flagicon image|Ground Force Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|Chinese People's Liberation Army Ground Force}} [[Western Theater Command]]|{{Flagicon image|People's Armed Police Flag.svg|Chinese People's Armed Police Force}} [[People's Armed Police]] Xinjiang UAR Corps, mobile corps, and [[Special Police Unit of the Chinese People's Armed Police Force|special police units]]|{{Flagicon image|Flag of the People's Police of the People's Republic of China.svg|Chinese People's Police}} [[Public security bureau (China)|Xinjiang UAR Public Security Department]], and [[SWAT]]/[[police tactical unit]]s from other provinces}} |
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{{Flagdeco|China}} Xinjiang Militia |
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{{Flagdeco|China}} Xinjiangese Armed civilians and volunteers |
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{{main|Kumul Rebellion|Charkhlik Revolt||Ili Rebellion}} |
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The [[Xinjiang Wars]] were a series of armed conflicts which took place in the early and mid 20th century, during the [[Warlord Era]] of the [[Republic of China]]; and during the [[Chinese Civil War]], which saw the establishment of the [[People's Republic of China]]. The wars also played an important role in the [[East Turkestan independence movement]]. |
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{{Flagicon image|Flag of Xinjiang-Shicai.svg}} Xinjiang Army (1933–1944) |
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After the establishment of the Soviet Union, many Uyghurs who studied in Soviet Central Asia added Russian suffixes to Russify their surnames and make them look Russian.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA115#v=onepage&q&f=false Bellér-Hann 2007], p. 115.</ref> Urban Uyghurs sometimes select Russian names when naming their children, in cities such as [[Qaramay]] and [[Urumqi]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA117#v=onepage&q&f=false Bellér-Hann 2007], p. 117.</ref> |
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{{Flagdeco|ROC|army}} |
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The Soviet Union supported the Uyghur [[Second East Turkestan Republic]] in the [[Ili Rebellion]] against the [[Republic of China]]. Many of the Turkic peoples of the [[Yining County|Ili region]] of Xinjiang had close cultural, political, and economic ties with the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union. Many of them were educated in the Soviet Union and a community of Russian settlers lived in the region. As a result, many of the Turkic rebels fled to the Soviet Union and obtained Soviet assistance in creating the Sinkiang Turkic People's Liberation Committee (STPNLC) in 1943 to revolt against [[Kuomintang]] rule during the Ili Rebellion.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA173#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Forbes 1986, pp.172-173.|publisher=|accessdate=26 October 2014}}</ref> The pro-Soviet Uyghur who later became leader of the revolt and the Second East Turkestan Republic, [[Ehmetjan Qasim]], was Soviet educated and described as "Stalin's man" and as a "communist-minded progressive".<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA174#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Forbes 1986, p. 174|publisher=|accessdate=26 October 2014}}</ref> |
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Xinjiang Army (1912–1933; 1944–1949) |
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{{Flagdeco|ROC|army}} [[36th Division (National Revolutionary Army)|New 36th Division]] (1932–1948) |
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| units2 = Terrorists and separatists |
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'''Supported by:''' |
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According to her autobiography, ''Dragon Fighter: One Woman's Epic Struggle for Peace with China'', the Uyghur activist [[Rebiya Kadeer]]'s father served with pro-Soviet Uyghur rebels under the Second East Turkestan Republic in the [[Ili Rebellion]] (Three Province Rebellion) in 1944-1946, using Soviet assistance and aid to fight the [[Republic of China]] government under [[Chiang Kai-shek]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=eUfsjYQU-lwC&pg=PA9&dq=my+father+reached+gun+Three+Province+Rebellion+July+1944+receiving+weapons+counsel+Soviet+Union&hl=en&sa=X&ei=oa8cU7vnCc-s0AGpkIDAAQ&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=my%20father%20reached%20gun%20Three%20Province%20Rebellion%20July%201944%20receiving%20weapons%20counsel%20Soviet%20Union&f=false Kadeer 2009], p. 9.</ref> Kadeer and her family were close friends with [[Russians in China|White Russian exiles]] living in Xinjiang and Kadeer recalled that many Uyghurs thought [[Russian culture]] was "more advanced" than that of the Uyghurs and they "respected" the Russians a lot.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=eUfsjYQU-lwC&pg=PA13&dq=Some+of+our+countrymen+even+believed+more+advanced+culture+Russian+school+October+Revolution&hl=en&sa=X&ei=r7AcU_WQBOni0wHPoYDADg&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Some%20of%20our%20countrymen%20even%20believed%20more%20advanced%20culture%20Russian%20school%20October%20Revolution&f=false Kadeer 2009], p. 13.</ref> |
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{{flagicon|Kingdom of Afghanistan}} [[Kingdom of Afghanistan]] Volunteer (1933–1934) |
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==Immediate causes== |
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| casualties3 = 1,000+ dead {{circa|(2007–2014)}}<ref>{{cite news |first = Gabe |last = Collins |title = Beijing's Xinjiang Policy: Striking Too Hard? |work = The Diplomat |date = 23 January 2015 |url = https://thediplomat.com/2015/01/beijings-xinjiang-policy-striking-too-hard/ |quote = China's long-running Uighur insurgency has flared up dramatically of late, with more than 900 recorded deaths in the past seven years. |access-date = 1 January 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205222824/https://thediplomat.com/2015/01/beijings-xinjiang-policy-striking-too-hard/ |archive-date = 5 February 2016 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="reuters.com">{{cite news |first1 = Michael |last1 = Martina |first2 = Ben |last2 = Blanchard |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-security-xinjiang-idUSKCN0T909920151120 |title = China says 28 foreign-led 'terrorists' killed after attack on mine |work = Reuters |date = 20 November 2015 |quote = China's government says it faces a serious threat from Islamist militants and separatists in energy-rich Xinjiang, on the border of central Asia, where hundreds have died in violence in recent years. |access-date = 3 July 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170424213918/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-security-xinjiang-idUSKCN0T909920151120 |archive-date = 24 April 2017 |url-status = live }}</ref><br> |
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>1,700 injured<ref name="NYTtrials">{{cite news |newspaper = The New York Times |date = 25 August 2009 |access-date = 4 September 2009 |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/26/world/asia/26china.html |title = Chinese President Visits Volatile Xinjiang |last = Wong |first = Edward |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171017095718/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/26/world/asia/26china.html |archive-date = 17 October 2017 |url-status = live }}</ref> |
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330,918+ arrested {{circa|(2013–2017)}}<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|access-date=2021-02-24|title=Criminal Arrests in Xinjiang Account for 21% of China's Total in 2017 {{!}} Chinese Human Rights Defenders|url=https://www.nchrd.org/2018/07/criminal-arrests-in-xinjiang-account-for-21-of-chinas-total-in-2017/}}</ref> |
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| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Xinjiang conflict}} |
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| conflict = |
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{{ |
{{History of Xinjiang}} |
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The '''Xinjiang conflict''' ({{lang-zh|c=新疆冲突}}), also known as the '''East Turkistan conflict''', '''Uyghur–Chinese conflict''' or '''Sino-East Turkistan conflict''' (as argued by the [[East Turkistan Government-in-Exile]]),<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ala |first1=Mamtimin |title=Independence is the Only Way Forward for East Turkestan |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/08/11/independence-east-turkistan-china-uyghurs-xinjiang/ |access-date=2 December 2021 |publisher=Foreign Policy |date=11 August 2021}}</ref> is an ongoing ethnic geopolitical conflict in what is now [[China]]'s far-[[Northwest China|northwest]] [[autonomous regions of China|autonomous region]] of [[Xinjiang]], also known as East Turkistan. It is centred around the [[Uyghurs]], a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ethnic group who constitute a [[Majority#Related terms|plurality]] (or 'relative majority'{{efn|A ''plurality'' is known as a ''relative majority'' in British and Commonwealth English.<ref name="Fowler">{{cite dictionary|editor1-last=Burchfield |editor1-first=Robert W. |editor1-link=Robert Burchfield |dictionary=The New Fowler's Modern English Usage |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-860263-4 |pages=477 |edition=Revised 3rd |access-date=27 October 2022 |title=Majority |orig-date=First edition published 1926 and edited by [[H. W. Fowler]] |url=https://archive.org/details/TheNewFowlersModernEnglishUsageRevisedR.BurchfieldOxford1998WWBySamySalah/ }}</ref>}}) of the region's population.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Ismail |first1=Mohammed Sa'id |title=Muslims in the Soviet Union and China |volume=1 |page=52 |year=1960 |type=privately printed pamphlet |place=Tehran, Iran |last2=Ismail |first2=Mohammed Aziz |translator-last=U.S. Government, Joint Publications Service |orig-year=Hejira 1380}} translation printed in Washington: JPRS 3936, 19 September 1960.</ref>{{sfnp|Dwyer|2005|pp=1–3}} |
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{{Citation needed span|text=[[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]] speculate that Uyghur resentment towards repression of Uyghur culture may explain some of the ethnic riots that have occurred in Xinjiang during the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) period.|date=January 2014}} |
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Since the [[Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China|incorporation]] of the region into the People's Republic of China, factors such as the mass [[Migration to Xinjiang|state-sponsored migration]] of [[Han Chinese]] from the 1950s to the 1970s, government policies promoting [[Chinese culture|Chinese cultural]] unity and punishing certain expressions of Uyghur identity,<ref>{{cite web |url = https://apps.cndls.georgetown.edu/projects/borders/exhibits/show/the-xinjiang-conflict/current-independence-movement |title = Borders {{!}} Uyghurs and The Xinjiang Conflict: East Turkestan Independence Movement |website = apps.cndls.georgetown.edu |access-date = 10 May 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140137/https://apps.cndls.georgetown.edu/projects/borders/exhibits/show/the-xinjiang-conflict/current-independence-movement |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="HRW">{{cite magazine |title = Devastating Blows: Religious Repression of Uighurs in Xinjiang |magazine=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=April 2005 |volume=17 |issue=2 |url= https://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/china0405/china0405.pdf |access-date = 9 June 2018 |quote = Post 9/11: labeling Uighurs terrorists |page = 16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190417204133/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/china0405/china0405.pdf |archive-date = 17 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> and harsh responses to [[separatism]]<ref name="auto">{{cite news |last=Phillips |first=Tom |title=China 'holding at least 120,000 Uighurs in re-education camps' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/25/at-least-120000-muslim-uighurs-held-in-chinese-re-education-camps-report |access-date=10 June 2018 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=25 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819010931/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/25/at-least-120000-muslim-uighurs-held-in-chinese-re-education-camps-report |archive-date=19 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="QZPassport">{{cite news |last=Huang |first=Echo |title=China is confiscating the passports of citizens in its Muslim-heavy region |url = https://qz.com/845929/china-is-confiscating-the-passports-of-citizens-in-muslim-heavy-xinjiang-uyghur-autonomous-region/ |access-date=10 June 2018 |website=Quartz |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143118/https://qz.com/845929/china-is-confiscating-the-passports-of-citizens-in-muslim-heavy-xinjiang-uyghur-autonomous-region/ |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> have contributed to tension between the Uyghurs, and state police and Han Chinese.<ref name="QZ">{{cite web |last1=Kennedy |first1=Lindsey |last2=Paul |first2=Nathan |title = China created a new terrorist threat by repressing this ethnic minority |url = https://qz.com/993601/china-uyghur-terrorism/ |website = Quartz |date=31 May 2017 |access-date=10 June 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180612162141/https://qz.com/993601/china-uyghur-terrorism/ |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> This has taken the form of both terrorist attacks and wider public unrest such as the [[Baren Township conflict]], [[1997 Ürümqi bus bombings]], [[Ghulja incident|protests in Ghuljia]], [[Shaoguan incident|June 2009 Shaoguan Incident]] and the resulting [[July 2009 Ürümqi riots]], [[2011 Hotan attack]], [[April 2014 Ürümqi attack]], [[May 2014 Ürümqi attack]], [[2014 Kunming attack]] as well as the [[2015 Aksu colliery attack]]. Uyghur organizations such as the [[World Uyghur Congress]] denounce [[totalitarianism]], [[religious intolerance]], and [[terrorism]] as an instrument of policy.<ref>{{cite web |title=About |url = https://www.uyghurcongress.org/en/introducing-the-world-uyghur-congress/ |website=World Uyghur Congress |date = 16 November 2017 |access-date=27 May 2020 }}</ref> |
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Conversely, some [[Han Chinese]] opponents of the movement are unhappy at being, in their perspective, treated as second-class citizens by PRC policies, in which many of the ethnic autonomy policies are discriminatory against them<ref name=sautman35>{{Cite journal | url = http://repository.ust.hk/dspace/bitstream/1783.1/1152/1/sosc32.pdf| last=Sautman | first=Barry | year=1997 | title=Preferential policies for ethnic minorities in China: The case of Xinjiang | publisher=Hong Kong University of Science and Technology | journal=Working Papers in the Social Sciences | issue=32 | accessdate = 6 May 2010 | page=35 | postscript = <!--None-->}}</ref> (see [[Affirmative action in China]] and [[Autonomous entities of China]]). Some{{who|date=September 2015}} go so far as to posit that since previous Chinese dynasties owned Xinjiang before the Uyghur Empire, the region belongs to them as opposed to the Uyghurs. Supporters of the movement, on the other hand, have labelled Chinese rule in Xinjiang, as [[Imperial era of Chinese history|Chinese imperialism]].{{cn|date=September 2015}} |
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In 2014, the Chinese government launched the [[Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism]] in Xinjiang. In recent years, the [[Chinese Communist Party]] under [[Xi Jinping Administration]]'s policy has been marked by much harsher policies, including [[Mass surveillance in China|mass surveillance]] and the [[Indefinite detention|incarceration without trial]] of over one million Uyghurs and other [[Muslims|Muslim]] minority ethnic groups in [[Xinjiang internment camps|internment camps]].<ref name=nyxj>{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/16/world/asia/china-xinjiang-documents.html |title = 'Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims |last1=Ramzy |first1=Austin |date=16 November 2019 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=16 November 2019 |last2=Buckley|first2=Chris |issn = 0362-4331 }}</ref><ref name=HRWReport>{{cite report |title = 'Eradicating Ideological Viruses': China's Campaign of Repression Against Xinjiang's Muslims |url = https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/09/09/eradicating-ideological-viruses/chinas-campaign-repression-against-xinjiangs |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |access-date=3 January 2019 |date=9 September 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190103063807/https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/09/09/eradicating-ideological-viruses/chinas-campaign-repression-against-xinjiangs |archive-date=3 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|name=OtherReports| |
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Uyghur nationalist historians such as [[Turghun Almas]] claim that Uyghurs were distinct and independent from Chinese for 6000 years, and that all non-Uyghur peoples are non-indigenous immigrants to Xinjiang.<ref name="Bovingdon30">{{harvnb|Bovingdon|2010|pp=25, 30–31}}</ref> However, the [[Han Dynasty]] (206 BCE–220 CE) established military colonies ([[tuntian]]) and commanderies ([[duhufu]]) to control Xinjiang from 120 BCE, while the [[Tang Dynasty]] (618-907) also controlled much of Xinjiang until the [[An Lushan rebellion]].<ref name="Bovingdon25">{{harvnb|Bovingdon|2010|pp=25–26}}</ref> Chinese historians refute Uyghur nationalist claims by pointing out the 2000-year history of Han settlement in Xinjiang, documenting the history of [[Mongols in China|Mongol]], [[Kazakh people|Kazakh]], [[Uzbek people|Uzbek]], [[Manchu people|Manchu]], [[Hui people|Hui]], [[Xibo people|Xibo]] indigenes in Xinjiang, and by emphasizing the relatively late "westward migration" of the [[Huigu]] (equated with "Uyghur" by the PRC government) people from Mongolia the 9th century.<ref name="Bovingdon30"/> The name "Uyghur" was associated with a Buddhist people in the Tarim Basin in the 9th century, but completely disappeared by the 15th century, until it was revived by the [[Soviet Union]] in the 20th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Bovingdon|2010|p=28}}</ref> |
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Further independent reports: |
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* {{cite news|ref=none |last = John |first = Sudworth |title=China's hidden camps |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/China_hidden_camps |access-date=4 January 2019 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=24 October 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190105022911/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/China_hidden_camps |archive-date=5 January 2019 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite news|ref=none |last = Shih |first = Gerry |title = 'Permanent cure': Inside the re-education camps China is using to brainwash Muslims |url = https://www.businessinsider.com/what-is-life-like-in-xinjiang-reeducation-camps-china-2018-5 |access-date = 4 January 2019 |work=Business Insider |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=17 May 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180915155341/https://www.businessinsider.com/what-is-life-like-in-xinjiang-reeducation-camps-china-2018-5 |archive-date=15 September 2018 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite news|ref=none |last = Rauhala |first = Emily |title = New evidence emerges of China forcing Muslims into 'reeducation' camps |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/new-evidence-emerges-that-china-is-forcing-muslims-into-reeducation-camps/2018/08/10/1d6d2f64-8dce-11e8-9b0d-749fb254bc3d_story.html |access-date=4 January 2019 |newspaper = [[Washington Post]] |date=10 August 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190119142406/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/new-evidence-emerges-that-china-is-forcing-muslims-into-reeducation-camps/2018/08/10/1d6d2f64-8dce-11e8-9b0d-749fb254bc3d_story.html |archive-date=19 January 2019 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite news |ref=none |last1=Dou |first1=Eva |last2=Page |first2=Jeremy |first3=Josh |last3=Chin |date=17 August 2018 |title=China's Uighur Camps Swell as Beijing Widens the Dragnet |url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-uighur-camps-swell-as-beijing-widens-the-dragnet-1534534894 |work=Wall Street Journal |access-date=17 August 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180817200135/https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-uighur-camps-swell-as-beijing-widens-the-dragnet-1534534894 |archive-date=17 August 2018 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite news |ref=none |title = A Summer Vacation in China's Muslim Gulag |url = https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/02/28/a-summer-vacation-in-chinas-muslim-gulag/ |access-date=4 January 2019 |work=[[Foreign Policy]] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190103063949/https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/02/28/a-summer-vacation-in-chinas-muslim-gulag/ |archive-date=3 January 2019 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite news |ref=none |url = https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/escape-xinjiang-muslim-uighurs-speak-china-persecution-180907125030717.html |title = Escape from Xinjiang: Muslim Uighurs speak of China persecution |last=Regencia |first=Ted |publisher = [[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |access-date=11 September 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180911114142/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/escape-xinjiang-muslim-uighurs-speak-china-persecution-180907125030717.html |archive-date=11 September 2018 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite news|ref=none |last=Kuo |first=Lily |title = UK confirms reports of Chinese mass internment camps for Uighur Muslims |url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/31/uk-believes-china-has-interned-about-1-million-uighur-muslims |access-date=4 January 2019 |newspaper = The Guardian |date=31 October 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190104175823/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/31/uk-believes-china-has-interned-about-1-million-uighur-muslims |archive-date=4 January 2019 |url-status=live }}}}{{efn|name=Est|Human Rights Watch gives the following compilation of estimates of the detained population: |
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* {{cite journal |ref=none |first=Adrian |last=Zenz |url = https://jamestown.org/program/evidence-for-chinas-political-re-education-campaign-in-xinjiang |title=New Evidence for China's Political Re-Education Campaign in Xinjiang |journal=China Brief |publisher=Jamestown Foundation |volume=18 |issue=10 |date=15 May 2018 |access-date=24 August 2018}} |
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* Chinese Human Rights Defenders (CHRD) and Equal Rights Initiative (ERI), "[https://www.nchrd.org/2018/08/china-massive-numbers-of-uyghurs-other-ethnic-minorities-forced-into-re-education-programs China: Massive Numbers of Uyghurs & Other Ethnic Minorities Forced into Re-education Programs]", 3 August 2018 (accessed 24 August 2018). |
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* {{cite report|ref=none |title = 'Eradicating Ideological Viruses': China's Campaign of Repression Against Xinjiang's Muslims |url = https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/09/09/eradicating-ideological-viruses/chinas-campaign-repression-against-xinjiangs |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |access-date=3 January 2019 |date=9 September 2018 }} "Zenz estimated the detainee number by extrapolating from a leaked Xinjiang police report, released by a Turkish TV station run by Uyghur exiles, as well as from reports by Radio Free Asia. CHRD and ERI made the estimate by extrapolating the percentages of people detained in villages as reported by dozens of Uyghur villagers in Kashgar Prefecture during interviews with CHRD."}} Numerous reports have stated that many of these minorities have been used for [[Penal labour|prison labour]].<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.economist.com/china/2020/03/05/what-happens-when-chinas-uighurs-are-released-from-re-education-camps |title=What happens when China's Uighurs are released from re-education camps|access-date=24 July 2020|newspaper=The Economist|date=5 March 2020}}</ref> International observers have labelled the forced [[Sinicization]] campaign to be [[Persecution of Uyghurs in China|an instance]] of [[crimes against humanity]],<ref>{{cite web |title="Break Their Lineage, Break Their Roots": China's Crimes against Humanity Targeting Uyghurs and Other Turkic Muslims |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/04/19/break-their-lineage-break-their-roots/chinas-crimes-against-humanity-targeting |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=https://xinjiang.amnesty.org/|title="Like we were enemies in a war"|accessdate=28 March 2023}}</ref> [[cultural genocide]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-muslim-children-uighur-family-separation-thought-education-a8989296.html |title="'Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education'" – The Independent, 5 July 2019 |website=[[Independent.co.uk]] |date=5 July 2019 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422051855/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-muslim-children-uighur-family-separation-thought-education-a8989296.html |archive-date=22 April 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cultural-genocide-for-repressed-minority-of-uighurs-bp0w6dw89 |title="'Cultural genocide' for repressed minority of Uighurs" – The Times 17 December 2019 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425012712/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cultural-genocide-for-repressed-minority-of-uighurs-bp0w6dw89 |archive-date=25 April 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/chinese-oppression-of-the-uighurs-like-cultural-genocide-a-1298171.html |title = "China's Oppression of the Uighurs 'The Equivalent of Cultural Genocide'" – 28 November 2019 |newspaper=Der Spiegel |date=28 November 2019 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200121105242/https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/chinese-oppression-of-the-uighurs-like-cultural-genocide-a-1298171.html |archive-date=21 January 2020 |url-status=live |last=Zand |first=Bernhard }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.ft.com/content/48508182-d426-11e9-8367-807ebd53ab77 |title="Fear and oppression in Xinjiang: China's war on Uighur culture" – Financial Times 12 September 2019 |newspaper=Financial Times |date=12 September 2019 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200414154451/https://www.ft.com/content/48508182-d426-11e9-8367-807ebd53ab77 |archive-date=14 April 2020 |url-status=live |last=Shepherd |first=Christian }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title = The Uyghur Minority in China: A Case Study of Cultural Genocide, Minority Rights and the Insufficiency of the International Legal Framework in Preventing State-Imposed Extinction|journal= Laws|volume=9|issue=1|page=1|doi=10.3390/laws9010001|doi-access=free|last1=Finnegan|first1=Ciara|year=2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=508909415820545;res=IELIAC |title="China's crime against Uyghurs is a form of genocide" - Summer 2019 |journal=Fourth World Journal |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=76–88 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201093948/https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=508909415820545;res=IELIAC |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live |last1=Fallon |first1=Joseph E. }}</ref> as well as [[genocide|physical genocide]].<ref name=nyxj/><ref>{{Cite news |last=Ramzy |first=Austin |date=2021-01-20 |title=China's Oppression of Muslims in Xinjiang, Explained |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/20/world/asia/china-genocide-uighurs-explained.html |access-date=2022-03-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/09/26/763356996/afraid-we-will-become-the-next-xinjiang-chinas-hui-muslims-face-crackdown|title='Afraid We Will Become The Next Xinjiang': China's Hui Muslims Face Crackdown|last=Feng|first=Emily|date=26 September 2019|work=[[NPR]]|access-date=8 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008040239/https://www.npr.org/2019/09/26/763356996/afraid-we-will-become-the-next-xinjiang-chinas-hui-muslims-face-crackdown|archive-date=8 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><!-- Additional sources: <ref>{{Cite news|last=Rob|first=Schmitz|date=3 May 2019|title=China Detains Hundreds Of Thousands Of Muslims In 'Training Centers'|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/05/03/719897164/china-detains-thousands-of-muslims-in-vocational-training-centers|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503103807/https://www.npr.org/2019/05/03/719897164/china-detains-thousands-of-muslims-in-vocational-training-centers|archive-date=3 May 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|newspaper=NPR.org}}</ref><ref name="Beydoun2018">{{cite web |last1=Beydoun |first1=Khaled A. |title=For China, Islam is a 'mental illness' that needs to be 'cured' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |language=English |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210012542/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |archive-date=10 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sudworth|first=John|date=2019-07-04|title=China separating Muslim children from families|language=en-GB|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-48825090|url-status=live|access-date=2020-09-09|archive-date=2019-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705043103/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-48825090}}</ref>--> |
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The [[Government of China|Chinese government]] has denied charges of genocide and other human rights abuses, characterising the centres as deradicalisation and integration programs and were the subject of dispute at the 44th session of the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] (UNHRC); 39 countries condemned China's treatment of the Uyghurs in Xinjiang in June 2020.<ref>{{cite web|last=Amt|first=Auswärtiges|title=Statement by Ambassador Christoph Heusgen on behalf of 39 Countries in the Third Committee General Debate, October 6, 2020|url=https://new-york-un.diplo.de/un-en/news-corner/201006-heusgen-china/2402648|access-date=2020-11-14|website=Permanent Mission of the Federal Republic of Germany to the United Nations|language=en|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008061047/https://new-york-un.diplo.de/un-en/news-corner/201006-heusgen-china/2402648|url-status=dead}}</ref> Similarly, in July, a group of 45 nations issued a competing letter to the UNHRC, defending China's treatment of both Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities in Xinjiang.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Joint Statement delivered by Permanent Mission of Belarus at the 44th session of Human Rights Council|url=http://www.china-un.ch/eng/hom/t1794034.htm|access-date=2020-11-14|website=www.china-un.ch}}</ref> Various groups and media organizations worldwide have disputed [[Denialism|denials]] that human rights violations have occurred.{{efn|Per ''[[Foreign Policy]]'',<ref>{{cite web | url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/02/19/china-uighurs-genocide-us-pompeo-blinken/ | title=State Department Lawyers Concluded Insufficient Evidence to Prove Genocide in China | date=19 February 2021 }}</ref> ''[[New York Times]]'',<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/19/us/politics/trump-china-xinjiang.html | title=U.S. Says China's Repression of Uighurs is 'Genocide' | work=The New York Times | date=19 January 2021 | last1=Wong | first1=Edward | last2=Buckley | first2=Chris }}</ref> ''[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]]'',<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-05-24/un-leader-s-xinjiang-trip-knocked-as-us-cites-jarring-images | title=Biden 'Appalled' by New Images of Xinjiang Camps, Calls UN Chief's Visit a Mistake | newspaper=Bloomberg.com | date=24 May 2022 }}</ref> ''[[BBC News|BBC]]'',<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215.amp | title='Credible case' of China genocide against Uighurs | date=8 February 2021 }}</ref> ''[[Deutsche Welle]]'',<ref>{{cite web | url=https://amp.dw.com/en/china-leaked-xinjiang-files-likely-accurate-experts-say/a-61919739 | title=China: Leaked Xinjiang files likely accurate, experts say – DW – 05/24/2022 }}</ref> [[Amnesty International]],<ref name="auto2"/><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/politics/2021/04/02/is-china-committing-genocide-what-you-need-know-uyghurs/7015211002/ | title=The US says China is committing genocide against the Uyghurs. Here's some of the most chilling evidence | website=[[USA Today]] | date=2 April 2021 }}</ref> ''[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]'',<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.polygraph.info/a/china-pompeo-genocide-uighur/6742771.html | title='Malicious Farce' – China's Latest False Denial of Genocide Evidence | date=22 January 2021 }}</ref> ''[[France24]]''<ref>{{cite web | url=https://amp.observers.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20221108-the-uighur-influencers-working-for-beijing-s-propaganda-machine | title=The Uighur 'influencers' working for Beijing's propaganda machine | date=8 November 2022 }}</ref> and ''[[Toronto Star]]''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thestar.com/news/investigations/2021/01/22/was-your-fridge-made-with-forced-labour-these-canadian-companies-are-importing-goods-from-chinese-factories-accused-of-serious-human-rights-abuses.html | title=Was your fridge made with forced labour? These Canadian companies are importing goods from Chinese factories accused of serious human rights abuses | website=[[Toronto Star]] | date=22 January 2021 }}</ref>}} |
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Uyghur nationalists often incorrectly claim that 5% of Xinjiang's population in 1949 was Han, and that the other 95% was Uyghur, erasing the presence of [[Kazakh people|Kazakhs]], [[Hui people|Huis]], [[Mongols]], |[[Xibe people|Xibes]] and others, and ignoring the fact that Hans were around one third of Xinjiang's population in 1800, during the time of the [[Qing Dynasty]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bovingdon|2010|p=197}}</ref> Professor of Chinese and Central Asian History at Georgetown University, James A. Millward wrote that foreigners often mistakenly think that [[Urumqi]] was originally a Uyghur city and that the Chinese destroyed its Uyghur character and culture, however, Urumqi was founded as a Chinese city by Han and Hui (Tungans), and it is the Uyghurs who are new to the city.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA133#v=onepage&q&f=false Millward 1998], p. 133.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA134#v=onepage&q&f=false Millward 1998], p. 134.</ref> While a few people try to give a misportrayal of the historical Qing situation in light of the contemporary situation in Xinjiang with Han migration, and claim that the Qing settlements and state farms were an anti-Uyghur plot to replace them in their land, Professor James A. Millward pointed out that the Qing agricultural colonies in reality had nothing to do with Uyghur and their land, since the Qing banned settlement of Han in the Uyghur Tarim Basin and in fact directed the Han settlers instead to settle in the non-Uyghur Dzungaria and the new city of Urumqi, so that the state farms which were settled with 155,000 Han Chinese from 1760-1830 were all in Dzungaria and Urumqi, where there was only an insignificant amount of Uyghurs, instead of the Tarim Basin oases.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA104#v=onepage&q&f=false Millward 2007], p. 104.</ref> Han and Hui mostly live in northern Xinjiang (Dzungaria), and are separated from areas of historical Uyghur dominance south of the Tian Shan mountains (the Tarim Basin in southwestern Xinjiang), where Uyghurs account for about 90% of the population.<ref name="Departmentof">Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics of the National Bureau of Statistics of China (国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司) and Department of Economic Development of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of China (国家民族事务委员会经济发展司), eds. ''Tabulation on Nationalities of 2000 Population Census of China'' (《2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料》). 2 vols. Beijing: Nationalities Publishing House (民族出版社), 2003. (ISBN 7-105-05425-5)</ref> |
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== Background == |
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At the start of the 19th century, 40 years after the Qing reconquest, there were around 155,000 Han and Hui Chinese in northern Xinjiang and somewhat more than twice that number of Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang.<ref>Millward, James A. (2007). ''Eurasian crossroads: A history of Xinjiang''. ISBN 978-0-231-13924-3. p. 306</ref> A census of Xinjiang under Qing rule in the early 19th century tabulated ethnic shares of the population as 30% [[Han Chinese|Han]] and 60% [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], while it dramatically shifted to 6% Han and 75% Uyghur in the 1953 census, however a situation similar to the Qing era-demographics with a large number of Han has been restored as of 2000 with 40.57% Han and 45.21% Uyghur.<ref name="ddx">{{cite journal |url=http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/EWCWwp001.pdf |title=Demographics and Development in Xinjiang after 1949 |first=Stanley |last=Toops |date=May 2004 |page=1|issue=1 |periodical=East-West Center Washington Working Papers |publisher=[[East–West Center]]}}</ref> Professor Stanley W. Toops noted that today's demographic situation is similar to that of the early Qing period in Xinjiang. In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, Xibe, and Kazakh colonists after they [[Zunghar genocide|exterminated the Zunghar Oirat Mongols]] in the region, with one third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern are, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA243#v=onepage&q&f=false ed. Starr 2004], p. 243.</ref> Before 1831, only a few hundred Chinese merchants lived in southern Xinjiang oases (Tarim Basin) and only a few Uyghurs lived in northern Xinjiang ([[Dzungaria]]).<ref>Millward, James A. (2007). ''Eurasian crossroads: A history of Xinjiang''. ISBN 978-0-231-13924-3. p. 104</ref> |
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{{Further|History of Xinjiang|Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin|East Turkestan independence movement}} |
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Xinjiang is a large central-Asian region within the People's Republic of China comprising numerous minority groups: 45% of its population are Uyghurs, and 40% are Han.<ref name=2000census>{{cite book|author1=((国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司 [Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics of the National Bureau of Statistics]))|author2=((国家民族事务委员会经济发展司 [Department of Economic Development of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission]))|script-title=zh:2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料|language=zh-CN|trans-title= 2000 Census Chinese National Population Information|location= Beijing|publisher=民族出版社 [Nationalities Publishing House]|date=September 2003|isbn=978-7-105-05425-1}}</ref> Its heavily industrialised capital, Ürümqi, has a population of more than 2.3 million, about 75% of whom are Han, 12.8% are Uyghur, and 10% are from other ethnic groups.<ref name="2000census" /> |
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Critics have argued that the government's response to Uyghur concerns do little to address the underlying causes of their discontent.<ref>Hasmath, R., “[http://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1276012/responses-xinjiang-ethnic-unrest-do-not-address-underlying Responses to Xinjiang Ethnic Unrest Do Not Address Underlying Causes]”, ''South China Morning Post'', 5 July 2013.</ref> |
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In general, Uyghurs and the mostly Han government disagree on which group has greater historical claim to the Xinjiang region: Uyghurs believe their ancestors were indigenous to the area, whereas government policy considers Xinjiang to have belonged to China since around 200 BC during [[Han Dynasty]].{{sfnp|Gladney|2004|pp=112–114}} According to Chinese policy, Uyghurs are classified as a [[Ethnic minorities in China|National Minority]]; they are considered to be no more indigenous to Xinjiang than the Han, and have no special rights to the land under the law.{{sfnp|Gladney|2004|pp=112–114}} During the [[Mao era]] the People's Republic oversaw the [[Migration to Xinjiang|migration into Xinjiang]] of millions of Han, who have been accused of economically dominating the region,<ref name=CACI>{{cite web |publisher=Central Asia-Caucasus Institute Analyst |url = http://www.cacianalyst.org/newsite/newsite/?q=node/364 |date = 16 February 2000 |access-date = 29 January 2010 |last=Rudelson |first=Justin Ben-Adam |title = Uyghur "separatism": China's policies in Xinjiang fuel dissent |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120229150459/http://www.cacianalyst.org/newsite/newsite/?q=node%2F364 |archive-date = 29 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/opinions/new-frontier-same-old-problems/article1208363/ |first=Wenran |last=Jiang |date = 6 July 2009 |access-date = 18 January 2010 |work = The Globe and Mail |title = New Frontier, same problems |quote = But just as in Tibet, the local population has viewed the increasing unequal distribution of wealth and income between China's coastal and inland regions, and between urban and rural areas, with an additional ethnic dimension. Most are not separatists, but they perceive that most of the economic opportunities in their homeland are taken by the Han Chinese, who are often better educated, better connected, and more resourceful. The Uyghurs also resent discrimination against their people by the Han, both in Xinjiang and elsewhere. |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090710011823/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/opinions/new-frontier-same-old-problems/article1208363/ |archive-date=10 July 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Timeboom>{{cite news |title = Why the Uighurs feel left out of China's boom |last=Ramzy |first=Austin |url = http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1910302,00.html?iid=sphere-inline-sidebar |magazine=Time |date = 14 July 2009 |access-date = 5 September 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121105163552/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1910302,00.html?iid=sphere-inline-sidebar |archive-date = 5 November 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="winsandloses">{{cite web |title = How China Wins and Loses Xinjiang |date = 9 July 2009 |access-date = 5 September 2009 |last=Larson |first=Christina |url = http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/07/09/how_china_wins_and_loses_xinjiang?page=0,0&obref=obinsite |work=[[Foreign Policy]] |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110608155032/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/07/09/how_china_wins_and_loses_xinjiang?page=0,0&obref=obinsite |archive-date = 8 June 2011 }}</ref> although a 2008 survey on both ethnic groups has contradicted the allegation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anthony Howell|last2=Cindy Fan|date=2011|title=Migration and Inequality in Xinjiang: A Survey of Han and Uyghur Migrants in Urumqi|url=https://geog.ucla.edu/sites/default/files/users/fan/403.pdf|journal=[[Eurasian Geography and Economics]]|location=[[University of California, Los Angeles]]}}</ref> |
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==Uyghur views by oasis== |
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Current Chinese minority policy is based on [[Affirmative action in China|affirmative action]], and has reinforced a Uyghur ethnic identity that is distinct from the Han population.{{sfnp|Bovingdon|2005|pp=4, 19}}{{sfnp|Dillon|2004|p=51}} However, [[Human Rights Watch]] describes a "multi-tiered system of surveillance, control, and suppression of religious activity" perpetrated by state authorities.<ref name="HRW" /> It is estimated that over 100,000 Uyghurs are currently held in political "re-education camps",<ref name="auto" /> and far-reaching surveillance operations using drones produced by [[DJI]] are being undertaken.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Venable|first1=John|last2=Ries|first2=Lora|date=August 19, 2020|title=Chinese-Made Drones: A Direct Threat Whose Use Should Be Curtailed|url=https://www.heritage.org/sites/default/files/2020-08/BG3521.pdf|website=The Heritage Foundation}}</ref> China justifies such measures as a response to the terrorist threat posed by extremist separatist groups.<ref name="QZPassport" /> These policies, in addition to some long-standing prejudices between the Han and Uyghurs,<ref name="Holdstock">{{Cite book|last=Holdstock|first=Nick|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcicDwAAQBAJ&q=ethnic+relations+had+worsened|title=China's Forgotten People: Xinjiang, Terror and the Chinese State|date=2019-06-13|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-78831-982-9|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Svanberg|first1=Ingvar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jTVjWTllOGgC&q=+han+and+uighur+parentage|title=Islam Outside the Arab World|last2=Westerlund|first2=David|date=1999|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-136-11330-7|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2009/07/on-uighurs-han-and-general-racial-attitudes-in-china/21137/ |title=On Uighurs, Han, and general racial attitudes in China |last=Fallows|first=James|date=13 July 2009|website=The Atlantic|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url = https://apnews.com/a48de48b634146db80e48de8a76e2a97 |title = China's model village of ethnic unity shows cracks in facade |date=22 November 2018|website=AP NEWS |access-date=12 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=cecChina>{{cite web |url = http://www.cecc.gov/pages/annualRpt/annualRpt05/2005_3a_minorities.php |publisher=Congressional-Executive Commission on China |date=1 October 2005 |access-date=6 May 2010 |title=China's Minorities and Government Implementation of the Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law |quote=[Uyghurs] live in cohesive communities largely separated from Han Chinese, practice major world religions, have their own written scripts, and have supporters outside of China. Relations between these minorities and Han Chinese have been strained for centuries. |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100407172630/http://www.cecc.gov/pages/annualRpt/annualRpt05/2005_3a_minorities.php |archive-date=7 April 2010 }}</ref> have sometimes resulted in tension between the two ethnic groups.{{sfnp|Sautman|1997|p=35}} As a result of the policies, the Uyghurs' freedoms of religion and of movement have been curtailed,<ref name=mooreblog>{{cite news |url = http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/malcolmmoore/100002509/urumqi-riots-signal-dark-days-ahead/ |title=Urumqi riots signal dark days ahead |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=7 July 2009 |access-date=7 July 2009 |last=Moore |first=Malcolm |location=London |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121004092133/http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/malcolmmoore/100002509/urumqi-riots-signal-dark-days-ahead/ |archive-date=4 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{sfnp|Bovingdon|2005|pp=34–35}} and most of them believe the government downplays their history and traditional culture.{{sfnp|Gladney|2004|pp=112–114}}{{Failed verification|date=November 2020}} |
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Uyghur views vary by the oasis they live in. China has historically favored Turpan and Hami. Uyghurs in Turfan and Hami and their leaders like Emin Khoja allied with the Qing against Uyghurs in [[Altishahr]]. During the Qing dynasty, China enfeoffed the rulers of Turpan and Hami (Kumul) as autonomous princes, while the rest of the Uyghurs in Altishahr (the Tarim Basin) were ruled by Begs.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q&f=false Rudelson & Rudelson 1997], p. 31.</ref> Uyghurs from Turpan and Hami were appointed by China as officials to rule over Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin. Turpan is more economically prosperous and views China more positively than the rebellious Kashgar, which is the most anti-China oasis. Uyghurs in Turpan are treated leniently and favourably by China with regards to religious policies, while Kashgar is subjected to controls by the government.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false Rudelson & Rudelson 1997], pp. 46-7.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=cQppAAAAMAAJ&q=Turpan+liberalization+religious&dq=Turpan+liberalization+religious&hl=en&sa=X&ei=NifdU7nqMdPfsATz7ICQBQ&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAg ''Central Asia Monitor'' 1993], p. 19.</ref> In Turpan and Hami, religion is viewed more positively by China than religion in Kashgar and Khotan in southern Xinjiang.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=3EWAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA118#v=onepage&q&f=false Mackerras 2003], p. 118.</ref> Both Uyghur and Han Communist officials in Turpan turn a blind eye to the law and allow religious Islamic education for Uyghur children.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=jTVjWTllOGgC&pg=PA202#v=onepage&q&f=false Svanberg & Westerlund 2012], p. 202.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA81#v=onepage&q&f=false Rudelson & Rudelson 1997], p. 81.</ref> Celebrating at religious functions and going on Hajj to Mecca is encouraged by the Chinese government, for Uyghur members of the Communist party. From 1979-1989, 350 mosques were built in Turpan.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA129#v=onepage&q&f=false Rudelson & Rudelson 1997], p. 129.</ref> Han, Hui, and the Chinese government are viewed much more positively by Uyghurs specifically in Turpan, with the government providing better economic, religious, and political treatment for them.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=jTVjWTllOGgC&pg=PA205#v=onepage&q&f=false Svanberg & Westerlund 2012], p. 205.</ref> |
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On the other hand, some Han citizens view Uyghurs as benefiting from special treatment, such as preferential admission to universities and exemption from the (now abandoned) [[one-child policy]],{{sfnp|Sautman|1997|pp=29–31}} and as "harbouring separatist aspirations".<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/608f0f80-6cac-11de-af56-00144feabdc0.html |work=Financial Times |title=Uighur riots show need for rethink by Beijing |first=Minxin |last=Pei |date=9 July 2009 |access-date=18 January 2010 |quote = Han Chinese view the Uighurs as harbouring separatist aspirations and being disloyal and ungrateful, in spite of preferential policies for ethnic minority groups.}}</ref> Nonetheless, it was observed in 2013 that at least in the workplace, Uyghur-Han relations seemed relatively friendly,{{sfnp|Finley|2013|p={{page needed|date=December 2020}}}} and a survey from 2009 suggested that 70% of Uyghur respondents had Han friends while 82% of Han had Uyghur friends.<ref>{{Cite book |year=2009 |page=21 |url= https://research.nus.edu.sg/eai/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2017/11/Vol1No3_ShanweiChenGang.pdf |title=The Urumqi Riots and China's Ethnic Policy in Xinjiang |publisher=[[National University of Singapore]]}}</ref> |
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==Restrictions== |
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Due to exemption from the one-child policy, Uyghur numbers increased from 5.5 million in 1980s to over 12 million in 2017.<ref>{{cite news |title= What you should know about China's minority Uighurs|url = https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/7/8/uighurs-timeline |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |date=8 July 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210721111146/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/7/8/uighurs-timeline |archive-date=21 July 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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The suppression of the Uyghurs has more to do with the fact that they are separatist, rather than Muslim. China banned a book titled "Xing Fengsu" ("Sexual Customs") which insulted Islam and placed its authors under arrest in 1989 after protests in Lanzhou and Beijing by Chinese [[Hui people|Hui]] Muslims, during which the Chinese police provided protection to the Hui Muslim protestors, and the Chinese government organized public burnings of the book.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBINAQAAMAAJ&q=sexual+customs+banned+book+Islam&dq=sexual+customs+banned+book+Islam&hl=en&sa=X&ei=vm7OVJDXOoKigwT9ioOgCw&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBg Beijing Review, Volume 32 1989], p. 13.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=bcsmAQAAMAAJ&q=sexual+customs+banned+book+Islam&dq=sexual+customs+banned+book+Islam&hl=en&sa=X&ei=vm7OVJDXOoKigwT9ioOgCw&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAw Gladney 1991], p. 2.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GomyOthrHjUC&pg=PA154&dq=xing+fengsu+sexual&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bHDOVO75GMe7ggSL1oOwAg&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=xing%20fengsu%20sexual&f=false Schein 2000], p. 154.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=mzxSNM3_vCEC&pg=PA66&dq=xing+fengsu+sexual&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bHDOVO75GMe7ggSL1oOwAg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=xing%20fengsu%20sexual&f=false Gladney 2004], p. 66.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=sQLiMYUk-nIC&pg=PA104&dq=xing+fengsu+sexual&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bHDOVO75GMe7ggSL1oOwAg&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=xing%20fengsu%20sexual&f=false Bulag 2010], p. 104.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=icZJJN0wYPcC&pg=PA257&dq=xing+fengsu+sexual&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bHDOVO75GMe7ggSL1oOwAg&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=xing%20fengsu%20sexual&f=false Gladney 2005], p. 257.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8WGOAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA144&dq=xing+fengsu+sexual&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dHLOVPb1BOjCsASe0YDADg&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=xing%20fengsu%20sexual&f=false Gladney 2013], p. 144.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HH94dPJrkA4C&pg=PA79&dq=xing+fengsu+sexual&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dHLOVPb1BOjCsASe0YDADg&ved=0CCoQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=xing%20fengsu%20sexual&f=false Sautman 2000], p. 79.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_hJ9aht6nZQC&pg=PA341&dq=xing+fengsu+sexual&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dHLOVPb1BOjCsASe0YDADg&ved=0CE4Q6AEwCDgK#v=onepage&q=xing%20fengsu%20sexual&f=false Gladney 1996], p. 341.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=AvDOudr5M6MC&pg=PA299&dq=xing+fengsu+sexual&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dHLOVPb1BOjCsASe0YDADg&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=xing%20fengsu%20sexual&f=false Lipman 1996], p. 299.</ref> The Chinese government assisted them and gave into their demands because Hui do not have a separatist movement, unlike the Uyghurs,<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA581#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=China: a history|author=Harold Miles Tanner|year=2009|publisher=Hackett Publishing|location=|page=581|isbn=0-87220-915-6|page=610|accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref> Hui Muslim protestors who violently rioted by vandalizing property during the protests against the book were let off by the Chinese government and went unpunished while Uyghur protestors were imprisoned.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=mzxSNM3_vCEC&pg=PA232&dq=sexual+customs+banned+book&hl=en&sa=X&ei=o23OVLLEGoaxggTAj4TwBw&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=sexual%20customs%20banned%20book&f=false Gladney 2004], p. 232.</ref> |
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Ethnic minority couples were paid incentives to keep their family size below the legal limit and accept sterilisation after three children preceding the removal of the preferential policy.<ref name="The Economist">{{cite news |title=The government in Xinjiang is trying to limit Muslim births |url = https://www.economist.com/news/china/21678007-government-xinjiang-trying-limit-muslim-births-remote-control |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=7 November 2015 |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151110015435/http://www.economist.com/news/china/21678007-government-xinjiang-trying-limit-muslim-births-remote-control |archive-date=10 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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== Restrictions == |
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Although religious education for children is officially forbidden by law in China, the Communist party allows Hui Muslims to violate this law and have their children educated in religion and attend Mosques while the law is enforced on Uyghurs. After secondary education is completed, China then allows Hui students who are willing to embark on religious studies under an Imam.<ref>[http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/31-1_007.pdf ALLÈS & CHÉRIF-CHEBBI & HALFON 2003], p. 14.</ref> China does not enforce the law against children attending Mosques on non-Uyghurs in areas outside of Xinjiang.<ref>{{cite book|title=Annual Report on International Religious Freedom, 2004|issue=|author=Senate (U S ) Committee on Foreign Relations|editor=State Dept (U S )|others=Compiled by State Dept (U S )|editor-first=|editor-last=|edition=illustrated|date=|year=2005|publisher=Government Printing Office|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=04dlwzB2SvcC&pg=PA159#v=onepage&q&f=false|page=160|isbn=0160725526|accessdate=24 April 2014| ref=harv }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Szadziewski|first1=Henryk|title=Religious Repression of Uyghurs in East Turkestan|url=http://www.venninstitute.org/uncategorized/religious-repression-of-uyghurs-in-east-turkestan|website=Venn Institute|accessdate=26 June 2015}}</ref> |
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{{See also|Islamophobia in China}}<!-- Mostly historical─needs to be broken into time slots. --> |
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Islamic leaders during the Cultural Revolution were forced to take part in acts against their religion, such as eating pork.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Elisabeth |last1=Alles |first2=Leila |last2=Cherif-Chebbi |first3=Constance-Helene |last3=Halfon |title=Chinese Islam: Unity and Fragmentation |journal=Religion, State & Society |volume=31 |issue=1 |year=2003 |page=14 |url = http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/31-1_007.pdf |access-date=28 June 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160429210144/http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/31-1_007.pdf |archive-date=29 April 2016 |url-status=live |doi=10.1080/0963749032000045837 |s2cid=144070358 }}</ref> China does not enforce the law against children attending mosques on non-Uyghurs outside Xinjiang.{{sfnp|Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|2005|p=160}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Szadziewski |first=Henryk |title=Religious Repression of Uyghurs in East Turkestan |url = http://www.venninstitute.org/uncategorized/religious-repression-of-uyghurs-in-east-turkestan |website=Venn Institute |date=19 March 2013 |access-date=26 June 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140327231707/http://www.venninstitute.org/uncategorized/religious-repression-of-uyghurs-in-east-turkestan |archive-date=27 March 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since the 1980s Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools ({{zh|labels=no|s=中阿学校}})) have been permitted by the Chinese government in Muslim areas, excluding Xinjiang because of its separatist sentiment.{{efn|The People's Republic, founded in 1949, banned private confessional teaching from the early 1950s to the 1980s, until a more liberal stance allowed religious mosque education to resume and private Muslim schools to open. Moreover, except in Xinjiang for fear of secessionist feelings, the government allowed and sometimes encouraged the founding of private Muslim schools in order to provide education for people who could not attend increasingly expensive state schools or who left them early, for lack of money or lack of satisfactory achievements.<ref>{{harvp|Versteegh|Eid|2005|p=383}}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nGXtgvjkpgQ |trans-title=Chinese-Arabic School Muslim Students Graduation Ceremony |script-title=zh:临夏中阿学校第二十二届毕业典礼 金镖阿訇讲话2007 |last=Su |first = Jinbao |title=- YouTube |date=8 November 2015 |via=YouTube |access-date=27 May 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170429033452/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nGXtgvjkpgQ |archive-date=29 April 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zB98XLc-J6o |trans-title=Chinese Muslim Makes a Speech in Islamic Girls' School |script-title=zh:老华寺女校举行演讲仪式 上集 |last=Su |first = Jinbao |title=- YouTube |date=8 November 2015 |via=YouTube |access-date=27 May 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170211193443/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zB98XLc-J6o |archive-date=11 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xa7m9slJRo |title = Muslim in China, Graduation ceremony of a Islamic girls' school |last=nottc|date=11 September 2011 |via=YouTube |access-date=27 May 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170401031359/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xa7m9slJRo |archive-date=1 April 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[Hui people|Hui]] Muslims employed by the state, unlike Uyghurs, are allowed to fast during [[Ramadan]]. The number of Hui going on [[Hajj]] is expanding and Hui women are allowed to wear veils, but Uyghur women are discouraged from wearing them.<ref>{{cite news |last=Beech |first=Hannah |title=If China Is Anti-Islam, Why Are These Chinese Muslims Enjoying a Faith Revival? |url = http://time.com/3099950/china-muslim-hui-xinjiang-uighur-islam/ |access-date=25 June 2015 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=12 August 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150613040500/http://time.com/3099950/china-muslim-hui-xinjiang-uighur-islam/ |archive-date=13 June 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Muslim ethnic groups in different regions are treated differently by the Chinese government with regard to religious freedom. Religious freedom exists for Hui Muslims, who can practice their religion, build mosques and have their children attend them; more restrictions are placed on Uyghurs in Xinjiang.{{sfnp|Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|2005|p={{page needed|date=May 2020}}}} Hui religious schools are allowed, and an autonomous network of mosques and schools run by a Hui Sufi leader was formed with the approval of the Chinese government.{{sfnp|Bovingdon|2010|p={{Page needed|date=September 2019}}}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Savadove |first=Bill |date=17 August 2005 |title=Faith Flourishes in an Arid Wasteland |newspaper=South China Morning Post |url = http://www.scmp.com/article/512501/faith-flourishes-arid-wasteland |access-date=25 June 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150626115251/http://www.scmp.com/article/512501/faith-flourishes-arid-wasteland |archive-date=26 June 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to ''[[The Diplomat]]'', Uyghur religious activities are curtailed but Hui Muslims are granted widespread religious freedom; therefore, Chinese government policy is directed against [[East Turkestan independence movement|Uyghur separatism]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Crane |first=Brent |date=22 August 2014 |title = A Tale of Two Chinese Muslim Minorities |work = The Diplomat |url = https://thediplomat.com/2014/08/a-tale-of-two-chinese-muslim-minorities/ |access-date=25 June 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150626102249/https://thediplomat.com/2014/08/a-tale-of-two-chinese-muslim-minorities/ |archive-date=26 June 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Hui Muslims who are employed by the state are allowed to fast during Ramadan unlike Uyghurs in the same positions, the amount of Hui going on Hajj is expanding, and Hui women are allowed to wear veils, while Uyghur women are discouraged from wearing them.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Beech|first1=Hannah|title=If China Is Anti-Islam, Why Are These Chinese Muslims Enjoying a Faith Revival?|url=http://time.com/3099950/china-muslim-hui-xinjiang-uighur-islam/|accessdate=25 June 2015|agency=TIME magazine|date=Aug 12, 2014}}</ref> |
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In the last two decades of the 20th century, Uyghurs in Turpan were treated favourably by China with regard to religion; while Kashgar and [[Hotan]] were subject to more stringent government control.{{sfnp|Rudelson|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA46 46–47]}}<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Gillette|first=Philip S.|title=Ethnic Balance and Imbalance in Kazakhstan's Regions|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=cQppAAAAMAAJ&q=Turpan+liberalization+religious |date=1993|issue=3|page=19|magazine=Central Asia Monitor|access-date=10 March 2014}}</ref>{{sfnp|Mackerras|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EWAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 118]}} Uyghur and Han Communist officials in Turpan turned a blind eye to the law, allowing Islamic education of Uyghur children.{{sfnp|Svanberg|Westerlund|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jTVjWTllOGgC&pg=PA202 202]}}{{sfnp|Rudelson|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA81 81]}} Religious celebrations and the [[Hajj]] were encouraged by the Chinese government for Uyghur [[Chinese Communist Party|Communist Party]] members, and 350 mosques were built in Turpan between 1979 and 1989.{{sfnp|Rudelson|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA129 129]}} As a result, Han, Hui and the Chinese government were then viewed more positively by Uyghurs in Turpan.{{sfnp|Svanberg|Westerlund|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jTVjWTllOGgC&pg=PA205 205]}} In 1989, there were 20,000 mosques in Xinjiang.{{sfnp|Finley|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LQBBAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 236]}} Until separatist disturbances began in 1996, China allowed people to ignore the rule prohibiting religious observance by government officials.{{sfnp|Finley|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LQBBAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 237]}} Large mosques were built with Chinese government assistance in Ürümqi.{{sfnp|Finley|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LQBBAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA238 238]}} While rules proscribing religious activities were enforced in southern Xinjiang, conditions were comparatively lax in Ürümqi.{{sfnp|Finley|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LQBBAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 240]}} |
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Different Muslim ethnic groups in different regions are treated differently by the Chinese government in regards to religious freedom. Religious freedom is present for Hui Muslims, who can practice their religion, build Mosques, and have their children attend Mosques, while more controls are placed specifically on Uyghurs in Xinjiang.<ref>{{cite book|title=Annual Report on International Religious Freedom, 2004|issue=|author=Senate (U S ) Committee on Foreign Relations|editor=State Dept (U S )|others=Compiled by State Dept (U S )|editor-first=|editor-last=|edition=illustrated|date=|year=2005|publisher=Government Printing Office|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=04dlwzB2SvcC&pg=PA159#v=onepage&q&f=false|pages=159–60|isbn=0160725526|accessdate=24 April 2014| ref=harv }}</ref> |
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[[File:受保护的叶城国际大巴扎.jpg|thumb|right|Armed police and metal detector at the Kargilik bazaar]] |
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Hui religious schools are allowed and a massive autonomous network of mosques and schools run by a Hui Sufi leader was formed with the approval of the Chinese government even as he admitted to attending an event where Bin Laden spoke.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Uyghurs: Strangers in Their Own Land|issue=|first=Gardner|last=Bovingdon|editor=|editor-first=|editor-last=|others=|edition=illustrated|date=|year=2013|publisher=Columbia University Press|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NrtIa77Sj2IC&pg=PT90&dq=Hui+religious+leader+Sufi+sect+virtual+religious+state++acknowledging&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wSv2U-3lD-zksAT-yIFA&ved=0CCYQ6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=Hui%20religious%20leader%20Sufi%20sect%20virtual%20religious%20state%20%20acknowledging&f=false|pages=|isbn=0231519419|accessdate=24 April 2014| ref=harv }}</ref><ref>Savadove, Bill. 2005. [http://www.scmp.com/article/512501/faith-flourishes-arid-wasteland "Faith Flourishes in an Arid Wasteland; Muslim Sect in Ningxia Accepts Beijing's Authority and Is Allowed to Build a Virtual Religious State."] ''South China Morning Post'', August 17.</ref> |
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According to ''The Economist'', in 2016 Uyghurs faced difficulties travelling within Xinjiang and live in fenced-off neighbourhoods with checkpoint entrances. In southern Ürümqi, each apartment door has a [[QR code]] so police can easily see photos of the dwelling's authorized residents.<ref>{{cite news |title=Xinjiang: The race card |url = https://www.economist.com/news/china/21706327-leader-troubled-western-province-has-been-replaced-he-will-not-be-missed-its-ethnic |access-date=3 September 2016 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=3 September 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160902220344/http://www.economist.com/news/china/21706327-leader-troubled-western-province-has-been-replaced-he-will-not-be-missed-its-ethnic |archive-date=2 September 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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In 2017, overseas Uyghur activists claimed that new restrictions were being imposed, including people being fined heavily or subjected to programmes of "re-education" for refusing to eat during fasting in Ramadan, the detention of hundreds of Uyghurs as they returned from [[Mecca]] pilgrimages, and many standard Muslim names, such as Muhammad, being banned for newborn children.<ref>{{cite news |title=An American agency denounces the treatment of Muslims in China |url = https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2017/07/diplomacy-and-religious-freedom |access-date=9 July 2017 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=7 July 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170709012213/https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2017/07/diplomacy-and-religious-freedom |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title = China Bans List of Islamic Names, Including 'Muhammad', in Xinjiang Region|url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-04-27/china-bans-list-of-islamic-names-including-muhammad-in-xinjiang-region |access-date=9 July 2017 |agency=Bloomberg News |date=27 April 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170818155118/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-04-27/china-bans-list-of-islamic-names-including-muhammad-in-xinjiang-region |archive-date=18 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> It was claimed that Han officials had been assigned to reside in the homes of those with interned Uyghur family members as part of the government's "Pair Up and Become Family" program.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/cosleeping-10312019160528.html |title=Male Chinese 'Relatives' Assigned to Uyghur Homes Co-sleep With Female 'Hosts' |last=Lipes |first=Joshua |date=31 October 2019 |publisher=[[Radio Free Asia]] |access-date=2 November 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://apnews.com/9ca1c29fc9554c1697a8729bba4dd93b|title=China's Uighurs told to share beds, meals with party members|last1=Kang|first1=Dake|date=30 November 2018|access-date=18 January 2020|work=[[Associated Press]]|last2=Wang|first2=Yanan}}</ref> There were also reportedly separate queues for Uyghurs and outsiders, where the former needed to get their identity cards checked at numerous points.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.telegraphindia.com/opinion/uighurs-in-china-should-we-believe-what-we-see/cid/1686191 |title = Uighurs in China: Should we believe what we see?|website=www.telegraphindia.com |access-date=12 December 2019 }}</ref> |
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"The Diplomat" reported on the fact that while Uyghur's religious activities are curtailed, Hui Muslims are granted widespread religious freedom and that therefore the policy of the Chinese government towards Uyghurs in Xinjiang is not directed against Islam, but rather aggressively stamping out the Uyghur separatist threat.<ref>Crane, Brent. 2014. [http://thediplomat.com/2014/08/a-tale-of-two-chinese-muslim-minorities/ "A Tale of Two Chinese Muslim Minorities"]''The Diplomat'', August 22.</ref> |
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==Timeline== |
==Timeline== |
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===Pre-20th century=== |
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{{Main|History of Xinjiang|Islamization and Turkification of Xinjiang}} |
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The history of the region has become highly politicised, with both Chinese and nationalist Uyghur historians frequently overstating the extent of their groups' respective ties to the region.{{sfnp|Bovingdon|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NrtIa77Sj2IC&pg=PA24 24–25]}}<ref name=Tschantret2016/> In reality, it has been home to many groups throughout history, with the Uyghurs arriving from [[Central Asia]] in the 10th century.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wong |first1=Edward |title=The Dead Tell a Tale China Doesn't Care to Listen To |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/asia/19mummy.html |access-date=10 June 2018 |newspaper =The New York Times |date=18 November 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180612224616/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/asia/19mummy.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Although various [[Chinese dynasties]] have at times exerted control over parts of what is now Xinjiang,{{sfnp|Clarke|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC&pg=PA16 16]}} the region as it exists today came under Chinese rule as a result of the [[Dzungar–Qing Wars|westward expansion]] of the [[Manchu]]-led [[Qing dynasty]], which also saw the annexation of [[Mongolia]] and [[Tibet]].<ref name=NYBooks>{{cite magazine |last=Millward |first=James |title='Reeducating' Xinjiang's Muslims |url = https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/02/07/reeducating-xinjiangs-muslims/ |magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]] |access-date=30 January 2019 |date=7 February 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190129133538/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/02/07/reeducating-xinjiangs-muslims/ |archive-date=29 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===Early events=== |
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Some{{weasel-inline|date=March 2014}} put the beginning of the modern phase of the conflict in Xinjiang in the 1950s.<ref name=american.edu/> |
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Early [[Xinjiang under Qing rule|Qing rule]] was marked by a "culturally pluralist" approach, with a prohibition on Chinese settlement in the region, and indirect rule through supervised local officials.<ref name=NYBooks/><ref>{{cite book |first=Hodong |last=Kim |title=Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AtduqAtBzegC&pg=PA180 |date=2004 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-6723-1 |pages=180–181}}</ref> An increased tax burden placed on the local population due to rebellions elsewhere in China later led to a number of [[Dungan Revolt (1862–77)|Hui-led Muslim rebellion]]s.<ref name=Tschantret2016>{{cite journal |last=Tschantret |first=Joshua |title=Repression, opportunity, and innovation: The evolution of terrorism in Xinjiang, China |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |date=16 June 2016 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=569–588 |doi=10.1080/09546553.2016.1182911 |s2cid=147865241 }}</ref><ref name="Tamura1997">{{cite book |first = Eileen |last = Tamura |title = China: Understanding Its Past |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=O0TQ_Puz-w8C&pg=PA129 |year=1997 |publisher = University of Hawaii Press |isbn = 978-0-8248-1923-1 |page = 129 }}</ref> The region was subsequently [[Qing reconquest of Xinjiang|recaptured]], and was established as an official province in 1884.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} |
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===Soviet support for Uyghur uprisings=== |
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{{main|Sino-Soviet split}} |
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Near the end of their rule the Qing tried to colonize Xinjiang along with other parts of the imperial frontier. To accomplish this goal they began a policy of [[settler colonialism]] by which [[Han Chinese]] where resettled on the frontier.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Leibold |first1=James |title=Beyond Xinjiang: Xi Jinping's Ethnic Crackdown |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/beyond-xinjiang-xi-jinpings-ethnic-crackdown/ |website=thediplomat.com |publisher=The Diplomat |access-date=2 May 2021}}</ref> |
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The Soviet Union incited separatist activities in Xinjiang through propaganda, encouraging Kazakhs to flee to the Soviet Union and attack China. China responded by reinforcing the Xinjiang-Soviet border area specifically with Han [[Bingtuan]] militia and farmers.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA138#v=onepage&q&f=false Starr 2004], p. 138.</ref> The Soviets massively intensified their broadcasts inciting Uyghurs to revolt against the Chinese via Radio Tashkent since 1967 and directly harbored and supported separatist guerilla fighters to attack the Chinese border, in 1966 the amount of Soviet sponsored separatist attacks on China numbered 5,000.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA139&dq=china+clash+soviet+xinjiang&source=bl&ots=Up2TmrkbQt&sig=Nyk-mJdjaRzVxjXST53vCaC42N4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Wiz0UvepGrPKsQT984LYAw&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=china%20clash%20soviet%20xinjiang&f=false Starr 2004], p. 139.</ref> The Soviets doubled Uighur language broadcasts of Radio Tashkent in 1967.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=dYqQYs8lnWQC&pg=PA140#v=onepage&q&f=false Steele 1984], p. 140.</ref> The Soviets transmitted a radio broadcast from Radio Tashkent into Xinjiang on 14 May 1967, boasting of the fact that the Soviets had supported the Second East Turkestan Republic against China.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA188#v=snippet&q=14%20May%201967%20beamed%20Radio%20Tashkent%20Soviets&f=false Forbes 1986], p. 188.</ref> In addition to Radio Tashkent, other Soviet media outlets aimed at disseminating propaganda towards Uyghurs urging that they proclaim independence and revolt against China included Radio Alma-Ata and the Alma-Ata published ''Sherki Türkistan Evazi'' ("The Voice of Eastern Turkestan") newspaper.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxuscom.com/sovinxj.htm|title=Dickens, 1990.|publisher=|accessdate=26 October 2014}}</ref> After the [[Sino-Soviet split]] in 1962, over 60,000 Uyghurs and Kazakhs [[Kazakh exodus from Xinjiang|defected from Xinjiang]] to the [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic]], in response to [[Propaganda in the Soviet Union|Soviet propaganda]] which promised Xinjiang independence. Uyghur exiles later threatened China with rumors of a Uyghur "liberation army" in the thousands that were supposedly recruited from Sovietized emigres.<ref>{{harvnb|Bovingdon|2010|pp=141–142}}</ref> |
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===20th century=== |
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The Soviet Union was involved in funding and support to the [[East Turkestan People's Revolutionary Party]] (ETPRP), the largest militant Uyghur separatist organization in its time, to start a violent uprising against China in 1968.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=1ia-2lDtGH4C&pg=PA57&dq=soviet+turkestan+people's+party&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dpQcU9iPN-fN0wHUrYCYAQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=soviet%20turkestan%20people's%20party&f=false Dillon 2003], p. 57.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC&pg=PA69&dq=soviet+turkestan+people's+party&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dpQcU9iPN-fN0wHUrYCYAQ&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=soviet%20turkestan%20people's%20party&f=false Clarke 2011], p. 69.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=g25_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA147&dq=soviet+turkestan+people's+party&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dpQcU9iPN-fN0wHUrYCYAQ&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=soviet%20turkestan%20people's%20party&f=false Dillon 2008], p. 147.</ref><ref name="google1">[http://books.google.com/books?id=etRkjLv8AosC&pg=PT278&dq=soviet+turkestan+people's+party&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dpQcU9iPN-fN0wHUrYCYAQ&ved=0CFEQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=soviet%20turkestan%20people's%20party&f=false Nathan & Scobell 2008,].</ref><ref name="google1"/> In the 1970s, the Soviets also supported the [[United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan]] (URFET) to fight against the Chinese.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=5I2b_hrJO8sC&pg=PA37&dq=soviet+turkestan+people's+party&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dpQcU9iPN-fN0wHUrYCYAQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=soviet%20turkestan%20people's%20party&f=false Reed 2010], p. 37.</ref> |
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{{Further|First East Turkestan Republic|Second East Turkestan Republic}} |
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After the 1928 assassination of [[Yang Zengxin]], governor of the semi-autonomous [[Kumul Khanate]] in east Xinjiang under the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]], he was succeeded by [[Jin Shuren]]. On the death of the Kamul Khan [[Maqsud Shah]] in 1930, Jin abolished the Khanate entirely and took control of the region as [[Warlord Era|warlord]].{{sfnp|Forbes|1986|p=45}} Corruption, appropriation of land, and the commandeering of grain and livestock by Chinese military forces were all factors which led to the eventual [[Kumul Rebellion]] that established the [[First East Turkestan Republic]] in 1933.{{sfnp|Forbes|1986|p=46}}{{sfnp|Millward|2007|p=341}}{{sfnp|Dillon|2014|p=36}} In 1934, it was conquered by warlord [[Sheng Shicai]] with the [[Soviet invasion of Xinjiang|aid of the Soviet Union]]. Sheng's leadership was marked by heavy Soviet influence, with him openly offering Xinjiang's valuable natural resources in exchange for Soviet help in crushing revolts, such as in [[Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)|1937]].{{sfnp|Millward|Tursun|2004|p=80}} Although already in use,{{efn|The [[First East Turkestan Republic]] had considered the name "Uyghuristan", with some early coins bearing that name, but settled on the "East Turkestan Republic" on the basis that there were other Turkic peoples in Xinjiang and the new government.{{sfnp|Millward|Tursun|2004|p=78}}}} it was in this period that the term "Uyghur" was first used officially over the generic "Turkic", as part of an effort to "undermine potential broader bases of identity" such as Turkic or Muslim. In 1942, Sheng sought reconciliation with the Republic of China, abandoning the Soviets.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} |
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"Bloody incidents" in 1966-67 flared up as Chinese and Soviet forces clashed along the border as the Soviets trained anti-Chinese guerillas and urged Uyghurs to revolt against China, hailing their "national liberation struggle".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19690102&id=ylsgAAAAIBAJ&sjid=UGQFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4665,144363|title=Ryan 1969, p. 3.|publisher=|accessdate=26 October 2014}}</ref> On January 30, 1967, it was reported that in Xinjiang, guerilla attacks were being carried out by a "Soviet-based Turkestan refugee army."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=990DE2DC113CE53BBC4950DFB766838C679EDE|title=Turkestan Refugees Report Raids on Chinese Sinkiang|date=31 January 1967|publisher=|accessdate=1 February 2015}}</ref> In 1969, Chinese and Soviet forces directly fought each other along the Xinjiang-Soviet border.<ref name="businessweek.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/may2010/gb20100528_168520.htm|title=Tinibai 2010, ''Bloomberg Businessweek'' p. 1|author=Kenjali Tinibai|work=Businessweek.com|accessdate=26 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://engnews.gazeta.kz/art.asp?aid=308213|title=Tinibai 2010, ''gazeta.kz''.|publisher=|accessdate=26 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tol.org/client/article/21490-kazakhstan-and-china-a-two-way-street.html|title=Tinibai 2010, ''Transitions Online''.|publisher=|accessdate=26 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1983/07/06/world/on-soviet-china-border-the-thaw-is-just-a-trickle.html|title=ON SOVIET-CHINA BORDER, THE THAW IS JUST A TRICKLE|date=6 July 1983|publisher=|accessdate=1 February 2015}}</ref> |
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In 1944, the [[Ili Rebellion]] led to the [[Second East Turkestan Republic]]. Though direct evidence of Soviet involvement remains circumstantial, and rebel forces were primarily made up of Turkic Muslims with the support of the local population, the new state was dependent on the Soviet Union for trade, arms, and "tacit consent" for its continued existence.{{sfnp|Benson|1990|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=suuXIhetjZcC&pg=PA40 40–41]}} When the Communists defeated the Republic of China in the [[Chinese Civil War]], the Soviets helped the Communist [[People's Liberation Army]] (PLA) recapture it, and it was [[Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China|annexed]] by the People's Republic in 1949. |
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The Soviet Union supported Uyghur nationalist propaganda and Uyghur separatist movements against China. The Soviet historians claimed that the Uyghur native land was Xinjiang and Uyghur nationalism was promoted by Soviet versions of history on turcology.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false Bellér-Hann 2007], p. 37.</ref> Soviet turcologists like D.I. Tikhonov wrote pro-independence works on Uyghur history and the Soviet supported Uyghur historian Tursun Rakhimov wrote more historical works supporting Uyghur independence and attacking the Chinese government, claiming that Xinjiang was an entity created by China made out of the different parts of East Turkestan and Zungharia.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA38#v=onepage&q&f=false Bellér-Hann 2007], p. 38.</ref> These Soviet Uyghur historians were waging an "ideological war" against China, emphasizing the "national liberation movement" of Uyghurs throughout history.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false Bellér-Hann 2007], p. 39.</ref> The Soviet Communist Party supported the publication of works which glorified the [[Second East Turkestan Republic]] and the [[Ili Rebellion]] against China in its anti-China propaganda war.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA40#v=onepage&q&f=false Bellér-Hann 2007], p. 40.</ref> Soviet propaganda writers wrote works claiming that Uyghurs lived better lives and were able to practice their culture only in Soviet Central Asia and not in Xinjiang.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q&f=false Bellér-Hann 2007], p. 41.</ref> In 1979 Soviet KGB agent [[Victor Louis (journalist)|Victor Louis]] wrote a thesis claiming that the Soviets should support a "war of liberation" against the "imperial" China to support Uighur, Tibetan, Mongol, and Manchu independence.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=cEdQ1IuJFH4C&pg=PA172#v=onepage&q&f=false Wong 2002], p. 172.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZavAkGUNdSkC&pg=PA175#v=onepage&q&f=false Liew 2004], p. 175.</ref> The Soviet KGB itself supported Uyghur separatists against China.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=mXXnd81uoMoC&pg=PA240#v=onepage&q&f=false Wang 2008], p. 240.</ref> Among some Uyghurs, the Soviet Union was viewed extremely favorably and several of them believed that people of Turkic origin ruled the Soviet Union, claiming that one of these Turkic Soviet leaders was [[Mikhail Gorbachev]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA62#v=onepage&q&f=false Rudelson & Rudelson 1997], p. 62.</ref> |
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The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region was established in 1955.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bhattacharji |first1=Preeti |title=Uighurs and China's Xinjiang Region |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/uighurs-and-chinas-xinjiang-region |website=Council on Foreign Relations |access-date=12 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913002530/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/uighurs-and-chinas-xinjiang-region |archive-date=13 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Uyghur nationalist historian [[Turghun Almas]] and his book [[Uyghurlar]] (The Uyghurs) and Uyghur nationalist accounts of history were galvanized by Soviet stances on history, "firmly grounded" in Soviet Turcological works, and both heavily influenced and partially created by Soviet historians and Soviet works on Turkic peoples.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q&f=false Bellér-Hann 2007], p. 42.</ref> Soviet historiography spawned the rendering of Uyghur history found in Uyghurlar.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA33#v=onepage&q&f=false Bellér-Hann 2007], p. 33.</ref> Almas claimed that Central Asia was "the motherland of the Uyghurs" and also the "ancient golden cradle of world culture".<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q&f=false Bellér-Hann 2007], p. 4.</ref> |
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In the late 1950s and early 1960s, between 60,000 and 200,000 Uyghurs, Kazakhs, and other minorities fled China to the USSR, largely as a result of the [[Great Leap Forward]].<ref name=Guerif>{{cite web |last=Guerif |first=Valentine |title = Making States, Displacing Peoples: A Comparative Perspective of Xinjiang and Tibet in the People's Republic of China |url = https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp61-making-states-displacing-peoples-2010.pdf |publisher=[[Refugee Studies Centre]] |access-date=12 September 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171125210757/https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp61-making-states-displacing-peoples-2010.pdf |archive-date=25 November 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Bovingdon|2010|p=61}} As the [[Sino-Soviet split]] deepened, the Soviets initiated an extensive propaganda campaign criticising China, encouraging minority groups to migrate – and later revolt – and attempting to undermine Chinese sovereignty by appealing to separatist tendencies. In 1962, China stopped issuing exit permits for Soviet citizens, as the Soviet consulate had been distributing passports to enable the exodus.{{sfnp|Shichor|2004|p=138}} A resulting demonstration in [[Yining]] was met with open fire by the PLA, sparking further protests and mass defections. China responded to these developments by relocating non-Han populations away from the border, creating a "buffer zone" which would later be filled with Han farmers and [[Bingtuan]] militia.<ref name=Guerif/>{{sfnp|Bovingdon|2010|p=61}}{{sfnp|Shichor|2004|p=138}} Tensions continued to escalate throughout the decade, with ethnic guerrilla groups based in [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic|Kazakhstan]] frequently raiding Chinese border posts,{{sfnp|Shichor|2004|p=139}}<ref>{{cite web |url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19690102&id=ylsgAAAAIBAJ&pg=4665,144363 |title = Russians Back Revolution in Province Inside China |last=Ryan|first=William L. |date=2 January 1969 |newspaper=The Lewiston Daily Sun |agency=Associated Press }}</ref> and Chinese and Soviet forces [[Sino-Soviet border conflict|clashing on the border]] in 1969.{{sfnp|Shichor|2004|p=139}}<ref name="Tinibai">{{cite web |url = http://www.tol.org/client/article/21490-kazakhstan-and-china-a-two-way-street.html |title = Kazakhstan and China: A Two-Way Street |last=Tinibai |first=Kenjali |date=27 May 2010 |website = Transitions Online |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/1983/07/06/world/on-soviet-china-border-the-thaw-is-just-a-trickle.html |title = On Soviet-China Border, the Thaw is Just a Trickle |last=Burns |first=John F. |date=6 July 1983 |newspaper = The New York Times }}</ref> |
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Xinjiang's importance to China increased after the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979]], leading to China's perception of being encircled by the Soviets.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC&pg=PA76&dq=China+afghan+mujahideen+xinjiang&hl=en&sa=X&ei=hSv0UqybHomosQTh2oCQAQ&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=China%20afghan%20mujahideen%20xinjiang&f=false Clarke 2011], p. 76.</ref> China supported the Afghan mujahideen during the Soviet invasion, and broadcast reports of Soviet atrocities on Afghan Muslims to Uyghurs in order to counter Soviet propaganda broadcasts into Xinjiang, which boasted that Soviet minorities lived better and incited Muslims to revolt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1946&dat=19810922&id=3oAxAAAAIBAJ&sjid=9KQFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5348,448513|title=''Radio war aims at China Moslems'' 1981, p. 11.|publisher=|accessdate=26 October 2014}}</ref> Chinese radio beamed anti-Soviet broadcasts to Central Asian ethnic minorities like the Kazakhs.<ref name="businessweek.com"/> The Soviets feared disloyalty among the non-Russian Kazakh, Uzbek, and Kyrgyz in the event of Chinese troops attacking the Soviet Union and entering Central Asia. Russians were goaded with the taunt "Just wait till the Chinese get here, they'll show you what's what!" by Central Asians when they had altercations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1980/may-jun/meehan.html|title=Meehan 1980.|publisher=|accessdate=26 October 2014}}</ref> The Chinese authorities viewed the Han migrants in Xinjiang as vital to defending the area against the Soviet Union.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false Clarke 2011], p. 78.</ref> China opened up camps to train the Afghan Mujahideen near Kashgar and Khotan and supplied them with hundreds of millions of dollars worth of small arms, rockets, mines, and anti-tank weapons.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA149#v=onepage&q&f=false Starr 2004], p. 149.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA158#v=onepage&q&f=false Starr 2004], p. 158.</ref> |
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From the 1950s to the 1970s, a state-orchestrated mass migration into Xinjiang has raised the number of Han from 7% to 40% of the population, exacerbating ethnic tensions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Howell |first1=Anthony |last2=Fan |first2 = C. Cindy |title = Migration and Inequality in Xinjiang: A Survey of Han and Uyghur Migrants in Urumqi |url= https://geog.ucla.edu/sites/default/files/users/fan/403.pdf |access-date=12 September 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180912022518/https://geog.ucla.edu/sites/default/files/users/fan/403.pdf |archive-date=12 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> On the other hand, a declining infant-mortality rate, improved medical care and non-applicability of China's one-child policy on minorities have helped the Uyghur population in Xinjiang grow from four million in the 1960s to eight million in 2001.{{sfnp|Veeck|Pannell|Smith|Huang|2011|pp=102–103}} |
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In the 1980s, there was a scattering of student demonstrations and riots against police action that took on an ethnic aspect; and the [[Baren Township riot]] in April, 1990, an abortive uprising, resulted in more than 50 deaths.{{citation needed | date = June 2013}} |
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In 1968, the [[East Turkestan People's Revolutionary Party|East Turkestan People's Party]] was the largest militant Uyghur separatist organization, and may have received support from the Soviet Union.{{sfnp|Dillon|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1ia-2lDtGH4C&pg=PA57 57]}}{{sfnp|Clarke|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC&pg=PA69 69]}}{{sfnp|Nathan|Scobell|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=etRkjLv8AosC&pg=PT278 278]}} During the 1970s, the Soviets likely supported the [[United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan]] (URFET),{{sfnp|Reed|Raschke|2010|p=37}} which issued a series of press releases responsible for creating the impression of an active, organized resistance movement, despite involving only a handful of individuals.<ref name="Wayne2007">{{cite book|author=Martin I. Wayne|title=China's War on Terrorism: Counter-Insurgency, Politics and Internal Security|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ybmWJXjxUYC&pg=PA46|date=6 November 2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-10623-3|page=46}}</ref><ref name="Millward2007">{{cite book|author=James A. Millward|title=Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&q=URFET&pg=PA341|year=2007|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-13924-3|page=341f}}</ref><ref name="MackerrasClarke2009">{{cite book|author1=Colin Mackerras|author2=Michael Clarke|title=China, Xinjiang and Central Asia: History, Transition and Crossborder Interaction Into the 21st Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QoF8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PR14|date=14 April 2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-05387-2|page=14|quote="Activities of the UNRFET nevertheless involved a handful of individuals, mostly former ETR leaders and officers, but did not acquire a wider support even among local intellectuals, who, although they sympathized with its goals, did not join it."}}</ref> Its founder, Yusupbek Mukhlis came to be resented by other Uyghur groups for "exaggerating Uyghur involvement in militant activities", including falsely claiming credit for terrorist attacks.{{sfnp|Millward|2004|p=25}} |
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===Late 1990s=== |
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A police round-up and execution of 30 suspected separatists<ref name="gn"/> during [[Ramadan]] resulted in large demonstrations in February 1997 which were characterized as riots in the Chinese media,<ref>"Xinjiang to intensify crackdown on separatists", [[China Daily]], 10/25/2001</ref> but which the western media allege were peaceful.<ref>Amnesty International Document - "China: Remember the Gulja massacre? China's crackdown on peaceful protesters", Web Action WA 003/07 AI Index: ASA 17/002/2007, Start date: 01/02/2007 [http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA17/002/2007/en/dom-ASA170022007en.html The amnesty.org article.]{{dead link| date = January 2014}}</ref>{{Unreliable source? | date=January 2014}} These demonstrations culminated in the [[Gulja Incident]] on the 5th of February, in which a [[People's Liberation Army]] (PLA) crackdown on the demonstrations led to at least nine deaths<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/china-bck1017.htm|title=Human Rights Watch|publisher=|accessdate=26 October 2014}}</ref> and perhaps more than 100.<ref name=gn>{{YouTube|4RUCOrg2Pb0|1997 Channel 4 (UK) news report on the incident}}</ref> The [[1997 Ürümqi bus bombings|Ürümqi bus bombings]] of February 25, 1997 killed nine and injured 68. The situation in Xinjiang was relatively quiet from the late nineties through mid-2006, though inter-ethnic tensions no doubt remained.<ref>See Hierman, Brent. "The Pacification of Xinjiang: Uighur Protest and the Chinese State, 1988–2002." Problems of Post-Communism, May/Jun2007, Vol. 54 Issue 3, pp 48–62</ref> |
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Xinjiang's importance to China increased after the 1979 [[Afghan Civil War (1978-present)|Soviet assistance to Afghanistan]], which led to China's perception of being encircled by the Soviets.{{sfnp|Clarke|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC&pg=PA76 76]}} China supported the Afghan [[mujahideen]] during the Soviet assistance to the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] and broadcast reports of Soviet atrocities committed on Afghan Muslims to Uyghurs to counter Soviet broadcasts to Xinjiang that Soviet Muslim minorities had a better life.<ref>{{cite news |title=Radio war aims at China Moslems |work=The Montreal Gazette |date=22 September 1981 |page=11 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1946&dat=19810922&id=3oAxAAAAIBAJ&pg=5348,448513 |access-date=9 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506181806/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1946&dat=19810922&id=3oAxAAAAIBAJ&sjid=9KQFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5348,448513 |archive-date=6 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Anti-Soviet Chinese radio broadcasts targeted Central Asian ethnic minorities, such as the Kazakhs.<ref name="businessweek.com">{{cite news |first=Kenjali |last=Tinibai |title=China and Kazakhstan: A Two-Way Street |work=Bloomberg Businessweek |date=28 May 2010 |page=1 |url = http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/may2010/gb20100528_168520.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150705185320/http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/may2010/gb20100528_168520.htm |archive-date=5 July 2015}}</ref> The Soviets feared disloyalty by the non-Russian Kazakh, Uzbek, and Kyrgyz in the event of a Chinese invasion of Soviet Central Asia, and Russians were taunted by Central Asians: "Just wait till the Chinese get here, they'll show you what's what!"<ref>{{cite journal|last=Meehan|first=Dallace L.|title=Ethnic Minorities in the Soviet Military: implications for the decades ahead|journal=Air University Review|date=May 1980|url= http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1980/may-jun/meehan.html|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140513084042/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1980/may-jun/meehan.html|archive-date=13 May 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Chinese authorities viewed Han migrants in Xinjiang as vital to defence against the Soviet Union.{{sfnp|Clarke|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC&pg=PA78 78]}} China established camps to train the Afghan mujahideen near Kashgar and Hotan, investing hundreds of millions of dollars in small arms, rockets, mines, and anti-tank weapons.{{sfnp|Shichor|2004|pp=149, 159}} During the 1980s, student demonstrations and riots against police action assumed an ethnic aspect, and the April 1990 [[Baren Township riot]] has been acknowledged as a turning point.<ref>{{cite report |first = Shawn M. |last = Patrick |date=20 May 2010 |title = The Uyghur Movement: China's Insurgency in Xinjiang |url = http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a523195.pdf |publisher=[[School of Advanced Military Studies]] |page=32 |access-date=19 November 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161012044510/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a523195.pdf|archive-date=12 October 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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A chain of aggressive and belligerent press releases in the 1990s making false claims about violent insurrections in Xinjiang, and exaggerating both the number of Chinese migrants and the total number of Uyghurs in Xinjiang were made by the former Soviet supported URFET leader Yusupbek Mukhlisi.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=2ybmWJXjxUYC&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false Wayne 2007], p. 46.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA341&dq=urfet+soviet&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xs1wU53ZFOqksQTB34GQCw&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=urfet%20soviet&f=false Millward 2007], p. 341.</ref> |
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The Soviet Union supported Uyghur nationalist propaganda and Uyghur separatist movements against China. Soviet historians claimed that the Uyghur native land was Xinjiang; and Uyghur nationalism was promoted by Soviet versions of history on turcology.{{sfnp|Bellér-Hann|2007|p=37}} This included support of Uyghur historians such as [[Tursun Rakhimov]], who wrote more historical works supporting Uyghur independence, claiming that Xinjiang was an entity created by China made out of the different parts of East Turkestan and Zungharia.{{sfnp|Bellér-Hann|2007|p=38}} Bellér-Hann describes these Soviet Uyghur historians were waging an "ideological war" against China, emphasizing the "national liberation movement" of Uyghurs throughout history.{{sfnp|Bellér-Hann|2007|p=39}} The [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]] supported the publication of works which glorified the Second East Turkestan Republic and the [[Ili Rebellion]] against China in its anti-China propaganda war.{{sfnp|Bellér-Hann|2007|p=40}} |
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In 1997 the [[Ghulja Incident]] occurred as a result of a series of demonstrations. |
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===1990s to 2007=== |
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China's [[Strike Hard Campaign against Violent Terrorism|"Strike Hard" campaign]] against crime, beginning in 1996, saw thousands of arrests, as well as executions, and "constant human rights violations", and also marked reduction in religious freedom.<ref name=Castets>{{cite journal |first=Rémi |last=Castets |title=The Uyghurs in Xinjiang – The Malaise Grows |journal=China Perspectives |year = 2003 |volume=49 |url = http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/648#tocto1n6 |access-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130511024214/http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/648#tocto1n6 |archive-date=11 May 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> These policies, and a feeling of political marginalisation, contributed to the fermentation of groups who carried out numerous guerrilla operations, including sabotage and attacks on police barracks, and occasionally even acts of terrorism including bomb attacks and assassinations of government officials. |
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In 2007, the world's attention was brought to the conflict following the [[Xinjiang raid]] on an alleged terrorist training camp,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cctv.com/english/20070110/100828.shtml|accessdate=26 November 2008|title=Chinese police destroy terrorist camp in Xinjiang, one policeman killed|work=CCTV International|date=1 October 2007}}{{Unreliable source?|date= January 2014}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2014}} a thwarted 2008 suicide bombing attempt on a [[China Southern Airlines]] flight,<ref>Elizabeth Van Wie Davis, "[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/JD18Ad01.html China confronts its Uyghur threat]," ''[[Asia Times Online]]'', 18 April 2008.</ref> and the [[2008 Xinjiang attack]], which resulted in the deaths of sixteen police officers four days before the [[2008 Summer Olympics|Beijing Olympics]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/05/world/asia/05china.html| work=The New York Times| title=Ambush in China Raises Concerns as Olympics Near| first=Andrew | last=Jacobs| date=5 August 2008| accessdate=27 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/beijing_olympics/story/0,,24124957-5014104,00.html| title= Waterhouse Caulfield Cup breakthrough}}{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref> See [[2008 Uyghur unrest]] for further details. |
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On 25/26 June 2009, the [[Shaoguan incident]] occurred in Guangdong province. |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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Further incidents include the [[July 2009 Ürümqi riots]], the [[September 2009 Xinjiang unrest]], and the [[2010 Aksu bombing]] that led to the trials of 376 people.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jan/17/china-prosecuted-hundreds-xinjiang-unrest |title=China prosecuted hundreds over Xinjiang unrest|publisher=The Guardian | accessdate =18 January 2011|location=London|date=17 January 2011}}{{dead link|date= January 2014}}</ref> The [[2011 Hotan attack]] in July led to the deaths of 18 civilians. Although all of the attackers were Uyghur,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Ban on Islamic dress sparked Uygur attack|first=Chi-yuk|last=Choi|location=[[Hotan]]|date=2011-07-22|publisher=[[South China Morning Post]]}}</ref> both Han and Uyghur people were victims.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article2277362.ece|title=Analysts see Pakistan terror links to Xinjiang attack|first=Ananth|last=Krishnan|date=2011-07-21|accessdate=2011-07-29|publisher=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> In 2011, six ethnic Uyghur men [[Tianjin Airlines Flight 7554|attempted to hijack]] an aircraft heading to [[Ürümqi]], but failed after passengers and crew resisted and restrained the hijackers. In 2011, a series of [[2011 Kashgar attacks|knife and bomb attacks]] occurred. |
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|+ Incidents in Xinjiang between 1990 and 2006 |
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On 28 December 2011, the [[Pishan hostage crisis]] occurred. |
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<ref name=Refworld2>{{cite web |title=Chronology for Turkmen in China |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/469f387ac.html |website=Refworld |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> |
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A February 1992 Ürümqi bus bombing, attributed to the Shock Brigade of the Islamic Reformist Party, resulted in three deaths.<ref name="Castets" /> |
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A police roundup and execution of 30 suspected separatists<ref name="gn" /> during [[Ramadan]] resulted in large demonstrations in February 1997, characterised as riots by Chinese [[state media]] outlet ''[[China Daily]]''<ref>{{cite news |title=Xinjiang to intensify crackdown on separatists |work=[[China Daily]] News |date=25 October 2001 |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2001-10/25/content_90592.htm |access-date=11 April 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160423202731/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2001-10/25/content_90592.htm |archive-date=23 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> and peaceful by Western media.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[Amnesty International]] |title=China: Remember the Gulja massacre? China's crackdown on peaceful protesters |date=2 January 2007 |url = https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/002/2007/en/ |access-date=21 November 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181122060422/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/002/2007/en/ |archive-date=22 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The demonstrations culminated in the 5 February [[Ghulja incident]], in which a People's Liberation Army (PLA) crackdown led to at least nine deaths<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/china-bck1017.htm |title = China: Human Rights Concerns in Xinjiang |website=Human Rights Watch |date=October 2001 |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081112153554/http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/china-bck1017.htm |archive-date=12 November 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> and possibly more than 100.<ref name="gn">{{YouTube|4RUCOrg2Pb0|1997 Channel 4 (UK) news report on the incident}}</ref> 25 February [[1997 Ürümqi bus bombings|Ürümqi bus bombings]] killed nine people and injured 68. Responsibility for the attacks was acknowledged by Uyghur exile groups.{{sfnp|Dillon|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1ia-2lDtGH4C&pg=PA99 99–]}}{{sfnp|Millward|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA333 333–]}} |
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On 28 February 2012, the [[2012 Yecheng attack]] occurred. |
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In Beijing's Xidan district, a bus bomb killed two people on 7 March 1997; Uyghur separatists claimed responsibility for the attack.{{sfnp|Debata|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xe8CUZ0_r4C&pg=PA170 170]}} Uyghur participation in the bombing was dismissed by the Chinese government, and the Turkish-based Organisation for East Turkistan Freedom admitted responsibility for the attack.<ref name="Castets" />{{sfnp|Millward|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA333 333–]}} The bus bombings triggered a change in policy, with China acknowledging separatist violence.<ref>{{cite journal |first = Dru C. |last = Gladney |url = https://cemoti.revues.org/48 |title = Internal Colonialism and the Uyghur Nationality: Chinese Nationalism and its Subaltern Subjects |journal = Cahiers d'Études Sur la Méditerranée Orientale et le Monde Turco-Iranien |issue=25 |date=January 1998 |doi = 10.4000/cemoti.48 |access-date=29 August 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161012053111/https://cemoti.revues.org/48 |archive-date=12 October 2016 |url-status=live |doi-access = free }}</ref> The situation in Xinjiang quieted until mid-2006, although ethnic tensions remained.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hierman |first=Brent |title=The Pacification of Xinjiang: Uighur Protest and the Chinese State, 1988–2002 |journal=Problems of Post-Communism |date=May 2007 |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=48–62 |doi=10.2753/PPC1075-8216540304 |s2cid=154942905 }}</ref> |
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On 24 April 2013, [[April 2013 Bachu unrest|clashes in Bachu]] occurred between a group of armed men and social workers, then with police near [[Kashgar]]. The violence left at least 21 people dead, including 15 police and officials.<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news|title=China's Xinjiang hit by deadly clashes|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-22276042|accessdate=24 April 2013|publisher=BBC News|date=24 April 2013}}</ref><ref name=CNN>{{cite news|title=Violence in western Chinese region of Xinjiang kills 21|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/24/world/asia/china-xinjiang-violence/index.html?hpt=hp_t3|accessdate=24 April 2013|publisher=CNN|date=24 April 2013}}</ref><ref name=CNTV>{{cite news|title=21 dead in Xinjiang terrorist clash|url=http://english.cntv.cn/20130424/105282.shtml|accessdate=24 April 2013|publisher=[[China Network Television|CNTV]]|date=24 April 2013}}</ref> A local government official said that the clashes broke out after three local officials had reported suspicious men armed with knives who were hiding at a house in Selibuya township, outside Kashgar.<ref name="Al Jazeera">{{cite news|title=Violence erupts in China's restive Xinjiang|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia-pacific/2013/04/201342461038596954.html|accessdate=24 April 2013|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=24 April 2013}}</ref> On 30 April 2014, a knife attack and bombing occurred in [[April 2014 Ürümqi attack|Ürümqi]]. |
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In 2005, Uygur author [[Nurmemet Yasin]] was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment for inciting separatism following his publication of an allegorical short story, "The Blue Pigeon".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/china-battles-to-convince-terror-sceptics/2005/11/11/1131578236193.html?page=3|title=China battles to convince terror sceptics|last=McDonald|first=Hamish|date=12 November 2005|work=The Age|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330143209/http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/china-battles-to-convince-terror-sceptics/2005/11/11/1131578236193.html?page=3|archive-date=30 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Two months later, on 26 June 2013, 27 people were killed in [[June 2013 Shanshan riots|Shanshan riots]]; 17 of them were killed by rioters, while the other ten people were alleged assailants who were shot dead by police in the township of Lukqun.<ref>{{cite news|title=State media: Violence leaves 27 dead in restive minority region in far western China|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/state-media-riots-in-restive-minority-region-in-far-western-china-leave-27-dead/2013/06/26/98d9c6f0-de22-11e2-bc84-8049224b33e1_story.html|newspaper=Washington Post|date=June 26, 2013}}{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref> |
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===2007–present=== |
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On 1 March 2014, a group of knife-wielding assailants [[2014 Kunming attack|attacked people]] at the [[Kunming Railway Station]] killing at least 29 and injuring 130 others.<ref>{{cite web|title=Unidentified Assailant kills 29 at Kunming Railway Station in China|url=http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/03/unidentified-assailant-kills-27-at-kunming-railway-station-in-china/|work=IANS|publisher=news.biharprabha.com|accessdate=2 March 2014}}</ref> China blamed Xinjiang militants for the attack.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/sns-rt-us-china-attack-xinjiang-20140301,0,2621490.story |title=China blames Xinjiang militants for station attack |last=Blanchard |first=Ben |publisher=Chicago Tribune |work=Reuters |date=2014-03-01 |accessdate=2014-03-01}}</ref> Over 380 were arrested in the following crackdown and four people were charged on June 30 for the incident, in which 29 people were killed and 140 injured.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/06/30/us-china-xinjiang-idUSKBN0F507W20140630 |title=China charges four in Kunming attack, sentences 113 on terror crimes |last= |first= |publisher=Reuters |work=Reuters |date=2014-06-30 }}</ref> Three of the suspects were accused of "leading and organising a terror group, and intentional homicide". They did not take part in the attack as they were arrested two days before.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-29170238 |title=Four sentenced in China over Kunming station attack |last= |first= |publisher=Reuters |work=Reuters |date=2014-09-12 }}</ref> On September 12, a Chinese court sentenced three people to death and one to life in prison for the attack, in which 31 people were killed and 141 injured.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idAFKBN0H709M20140912 |title=Three get death for China train station attack |last= |first= |publisher=Reuters |work=Reuters |date=2014-09-12 }}</ref> |
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{{See also|2008 Uyghur unrest|}} |
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{{cleanup section|reason=An excessive and ultimately unhelpful level of detail – trends are more important than events.|date=October 2018}} |
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On 18 April 2014, a group of 16 Chinese citizens identified as ethnic Uyghurs [[2014 China-Vietnam border shootout|engaged in a shootout with Vietnamese border guards]] after seizing their guns as they were being detained to be returned to China. Five Uyghurs and two Vietnamese guards died in the incident. Ten of the Uyghurs were men and the rest were women and children.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/20/world/asia/deadly-clash-between-vietnamese-border-guards-and-chinese-migrants-reported.html?_r=0</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/22/world/asia/vietnam-returns-migrants-to-china-after-deadly-border-clash.html</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-04-19/an-seven-killed-in-shootout-on-vietnam-china-border3a-vietname/5399600 |title=Seven killed in China-Vietnam border shootout |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=2014-04-19 |accessdate=2014-08-25}}</ref><ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/7-killed-in-shooting-on-china-vietnam-border/2014/04/18/d7d1c438-c6e4-11e3-b708-471bae3cb10c_story.html ]{{dead link|date=August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/855733.shtml |title=Shooting sounds alarm for cross-border activities |publisher=Global Times |date=2014-04-21 |accessdate=2014-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uyghurcongress.org/en/?p=22320 |title=7 die in shooting at China-Vietnam border |publisher=World Uyghur Congress |accessdate=2014-08-25}}</ref> |
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It is apparent that the number of violent incidents and uprisings increased from the 1990s, peaking in 2014, although their extent is difficult to confirm independently due to restrictions on the access of independent observers and international journalists.<ref name="Mabry2015">{{cite book|author=Tristan James Mabry|title=Nationalism, Language, and Muslim Exceptionalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IIiKBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|date=6 February 2015|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-9101-8|page=113|quote=Periodic uprisings against Chinese rule have erupted more frequently in recent decades, though most events are spontaneous clashes or riots in the form of "social and civil unrest by disorganized, disgruntled, fairly impulsive young men, not a widespread movement" (Smith 2001). [...] The extent of these uprisings is difficult to confirm independently as the access of independent observers (especially international journalists) is severely restricted, though it is apparent that their frequency accelerated starting in the 1990s, and has continued unabated (see, for example, Jacobs 2014).}}</ref> Nonetheless, the majority of events during this period were characterised as spontaneous clashes or riots by "disorganized, disgruntled, fairly impulsive young men".<ref name="Mabry2015"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Craig S. |title=China, in Harsh Crackdown, Executes Muslim Separatists |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/16/world/china-in-harsh-crackdown-executes-muslim-separatists.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=16 December 2001}}</ref> |
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On 30 April 2014, two attackers [[April 2014 Ürümqi attack|stabbed people before detonating their suicide vests]] at an [[Ürümqi]] train station. Three people, including the two attackers, were killed.<ref>{{cite news|title=Deadly China blast at Xinjiang railway station|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-27225308|work=BBC News|publisher=BBC|date=30 April 2014|accessdate=1 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Security tightened after three killed in bomb, knife attack at Urumqi train station|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1501108/three-killed-explosion-rocks-urumqi-train-station|date=30 April 2014|accessdate=1 May 2014|first=Jing|last=Li|newspaper=South China Morning Post}} '''{{subscription required}}'''</ref><ref name="Guardian22514"/> |
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According to Vaughan Winterbottom, although the [[Turkistan Islamic Party]] distributes propaganda videos and its [[Arabic]] ''Islamic Turkistan'' magazine (documented by Jihadology.net and the [[Jamestown Foundation]]) the Chinese government apparently denied the party's existence; China claimed that there was no terrorist connection to its 2008 bus bombings as the TIP claimed responsibility for the attacks.<ref name="Winterbottom">{{cite news |last=Winterbottom |first=Vaughan |date=14 August 2013 |title=No end in sight to Xinjiang unrest |work=China Outlook |url=http://chinaoutlook.com/no-end-in-sight-to-xinjiang-unrest/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925110632/http://chinaoutlook.com/no-end-in-sight-to-xinjiang-unrest/ |archive-date=25 September 2015 |url-status=live |access-date=25 September 2015}}</ref> In 2007, police [[Xinjiang raid|raided]] a suspected TIP [[terrorist training camp]].<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/08/AR2007010801519.html |last=Fan |first=Maureen |date=9 January 2007 |title=Raid by Chinese Kills 18 At Alleged Terror Camp |access-date=29 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020031553/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/08/AR2007010801519.html |archive-date=20 October 2017 |url-status=live |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref> The following year, an attempted suicide bombing on a [[China Southern Airlines]] flight was thwarted<ref>{{cite news |first=Elizabeth |last=Van Wie Davis |url= https://www.academia.edu/8164338 |title=China confronts its Uyghur threat |work=[[Asia Times Online]] |date=18 April 2008 |access-date=5 May 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130603200354/http://atimes.com/atimes/China/JD18Ad01.html |archive-date=3 June 2013}}</ref> and the [[2008 Kashgar attack|Kashgar attack]] resulted in the death of sixteen police officers four days before the beginning of the [[2008 Summer Olympics|Beijing Olympics]].<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/05/world/asia/05china.html |newspaper = The New York Times |title=Ambush in China Raises Concerns as Olympics Near |first=Andrew |last=Jacobs |date=5 August 2008 |access-date=27 March 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090410102057/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/05/world/asia/05china.html |archive-date=10 April 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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On 22 May 2014, [[May 2014 Ürümqi attack|twin suicide car bombings occurred after the occupants had thrown multiple explosives out of their vehicles]] at an Ürümqi [[street market]]. The attacks killed 43 people and injured more than 90, making it the deadliest attack yet in the Xinjiang conflict.<ref name="Guardian22514">{{cite news | url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/22/china-urumqi-car-bomb-attack-xinjiang | title=Urumqi car and bomb attack kills dozens | publisher=''[[The Guardian]]'' | date=2014-05-22 | accessdate=2014-05-22}}</ref><ref name=NYT>{{cite news |last=Jacobs|first=Andrew |title=Residents Try to Move On After Terrorist Attack in China |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/24/world/asia/residents-try-to-move-on-after-terrorist-attack-in-china.html |newspaper=The New York Times |accessdate=23 May 2014 |date=23 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/terrorist-attack-on-market-in-chinas-restive-xinjiang-region-kills-more-than-30/2014/05/22/06fab2dc-93d4-4cda-ae78-caa913819e15_story.html | title=Terrorist attack on market in China’s restive Xinjiang region kills more than 30 | publisher=''[[The Washington Post]]'' | date=2014-05-22 | accessdate=2014-05-22 | last=Denyer | first=Simon}}</ref> |
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During the night of 25–26 June 2009, in the [[Shaoguan incident]] in [[Guangdong]], two people were killed and 118 injured.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.china.org.cn/china/news/2009-06/27/content_18023576.htm |title = Guangdong toy factory brawl leaves 2 dead, 118 injured – china.org.cn |website=www.china.org.cn |access-date=1 November 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175701/http://www.china.org.cn/china/news/2009-06/27/content_18023576.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> The incident reportedly triggered the [[July 2009 Ürümqi riots]]; others were the [[September 2009 Xinjiang unrest]] and the [[2010 Aksu bombing]], after which 376 people were tried.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/17/china-prosecuted-hundreds-xinjiang-unrest |title = China prosecuted hundreds over Xinjiang unrest |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=18 January 2011 |location=London |date=17 January 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110120013953/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jan/17/china-prosecuted-hundreds-xinjiang-unrest |archive-date=20 January 2011 }}</ref> The July [[2011 Hotan attack]] led to the deaths of 18 people, 14 of whom were attackers. Although the attackers were ethnic Uyghurs,<ref>{{cite news |title=Ban on Islamic dress sparked Uygur attack |first=Chi-yuk |last=Choi |location=[[Hotan]], China |date=22 July 2011 |newspaper = [[South China Morning Post]] }}</ref>both Han and Uyghurs were victims.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article2277362.ece |title = Analysts see Pakistan terror links to Xinjiang attack |first=Ananth |last=Krishnan |date=21 July 2011 |access-date=29 July 2011 |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110724152049/http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article2277362.ece |archive-date=24 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> That year, six ethnic Uyghur men [[Tianjin Airlines Flight 7554|unsuccessfully attempted to hijack]] an aircraft heading to [[Ürümqi]], a series of [[2011 Kashgar attacks|knife and bomb attacks]] occurred in July and the [[Pishan hostage crisis]] occurred in December.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-16351368 |title = Seven 'kidnappers' killed in China's Xinjiang |date=29 December 2011 |access-date=29 December 2011 |work=BBC News |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171203054348/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-16351368 |archive-date=3 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Credit for the attacks was professed by the Turkistan Islamic Party.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lee |first=Raymond |date=20 February 2014 |title=Unrest in Xinjiang, Uyghur Province in China |url = http://studies.aljazeera.net/en/reports/2014/02/201421281846110687.html |publisher = Al Jazeera Center for Studies |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170223005429/http://studies.aljazeera.net/en/reports/2014/02/201421281846110687.html |archive-date=23 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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On June 5, 2014, China sentenced 9 persons to death for terrorist attacks - they were seeking to overthrow Chinese rule, inspired by global jihadi ideology, in Xinjiang.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bodeen |first=Christopher |date=June 5, 2014 |title=China Sentences 9 Persons to Death for Xinjiang Attacks |url=http://time.com/2836835/china-sentences-9-persons-to-death-for-xinjiang-attacks |newspaper=Time |location=Xinjiang |publisher=Time |accessdate=June 6, 2014 }}</ref> |
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On 28 February 2012, an [[2012 Yecheng attack|attack in Yecheng]] left 20 people dead, including seven attackers.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia-pacific/2012/02/20122294486118604.html |title = Deadly knife attack reported in China |website = www.aljazeera.com |access-date=17 October 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160924075259/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia-pacific/2012/02/20122294486118604.html |archive-date=24 September 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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On 28 July 2014, an incident occurred in the towns of Elixku and Huangdi in [[Yarkant County|Shache county]]. The [[Xinhua News Agency|Chinese state media Xinhua]] said 37 civilians were killed by a gang armed with knives and axes in Xinjiang, with 59 attackers killed by security forces. Xinhua said 215 attackers were arrested after they stormed a police station and government offices. It said 30 police cars had been damaged or destroyed and dozens of Uyghur and Han Chinese civilians had been killed or injured. The incident is disputed as the [[Uyghur American Association]] (UAA) said that local Uyghurs had been protesting at the time of the attack. On 30 July 2014, the imam of China's largest mosque, [[Jume Tahir]], in the city of [[Kashgar]] in Xinjiang, died after reportedly being stabbed after morning prayers for his reported [[pro-Beijing]] stance.<ref name="BBC20140803">[http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-28628332 "Xinjiang violence: China says 'gang' killed 37 last week"] BBC News, August 3, 2014</ref> |
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On 24 April 2013, [[April 2013 Bachu unrest|clashes in Bachu]] occurred between a group of armed men and social workers and police near [[Kashgar]]. The violence left at least 21 people dead, including 15 police and officials.<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news |title = China's Xinjiang hit by deadly clashes |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-22276042 |work = [[BBC News]] |date=24 April 2013 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130426022135/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-22276042 |archive-date=26 April 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="CNN">{{cite news |title = Violence in western Chinese region of Xinjiang kills 21 |url = http://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/24/world/asia/china-xinjiang-violence/index.html?hpt=hp_t3 |work=CNN|date=24 April 2013 |access-date=26 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130603061336/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/24/world/asia/china-xinjiang-violence/index.html?hpt=hp_t3 |archive-date=3 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=CNTV>{{cite news |title=21 dead in Xinjiang terrorist clash |url = http://english.cntv.cn/20130424/105282.shtml |access-date=24 April 2013 |publisher=[[China Network Television|CNTV]] |date=24 April 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130426013845/http://english.cntv.cn/20130424/105282.shtml |archive-date=26 April 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to a local government official, the clashes broke out after three other officials reported that suspicious men armed with knives were hiding in a house outside Kashgar.<ref name="Al Jazeera">{{cite news |title = Violence erupts in China's restive Xinjiang |url = http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia-pacific/2013/04/201342461038596954.html |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |date=24 April 2013 |access-date=26 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130502202603/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia-pacific/2013/04/201342461038596954.html |archive-date=2 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Two months later, on 26 June, [[June 2013 Shanshan riots|riots in Shanshan]] left 35 dead, including 22 civilians, 11 rioters and 2 police officers.<ref>{{cite news |title=State media: Violence leaves 27 dead in restive minority region in far western China |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/state-media-riots-in-restive-minority-region-in-far-western-china-leave-27-dead/2013/06/26/98d9c6f0-de22-11e2-bc84-8049224b33e1_story.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130626182716/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/state-media-riots-in-restive-minority-region-in-far-western-china-leave-27-dead/2013/06/26/98d9c6f0-de22-11e2-bc84-8049224b33e1_story.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 June 2013 |newspaper = Washington Post |date=26 June 2013 }}</ref> |
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On 28 October 2013, an SUV ploughed through a group of pedestrians near Tiananmen Square in central Beijing, crashed into a stone bridge and caught fire, causing dozens of casualties. Chinese authorities quickly identified the driver as Uyghur.<ref name="Guardian">{{cite news|last=Kaiman|first=Jonathan|date=25 November 2013|title=Islamist group claims responsibility for attack on China's Tiananmen Square|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/25/islamist-china-tiananmen-beijing-attack|url-status=live|access-date=11 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911191625/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/25/islamist-china-tiananmen-beijing-attack|archive-date=11 September 2018}}</ref><ref name=Winterbottom/> |
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On September 21, 2014, [[Xinhua News Agency|Chinese state media Xinhua]] reported a series of bomb blasts killed in total 50 people in Luntai County, southwest of the regional capital, Urumqi. This consisted of 6 civilians, 4 police, and 44 'rioters' <ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/26/world/asia/death-toll-in-xinjiang-violence-may-be-higher-than-reported.html]</ref> |
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In 2014, the conflict intensified. In January, eleven Uighur militants were killed by Kyrgyz security forces.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kyrgyzstan-uighurs-idUSBREA0N16J20140124 |title = Kyrgyzstan says kills 11 Uighur militants near Chinese border |date=24 January 2014 |work=Reuters |access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="BBC1">{{cite news |title = Chinese embassy blast: Car bomb attack in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-37217712 |work=BBC News |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181130173720/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-37217712 |archive-date=30 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> They were identified as Uyghurs by their appearance, and their personal effects indicated that they were separatists.<ref>{{cite news |date=24 January 2014 |title=Kyrgyzstan says kills 11 Uighur militants near Chinese border |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kyrgyzstan-uighurs-idUSBREA0N0MT20140124 |work = Reuters |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073513/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kyrgyzstan-uighurs-idUSBREA0N0MT20140124 |archive-date=14 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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On October 12, 2014, four Uyghurs armed with knives and explosives attacked a farmers' market in northwestern China's [[Xinjiang]] region, which according to police, left 22 people dead - including police officers and the attackers themselves.<ref>[http://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/attack-10182014194433.html]</ref> |
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On 1 March, a group of knife-wielding terrorists [[2014 Kunming attack|attacked]] the [[Kunming Railway Station]], killing 31 and injuring 141.<ref>{{cite news |title = Unidentified Assailant kills 29 at Kunming Railway Station in China |url = http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/03/unidentified-assailant-kills-27-at-kunming-railway-station-in-china/ |agency=[[Indo-Asian News Service]] |work=Biharprabha News |access-date=2 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711023851/http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/03/unidentified-assailant-kills-27-at-kunming-railway-station-in-china/ |archive-date=11 July 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> China blamed Xinjiang militants for the attack,<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/sns-rt-us-china-attack-xinjiang-20140301,0,2621490.story |title=China blames Xinjiang militants for station attack |last=Blanchard |first=Ben |work=[[Chicago Tribune]] |agency=Reuters |date=1 March 2014 |access-date=2 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302000912/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/sns-rt-us-china-attack-xinjiang-20140301,0,2621490.story |archive-date=2 March 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and over 380 people were arrested in the following crackdown. A captured attacker and three others were charged on 30 June.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-idUSKBN0F507W20140630 |title=China charges four in Kunming attack, sentences 113 on terror crimes |work=Reuters |date=30 June 2014 |access-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151201235329/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/06/30/us-china-xinjiang-idUSKBN0F507W20140630 |archive-date=1 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Three of the suspects were accused of "leading and organising a terror group and intentional homicide", although they did not directly take part since they had been arrested two days earlier.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-29170238 |title=Four sentenced in China over Kunming station attack |work=BBC News |agency=Reuters |date=12 September 2014 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527051309/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-29170238 |archive-date=27 May 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 12 September, a Chinese court sentenced three people to death and one to life in prison for the attack.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idAFKBN0H709M20140912 |title=Three get death for China train station attack |work=Reuters |date=12 September 2014 |access-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171012043235/https://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idAFKBN0H709M20140912 |archive-date=12 October 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Social media had initially been the main portal for covering the attack, due to lack of coverage on Chinese TV.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/kevintang/chinese-react-to-kunming-station-attacks-with-anger |title=China's Netizens React To Kunming Station Attacks With Anger, Grief |website=BuzzFeed News |date=3 March 2014 |access-date=12 December 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-china-stabbing-silence-20140419-story.html |title=China silent on deadly knife attack in Kunming railway station|date=19 April 2014 |website=Los Angeles Times |access-date=12 December 2019 }}</ref><ref name="Holdstock" /> The attack was praised by ETIM.<ref>{{cite news |date=19 March 2014 |script-title=ja:「東トルキスタンイスラム運動」、昆明の無差別殺傷事件を支持=新疆政策の再検討を要求―仏メディア |url=http://www.recordchina.co.jp/group.php?groupid=85193&type= |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171012043702/http://www.recordchina.co.jp/b85193-s0-c30.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 October 2017 |newspaper=Record China }}</ref> |
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On 29 November 2014, 15 people were killed and 14 injured in the aftermath of an attack in the [[Shache]] county.11 of the killed were Uyghur militants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.yahoo.com/fifteen-killed-terrorist-attack-chinas-xinjiang-state-media-100747830.html|title=China says 15 killed in "terrorist attack" in Xinjiang|publisher=AFP|date=29 November 2014|accessdate=29 November 2014}}</ref> |
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On 18 April, a group of 16 Chinese citizens identified as ethnic Uyghurs [[2014 China-Vietnam border shootout|engaged in a shootout with Vietnamese border guards]] after seizing their guns when they were being detained to be returned to China. Five Uyghurs and two Vietnamese guards died in the incident. Ten of the Uyghurs were men, and the rest were women and children.<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news |first=Edward |last=Wong |title=Deadly Clash Reported on Border of China and Vietnam |newspaper = The New York Times |date=20 April 2014 |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/20/world/asia/deadly-clash-between-vietnamese-border-guards-and-chinese-migrants-reported.html?_r=0 |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180112160548/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/20/world/asia/deadly-clash-between-vietnamese-border-guards-and-chinese-migrants-reported.html?_r=0 |archive-date=12 January 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nytimes2">{{cite news |first=Edward |last=Wong |title = Vietnam Returns Migrants to China After Deadly Border Clash |date=21 April 2014 |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/22/world/asia/vietnam-returns-migrants-to-china-after-deadly-border-clash.html |newspaper = The New York Times |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180112160607/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/22/world/asia/vietnam-returns-migrants-to-china-after-deadly-border-clash.html |archive-date=12 January 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-04-19/an-seven-killed-in-shootout-on-vietnam-china-border3a-vietname/5399600 |title = Seven killed in China-Vietnam border shootout |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=19 April 2014 |access-date=4 May 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140504133747/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-04-19/an-seven-killed-in-shootout-on-vietnam-china-border3a-vietname/5399600 |archive-date=4 May 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.uyghurcongress.org/en/?p=22320 |title = 7 die in shooting at China-Vietnam border |publisher = [[World Uyghur Congress]] |date=19 April 2014 |via=Washington Post |access-date=4 May 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140504023726/http://www.uyghurcongress.org/en/?p=22320 |archive-date=4 May 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===Al-Qaeda support for Uyghur militants=== |
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Twelve days later, two attackers [[April 2014 Ürümqi attack|stabbed people before detonating their suicide vests]] at an Ürümqi train station. Three people, including the attackers, were killed.<ref>{{cite news |title = Deadly China blast at Xinjiang railway station |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-27225308 |publisher=BBC |date=30 April 2014 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140430181215/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-27225308 |archive-date=30 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title = Security tightened after three killed in bomb, knife attack at Urumqi train station |url = http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1501108/three-killed-explosion-rocks-urumqi-train-station |date=30 April 2014 |first1=Jing |last1=Li |first2=Adrian |last2=Wan |newspaper = [[South China Morning Post]] |access-date=23 May 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140512063832/http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1501108/three-killed-explosion-rocks-urumqi-train-station |archive-date=12 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Guardian22514" /> |
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<blockquote> |
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'''''"If you do not wage jihad, you will never be able to get rid of the oppression of the infidels which makes you abandon the religion and which makes slaves of you. Thus, you will not be able to be rescued from the oppression of this world and the torments of the hereafter, or find eternal happiness until you return to the religion of Allah. . ."''''' - [[Abdul Haq (ETIP)|Abdul Haq]] (Memetiming Memeti), a commander in the Uyghur separatist movement [[Turkistan Islamic Party]] (East Turkestan Islamic Movement), from a video released by TIP, February 9. 2009.<ref name="AcharyaGunaratna2010">{{cite book|author1=Arabinda Acharya|author2=Rohan Gunaratna|author3=Wang Pengxin|title=Ethnic Identity and National Conflict in China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVDIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72&lpg=PA72&dq=abdullah+mansour+infidels&source=bl&ots=WDesW4XXcz&sig=sNe6RyEydbcQkx-UYLnPdh8HzKk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBWoVChMIwoWK3euhxwIVxVo-Ch2mFAPi#v=onepage&q=abdullah%20mansour%20infidels&f=false|date=22 June 2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-10787-8|pages=72–}}</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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<blockquote> |
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'''''“We have to conquer our own country and purify it of all infidels. Then, we should conquer the infidels’ countries and spread Islam. The infidels who are usurping our countries have announced war against Islam and Muslims, forcing Muslims to abandon Islam and change their beliefs.”''''' - [[Abdullah Mansour]], leader of the Uyghur separatist movement [[Turkistan Islamic Party]] (East Turkestan Islamic Movement), from “The Duty of Faith and Support,” Voice of Islam/al-Fajr Media Center, August 26, 2009.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/TM_008_04.pdf|title= Will Xinjiang’s Turkistani Islamic Party Survive the Drone Missile Death of its Leader?|date=March 11, 2010|publisher=The Jamestown Foundation|journal=Terrorism Monitor|volume=8 |issue=10|first=Andrew|last=McGregor}}</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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On 22 May, [[May 2014 Ürümqi attack|two suicide car bombings occurred after the occupants threw explosives from their vehicles]] at an Ürümqi [[street market]]. The attacks killed 43 people and injured more than 90, one of the deadliest attacks to date in the Xinjiang conflict.<ref name="Guardian22514">{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/22/china-urumqi-car-bomb-attack-xinjiang |title=Urumqi car and bomb attack kills dozens |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=22 May 2014 |access-date=18 December 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170223094409/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/22/china-urumqi-car-bomb-attack-xinjiang |archive-date=23 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=NYT>{{cite news |last=Jacobs |first=Andrew |title = Residents Try to Move On After Terrorist Attack in China |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/24/world/asia/residents-try-to-move-on-after-terrorist-attack-in-china.html |newspaper = The New York Times |date=23 May 2014 |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160804192013/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/24/world/asia/residents-try-to-move-on-after-terrorist-attack-in-china.html |archive-date=4 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/terrorist-attack-on-market-in-chinas-restive-xinjiang-region-kills-more-than-30/2014/05/22/06fab2dc-93d4-4cda-ae78-caa913819e15_story.html |title=Terrorist attack on market in China's restive Xinjiang region kills more than 30 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=22 May 2014 |last=Denyer |first=Simon |access-date=18 September 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171020035005/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/terrorist-attack-on-market-in-chinas-restive-xinjiang-region-kills-more-than-30/2014/05/22/06fab2dc-93d4-4cda-ae78-caa913819e15_story.html |archive-date=20 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 5 June, China sentenced nine people to death for terrorist attacks in Xinjiang.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bodeen |first=Christopher |date=5 June 2014 |title=China Sentences 9 Persons to Death for Xinjiang Attacks |url = http://time.com/2836835/china-sentences-9-persons-to-death-for-xinjiang-attacks |newspaper=Time |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140606082655/http://time.com/2836835/china-sentences-9-persons-to-death-for-xinjiang-attacks/ |archive-date=6 June 2014}}</ref> |
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The East Turkestan Islamic Movement (Turkistan Islamic Party) is allied with the [[Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan]]<ref name="Jamestown Foundation"/> along with the [[Pakistani Taliban]] (Tehreek i Taliban Pakistan)<ref name="au.af.mil"/> and Al-Qaeda.<ref name="Potter 2013"/><ref name="state.gov"/> |
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According to the [[Xinhua News Agency]], on 28 July, [[2014 Yarkland attacks|37 civilians were killed by a gang armed with knives and axes]] in the towns of Elixku and Huangdi in [[Yarkant County|Shache County]] and 59 attackers were killed by security forces. Two hundred fifteen attackers were arrested after they stormed a police station and government offices. The agency also reported that 30 police cars were damaged or destroyed and dozens of Uyghur and Han Chinese civilians were killed or injured. The [[Uyghur American Association]] claimed that local Uyghurs had been protesting at the time of the attack. Two days later, the moderate imam of China's largest mosque [[Assassination of Juma Tayir|was assassinated]] in Kashgar after morning prayers.<ref name="BBC20140803">{{cite news |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-28628332 |title=Xinjiang violence: China says 'gang' killed 37 last week |work=BBC News |date=3 August 2014 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180214233240/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-28628332 |archive-date=14 February 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Al Qaeda appointed TIP (ETIM) member [[Abdul Haq (ETIP)|Abdul Haq al Turkistani]] to their Shura Majlis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2010/01/us_airstrike_killed_1.php|title=US airstrike killed 15 Turkistan Islamic Party fighters in Afghanistan|work=The Long War Journal|accessdate=29 June 2015}}</ref> Al Qaeda also appointed TIP (ETIM) member [[Abdul Shakoor al-Turkistani|Abdul Shakoor Turkistani]] as military commander of their forces in the FATA region of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2012/08/turkistan_islamic_pa_1.php|title=Turkistan Islamic Party leader thought killed in US drone strike|work=The Long War Journal|accessdate=29 June 2015}}</ref> |
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On 21 September, Xinhua reported that a [[2014 Luntai County bombings|series of bomb blasts killed 50 people]] in Luntai County, southwest of the regional capital Ürümqi. The dead consisted of six civilians, four police officers and 44 rioters.<ref name="nytimes3">{{cite news |first=Dan |last=Levin |title = At Least 50 Killed in Xinjiang Violence, Officials Say |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/26/world/asia/death-toll-in-xinjiang-violence-may-be-higher-than-reported.html |work=The New York Times |date=25 September 2014 |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180112214824/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/26/world/asia/death-toll-in-xinjiang-violence-may-be-higher-than-reported.html |archive-date=12 January 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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TIP (ETIM) issued a eulogy for [[Doku Umarov]] of the [[Caucasian Emirate]] upon his death.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jihadology.net/2014/06/07/%E1%B9%A3awt-al-islam-presents-a-new-video-message-from-%E1%B8%A5izb-al-islami-al-turkistanis-turkistan-islamic-party-abd-allah-man%E1%B9%A3ur-eulogy-for-the-amir-abu-uthman-dokku-u/|title=Ṣawt al-Islām presents a new video message from Ḥizb al-Islāmī al-Turkistānī’s [Turkistan Islamic Party] ‘Abd Allah Manṣūr: "Eulogy For the Amīr Abū ‘Uthmān Dokku Umarov" - JIHADOLOGY|work=JIHADOLOGY|accessdate=29 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/Multimedia/tip-leader-expresses-solidarity-with-chechen-fighters-over-umarov-death.html|title=TIP Leader Expresses Solidarity with Chechen Fighters Over Umarov Death - Multimedia - Articles|author=Adam|publisher=|accessdate=29 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://theorangetracker.blogspot.com/2014/05/the-turkistan-islamic-party-eulogizes.html|title=Mr. Orange's War Tracker|author=Mr. Orange|publisher=|accessdate=29 June 2015}}</ref> |
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On 12 October, four Uyghurs armed with knives and explosives attacked a farmers' market in Xinjiang. According to police, 22 people died (including police officers and the attackers).<ref name="rfa">{{cite news |url = http://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/attack-10182014194433.html |title=22 Killed in Farmers' Market Attack in Xinjiang's Kashgar Prefecture |publisher=[[Radio Free Asia]] |date=18 October 2014 |access-date=6 November 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141112201120/http://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/attack-10182014194433.html |archive-date=12 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Al-Qaeda leader [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] released a statement supporting Jihad in Xinjiang against Chinese, in the Caucasus against the Russians, and naming Somalia, Yemen, Syria, Iraq, and Afghanistan as places of warfare.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=Sep 17, 2013 <!-- 10:20 hrs --> |title=Zawahiri endorses war in Kashmir but says don't hit Hindus in 'Muslim lands' |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/in-new-guidelines-zawahiri-endorses-war-in-kashmir-but-says-dont-hit-hindus-abroad/1170007/ |newspaper=Reuters |location=London |access-date= }}</ref> Zawahiri endorsed "jihad to liberate every span of land of the Muslims that has been usurped and violated, from Kashgar to Andalusia, and from the Caucasus to Somalia and Central Africa".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jihadintel.meforum.org/176/ayman-al-zawahiri-pledge-of-allegiance-to-new |title= Ayman al-Zawahiri's Pledge of Allegiance to New Taliban Leader Mullah Muhammad Mansour|last1=Al-Tamimi |first1=Aymenn Jawad |last2= |first2= |date=Aug 13, 2015 <!-- at 9:11 am --> |website= meforum |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref> Uyghurs inhabit Kashgar, the city which was mentioned by Zawahiri.<ref>{{cite news |last=Paraszczuk |first=Joanna |date=15 August 10:47 |title=Why Zawahri's Pledge To Taliban Could Be A Boon For IS |url=http://www.rferl.org/archive/under-the-black-flag/latest/17257/17257.html |newspaper= Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty |location= |access-date= }}</ref> |
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On 29 November, 15 people were killed and 14 injured in a Shache County attack. Eleven of the killed were Uyghur militants.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://news.yahoo.com/fifteen-killed-terrorist-attack-chinas-xinjiang-state-media-100747830.html |title=China says 15 killed in "terrorist attack" in Xinjiang |work=Yahoo! News |via=Agence-France Presse |date=29 November 2014 |access-date=15 January 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082620/http://news.yahoo.com/fifteen-killed-terrorist-attack-chinas-xinjiang-state-media-100747830.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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TIP (ETIM) sent the "Turkistan Brigade" ([[Katibat Turkistani]]) [[Foreign rebel fighters in the Syrian Civil War|to take part in the]] [[Syrian Civil War]] against the Syrian government,<ref name="turkestan">{{cite web|url=https://news.siteintelgroup.com/Jihadist-News/tip-division-in-syria-releases-video-promoting-cause-inciting-for-jihad.html|title=TIP Division in Syria Releases Video Promoting Cause, Inciting for Jihad|publisher=SITE Institute|date=2014-06-06|accessdate=2014-06-10}}</ref> most noticeably in the [[2015 Jisr al-Shughur offensive]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Weiss|first=Caleb|title=Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria involved in new Idlib offensive|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/04/turkistan-islamic-party-in-syria-involved-in-new-idlib-offensive.php|work=Long War Journal|date=23 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Turkistan Islamic Party had significant role in recent Idlib offensive|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/04/turkistan-islamic-party-had-significant-role-recent-idlib-offensive.php|website=Long War Journal|date=April 30, 2015|first=Caleb|last=Weiss}}</ref> TIP (ETIM) members in Syria fight alongside the Al-Qaeda branch [[al-Nusra Front|Al Nusrah Front]] since TIP is allied to Al-Qaeda in Pakistan and Afghanistan and conducted suicide bombings for Nusrah Front.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thelineofsteel.weebly.com/social-media-analysis/more-on-turkestan-islamic-party-in-syria|title=More on Turkestan Islamic Party in Syria|work=The Line of Steel|accessdate=29 June 2015}}</ref> Members of TIP have been killed in battle in Syria.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thelineofsteel.weebly.com/social-media-analysis/turkestan-islamic-party-fighters-killed-in-syria|title=Turkestan Islamic Party Fighters Killed In Syria|work=The Line of Steel|accessdate=29 June 2015}}</ref> TIP (ETIM) eulogized and applauded members of its organization who participated in suicide bombings and members who were killed in action in Jisr al Shughur.<ref>{{cite web|title=Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria conducted suicide bombings at Jisr al Shughur|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/07/turkistan-islamic-party-in-syria-conducted-suicide-bombing-at-jisr-al-shughur.php|website=Long War Journal|date=July 20, 2015|first=Caleb|last=Weiss}}</ref> Members of the group helped other Jihadists enforce religious law in Idlib such as wrecking alcohol in stores and this was noted that with “support of Allah and by the strike of the fist of the Mujahideen from the Al Nusrah Front, [[Ahrar al Sham]] and Turkistan,” that they undertook these actions by a Syrian Jihadist in [[Army of Conquest|Jaysh al Fateh]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Jihadist front established to represent foreign fighters in Syria|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/07/jihadist-front-established-to-represent-foreign-fighters-in-syria.php|website=Long War Journal|date=July 20, 2015|first=Thomas|last=Joscelyn}}</ref> A Jabhat Al Nusra Jihadist called Abu Mohamed Al-Ansari interviewed by VICE News after the Idlib offensive said that "The battle was good, praise be to God. The brothers from all the groups started working together and coordinating. Each faction is responsible for a side. The majority were immigrant brothers from Turkestan. They are the ones who attacked the important points."<ref>https://news.vice.com/video/jihadists-vs-the-assad-regime-syrias-rebel-advance</ref><ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d-2uvKfYGQ4</ref> The spokesman of Jabhat Al-Nusra Abu Maria al-Qahtani claimed that Muslims were "oppressed" in "Turkestan" and that Nusra needs to "defend" them.<ref>https://imgur.com/u077b4m</ref> TIP (ETIM) joined in on the [[2nd 2015 Northwestern Syria offensive|Jihadist offensive in the Al-Ghab plain]] along with Al-Qaeda affiliated [[Jund al-Aqsa|Jund al Aqsa]] against the Syrian army, referring to the Syrian army by the disparaging name "[[Nusayri]]".<ref>{{cite news|last=Weiss|first=Caleb|title=Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria takes part in battle for the Al Ghab plain|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/08/turkistan-islamic-party-in-syria-assists-jihadist-coalition-in-battle-for-the-al-ghab-plain.php|work=Long War Journal|date=August 9, 2015}}</ref> The Turkistan Islamic Party and Jabhat Al-Nusra launched a joint operation which [[Siege of Abu al-Duhur Airbase|overran the Syrian military's Abu Dhuhur airbase]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Syrian regime airbase in Idlib falls to Al Nusrah Front, allies|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/09/syrian-regime-airbase-in-idlib-falls-to-al-nusrah-front-allies.php|website=Long War Journal|date=September 9, 2015|first=Thomas |last=Joscelyn }}</ref> The Turkistan Islamic Party's ''Islam Awazi'' released photos of its fighters in Syria. The Uyghur Turkistan Islamic Party and the Taliban allied Uzbek Imam Bukhari Jamaat and Al-Qaeda allied Uzbek Katibat al Tawhid wal Jihad, along with Jund al Aqsa cooperated together in the Al Ghab plain to conquer multiple crucial villages, with the TIP engaging in suicide bombings in Jisr al Shughur and its participation in overrunning Abu Dhuhur with Jund al Aqsa and Al Nusrah.<ref>{{cite news|last=Weiss|first=Caleb|title=Turkistan Islamic Party releases photos from captured Syrian regime airbase|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/09/turkistan-islamic-party-releases-photos-from-captured-syrian-regime-airbase.php|work=Long War Journal|date=September 10th, 2015}}</ref> The Turkistan Islamic Party released photos of their Uyghur fighters at Abu Dhuhur.<ref>{{cite news |last=Prince |first=Sam |date=12:17 pm EDT, September 10, 201 |title=PHOTOS: Al Qaeda Affiliate Shows Off New Fighter Jets in Syria |url=http://heavy.com/news/2015/09/new-isis-islamic-state-al-a-qaeda-turkestan-islamic-party-fighter-jet-air-force-pictures-photos/ |newspaper=Heavy |location= |access-date= }}</ref> |
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On 18 September 2015, in Aksu, an unidentified group of knife-wielding terrorists [[2015 Aksu colliery attack|attacked sleeping workers at a coal mine and killed as many as 50 people]], before fleeing into the mountains.<ref name="reuters.com" /> The Turkistan Islamic Party has claimed responsibility for the attack.<ref>{{cite magazine |author= Abu Mansour Al-Gharib |year=2016 |orig-year= رجب – 1437 هـ |script-title=ar:عملية أظهرت عجز سلطات الصين |language=ar |trans-title=Operation showed the inability of the Chinese authorities |url= https://azelin.files.wordpress.com/2016/04/turkistacc84n-al-islacc84micc84yyah-magazine-19.pdf |magazine=تركستان الإسلامية [Islamic Turkistan] |issue=19 |page=25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160925210232/https://azelin.files.wordpress.com/2016/04/turkistacc84n-al-islacc84micc84yyah-magazine-19.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 18 November, a 56-day manhunt for the attackers concluded with security forces killing 28 assailants. One member of the gang surrendered to authorities.<ref name="reuters.com"/><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-34863059 |title=Chinese forces 'kill 17 in Xinjiang' after colliery attack |work=BBC News |date=18 November 2015 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180615224007/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-34863059 |archive-date=15 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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A mass execution of 56 captured Syrian soldiers was carried out by the Turkestan Islamic Party along with Jabhat al-Nusra at Abu al-Duhur.<ref>{{cite news |last=Brooks-Pollock |first=Tom |date=Saturday 19 September 2015 |title=Syria civil war: Islamist rebels 'execute 56 government troops' following capture of air base |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-civil-war-islamist-rebels-execute-56-government-troops-following-capture-of-air-base-10509041.html |newspaper=The Independent |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date= Sat Sep 19, 2015 8:42am EDT |title=Insurgents killed 56 government troops at captured air base: Syria monitor |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/09/19/us-mideast-crisis-syria-execution-idUSKCN0RJ06Z20150919 |newspaper=REUTERS |location= BEIRUT |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Brooks-Pollock |first= Tom |date= 19/09/2015 | 14:26 |title=Syria civil war: Islamist rebels 'execute 56 government troops' following capture of air base |url=http://www.independent.ie/world-news/middle-east/syria-civil-war-islamist-rebels-execute-56-government-troops-following-capture-of-air-base-31540667.html |newspaper=Irish Independent |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Bulos |first=Nabih |date=11:24AM BST 19 Sep 2015 |title=Militants execute 56 Syrian regime soldiers at captured airbase |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11876573/Militants-execute-56-Syrian-regime-soldiers-at-captured-airbase.html |newspaper=The Telegraph |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |author=Newsmedia |date=September 19, 2015 |title=Deadly air raids against Isis as Russian Federation sends in jets |url=http://www.dispatchtimes.com/deadly-air-raids-against-isis-as-russian-federation-sends-in-jets/95518/ |newspaper=DISPATCH TIMES |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date= Last updated: Saturday 19 September 2015 |title= Syria carries out heavy air strikes against IS in Palmyra|url=http://tvnewsroom.org/newslines/world/syria-carries-out-heavy-air-strikes-against-is-in-palmyra-138302/ |newspaper= TV NEWSROOM |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Crown |first=Alex |date=September 19, 2015 |title=Insurgents killed 56 govt troops at captured Syrian air base |url=http://forexreportdaily.com/2015/09/19/9445-insurgents-killed-56-govt-troops-at-captured-syrian-air-base/ |newspaper=Forex Report Daily |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Mendoza |first=Maxine |date=19 September, 2015 |title=Syrian Soldiers Killed In Massacre |url=http://isurfpaducah.com/2015/09/19/syrian-soldiers-killed-in-massacre/ |newspaper=iSurfPaducah |location= |access-date= }}</ref> |
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The [[2015 Bangkok bombing|Bangkok bombing]] is suspected to have been carried out by the Turkish [[Ultranationalism|ultranationalist]] organisation known as the [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] in response to Thailand's deportation of 100 Uyghur asylum-seekers back to China. A Turkish man was arrested by Thai police in connection with the bombing and bomb-making materials were found in his apartment.<ref>{{cite news |last=Murdoch |first=Lindsay |date=30 August 2015 |title=Bangkok bombing: Who are the Turkish terrorist group the Grey Wolves? |url = http://www.smh.com.au/world/bangkok-bombing-who-are-the-turkish-terrorist-group-the-grey-wolves-20150830-gjavjz.html |newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=30 August 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150830033643/http://www.smh.com.au/world/bangkok-bombing-who-are-the-turkish-terrorist-group-the-grey-wolves-20150830-gjavjz.html |archive-date=30 August 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Cunningham |first=Susan |date=30 August 2015 |title = Thailand's Shrine Bombing – The Case For Turkey's Grey Wolves |url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/susancunningham/2015/08/24/thailands-shrine-bombing-the-case-for-turkeys-grey-wolves/ |magazine = Forbes Magazine |access-date=18 September 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171010001122/https://www.forbes.com/sites/susancunningham/2015/08/24/thailands-shrine-bombing-the-case-for-turkeys-grey-wolves/ |archive-date=10 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=29 August 2015 |title = Police arrest Erawan blast suspect |newspaper=Bangkok Post |url = http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/general/673552/police-hold-erawan-bomb-suspect }}</ref> Due to the terrorist risk and counterfeiting of passports, Uyghur foreigners in Thailand were placed under surveillance by Defence Minister [[Prawit Wongsuwon]]<ref>{{cite news |first=Wassana |last=Nanuam |title=Uighur, Chechen tourists placed under surveillance |newspaper=Bangkok Post |date=7 April 2016 |url = http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/security/924901/uighur-chechen-tourists-placed-under-surveillance }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title = Uighur, Chechen tourists placed under surveillance |work=Thailand News |date=7 April 2016 |url = http://www.thailandnews.co/2016/04/uighur-chechen-tourists-placed-under-surveillance/ |access-date=7 April 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160407141851/http://www.thailandnews.co/2016/04/uighur-chechen-tourists-placed-under-surveillance/ |archive-date=7 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Uighur, Chechen tourists placed under surveillance in Thailand |work=Business Standard |agency=Press Trust of India |date=7 April 2016 |url = http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/uighur-chechen-tourists-placed-under-surveillance-in-thailand-116040700648_1.html |access-date=7 April 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160419001442/http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/uighur-chechen-tourists-placed-under-surveillance-in-thailand-116040700648_1.html |archive-date=19 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Jaishree |last=Balasubramanian |title=Uighur, Chechen tourists placed under surveillance in Thailand |work=India Today |date=7 April 2016 |agency=Press Trust of India |url = http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/uighur-chechen-tourists-placed-under-surveillance-in-thailand/1/637717.html |access-date=7 April 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160420021518/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/uighur-chechen-tourists-placed-under-surveillance-in-thailand/1/637717.html |archive-date=20 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> and Thai police were placed on alert after the arrival of two Turkish Uyghurs.<ref>{{cite news |first=Teeranai |last=Charuvastra |title = Uighur, Chechen Militants in Thailand to Stage Attacks, Memo Warns |work=Khaosod |date=8 April 2016 |url = http://www.khaosodenglish.com/detail.php?newsid=1460112616 |access-date=10 April 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160419160816/http://www.khaosodenglish.com/detail.php?newsid=1460112616 |archive-date=19 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[Long War Journal]] writer Caleb Weiss has tweeted photos and text on the offensive.<ref>https://twitter.com/Weissenberg7/status/629365824063696897</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/Weissenberg7/status/629365973032812544</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/Weissenberg7/status/641766974549282816</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/Weissenberg7/status/641766388613296128</ref> as has Middle East Forum contibutor [[Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi]].<ref>https://twitter.com/ajaltamimi/status/641532326804107264</ref> |
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On 30 August 2016, Kyrgyzstan's Chinese embassy was struck by a suicide bombing by a Uyghur, according to Kyrgyz news.<ref>{{cite magazine |last = O'Grady |first=Siobhán |date=30 August 2016 |title = Questions of Responsibility Loom After Attack on Chinese Embassy in Kyrgyzstan |url = https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/08/30/questions-of-responsibility-loom-after-attack-on-chinese-embassy-in-kyrgyzstan/ |magazine = Foreign Policy |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170204221521/http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/08/30/questions-of-responsibility-loom-after-attack-on-chinese-embassy-in-kyrgyzstan/ |archive-date=4 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> The suicide bomber was the only fatality from the attack. The casualties included wounds suffered by Kyrgyz staff members and did not include Chinese.<ref name="BBC1"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Nechepurenko|first=Ivan|date=30 August 2016|title=Suicide Bomber Attacks Chinese Embassy in Kyrgyzstan|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/31/world/asia/bishkek-china-embassy-kyrgyzstan.html?smid=tw-nytimes&smtyp=cur&_r=0|newspaper=The New York Times|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041314/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/31/world/asia/bishkek-china-embassy-kyrgyzstan.html?smid=tw-nytimes&smtyp=cur&_r=0|archive-date=1 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> A Kyrgyzstan government agency pointed the finger at Nusra allied Syrian based Uyghurs.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dzyubenko |first=Olga |title=Kyrgyzstan says Uighur militant groups behind attack on China's embassy |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kyrgyzstan-blast-china-idUSKCN11C1DK |work=Reuters |date=7 September 2016 |access-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170612111517/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-kyrgyzstan-blast-china-idUSKCN11C1DK |archive-date=12 June 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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One of Sayfullakh Shishani's fighters in Jabhat al-Nusra claimed that a united faction called al-Muhajireen was formed out of the unification of the Uyghur Turkistan, Uzbek Abu Salyaha and Al-Bukhari, Ahlu Sunnah wal-Jama'a, and Jaish al-Muhajireen wal Ansar.<ref>{{cite web|last=PARASZCZUK |first=JOANNA|url=http://www.chechensinsyria.com/?p=21888|title=Report: Major Chechen, Uzbek, Uighur Factions Unite|website=From Chechnya To Syria Tracking Russian-speaking Foreign Fighters In Syria|date=May 2, 2014}}</ref> |
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Police killed 4 militants who carried out a bombing on 28 December 2016 in Karakax.<ref>{{cite news |date=28 December 2016 |title=Five dead in attack in China's Xinjiang |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-idUSKBN14H187?il=0 |work=Reuters |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170603222203/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-idUSKBN14H187?il=0 |archive-date=3 June 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Katiba Turkistan joined with Ahrar al-Sham, Jabhat al-Nusra, and Junud al-Sham against the Syrian army in the [[2015 Northwestern Syria offensive|battle for Jisr al-Shughur]].<ref>{{cite web|last=PARASZCZUK |first=JOANNA|url=http://www.chechensinsyria.com/?p=23700|title=Muslim Shishani & His Military Emir Reappear In Jisr Al-Shugur|website=From Chechnya To Syria Tracking Russian-speaking Foreign Fighters In Syria|date=APRIL 23, 2015}}</ref> |
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On 14 February 2017, three knife wielding attackers killed five people before being killed by police.<ref>{{cite news |date=14 February 2017 |title=Knife-wielding attackers kill five in China's Xinjiang: govt |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-attack-idUSKBN15U02F |work=Reuters |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073638/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-attack-idUSKBN15U02F |archive-date=14 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=15 February 2017 |title=China knife attack: Eight dead in Xinjiang region |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-38977724 |work=BBC News |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180430082335/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-38977724 |archive-date=30 April 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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[[Sectarianism_and_minorities_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War#Attacks_on_Christians_and_churches|Syrian Churches have been demolished]] by Turkistan Islamic Party Uyghur fighters, who exalted in the acts of destruction, and in Homs and Idlib battlefields the Turkistan Islamic Party cooperated with Uzbek brigades and Jabhat al-Nusra, Jabhat al-Nusra and IS (ISIL) compete with each other to recruit Uyghur fighters.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gurcan |first=Metin |date=September 9, 2015 |title=How the Islamic State is exploiting Asian unrest to recruit fighters |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/09/turkey-china-xinjiang-uighurs-isis-prevent-extremism.html |newspaper=Al-Monitor |location= |access-date= }}</ref> |
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In the period 2013–2017 there were 330,918 arrests in the province accounting for 7.3% of total arrests in China. This compares to |
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The village of Az-Zanbaqi (الزنبقي) in [[Jisr al-Shughur]]'s countryside has become a base for a massive amount of Uyghur Turkistan Islamic Party militants and their families in Syria, estimated at around 3,500, military camps in the area are training hundreds of children from these families; Hezbollah media, Iranian media and Syrian government media accused Turkish intelligence of being involved in transporting these Uyghurs via Turkey to Syria, with the aim of using them first in Syria to help [[Jabhat Al-Nusra]] and gain combat experience fighting against the Syrian Army before sending them back to Xinjiang to fight against China if they manage to survive.<ref>http://ar.abna24.com/service/important/archive/2015/09/03/709062/story.html</ref><ref>http://syriaalhadath.com/archives/89517</ref><ref>https://www.almayadeen.net/news/syria-,H4E81K07UKhyaUIAI4_qQ/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%82%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A8-%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86-%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%B4%D9%82</ref><ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TPlUCyz9-u8</ref><ref>http://www.alakhbar.co/posts/60490</ref><ref>http://www.syrianewsapp.com/1/Article/2114/97747291#.VfHSlJdGQrc</ref><ref>http://www.mepanorama.net/540445/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%82%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A8-%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86-%D9%85%D9%86/</ref><ref>http://www.harbipress.com/news.php?News=6289</ref><ref>http://www.awsatnews.net/?p=145269</ref><ref>http://xeber24.org/nuce/83521.html</ref> |
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81,443 arrests in the previous five years.<ref name="auto1"/> In March 2019, Chinese officials said that they have arrested more than 13,000 militants in Xinjiang since 2014.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-idUSKCN1QZ08T|title=China says 13,000 'terrorists' arrested in Xinjiang since 2014|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 March 2019|last1=Blanchard|first1=Ben}}</ref> |
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=== Aftermath === |
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Turkish connections were used by Uyghur fighters to go into Syria and the humanitarian Uyghur Eastern Turkistan Education and Solidarity Association (ETESA) which is located in Turkey sent Uyghurs into Syria, endorsed the [[Assassination of Juma Tayir|killing of the pro-China Imam Juma Tayir]], applauded attacks in China, and posted on its website content from the TIP.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zenn|first1=Jacob|title=An Overview of Chinese Fighters and Anti-Chinese Militant Groups in Syria and Iraq|journal=China Brief|date=October 10, 2014<!-- 04:11 PM-->|volume=14|issue=19|url= http://www.jamestown.org/regions/middleeast/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=42944&tx_ttnews[backPid]=49&cHash=266cbf52f118868715823bbffd809caf#.VX3kqEZGR9g |archiveurl= http://www.jamestown.org/regions/chinaasiapacific/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=42944&tx_ttnews[backPid]=52&cHash=6a7e9a92db556afc0ec56de4c31c6b79#.VX3p_EZGR9g |archivedate= October 10, 2014<!-- 04:11 PM--> |accessdate=14 June 2015|publisher=The Jamestown Foundation}}</ref> |
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{{Main articles|Xinjiang internment camps|}} |
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In 2014, the Chinese government launched the [[Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism]] in Xinjiang.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Trédaniel |first1=Marie |last2=Lee |first2=Pak K. |date=2017-09-18 |title=Explaining the Chinese framing of the "terrorist" violence in Xinjiang: insights from securitization theory |url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/59699/1/Explaining%20the%20Chinese%20framing%20of%20the%20terrorist%20violence%20in%20Xinjiang%20insights%20from%20securitization%20theory_AM%20version.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Nationalities Papers |language=en |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=177–195 |doi=10.1080/00905992.2017.1351427 |issn=0090-5992 |s2cid=157729459 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427073133/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/59699/1/Explaining%20the%20Chinese%20framing%20of%20the%20terrorist%20violence%20in%20Xinjiang%20insights%20from%20securitization%20theory_AM%20version.pdf |archive-date=2019-04-27 |access-date=2019-08-18}}</ref> Since that year, the government has pursued a policy which has led to more than one million [[Muslims]] (the majority of them [[Uyghurs]]) being held in secretive [[Internment|detention camps]] without any [[legal process]]<ref name="indy">{{Cite web|date=5 July 2019|title='Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education'|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-muslim-children-uighur-family-separation-thought-education-a8989296.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422051855/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-muslim-children-uighur-family-separation-thought-education-a8989296.html|archive-date=22 April 2020|access-date=27 April 2020|work=The Independent}}</ref><ref name="hrw._UN:U2">{{Cite web|date=10 July 2019|title=UN: Unprecedented Joint Call for China to End Xinjiang Abuses|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/un-unprecedented-joint-call-china-end-xinjiang-abuses|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217070044/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/un-unprecedented-joint-call-china-end-xinjiang-abuses|archive-date=17 December 2019|access-date=18 December 2020|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref> in what has become the largest-scale detention of ethnic and religious minorities since [[the Holocaust]].<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Rajagopalan|first1=Megha|last2=Killing|first2=Alison|date=3 December 2020|title=Inside A Xinjiang Detention Camp|work=[[BuzzFeed News]]|url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/meghara/inside-xinjiang-detention-camp|access-date=}}</ref> Critics of the policy have described it as the [[sinicization]] of [[Xinjiang]] and called it an [[ethnocide]] or [[cultural genocide]],<ref name="indy" /><ref>{{Cite news|date=17 December 2019|title='Cultural genocide' for repressed minority of Uighurs|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cultural-genocide-for-repressed-minority-of-uighurs-bp0w6dw89|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425012712/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cultural-genocide-for-repressed-minority-of-uighurs-bp0w6dw89|archive-date=25 April 2020|access-date=27 April 2020|work=The Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=28 November 2019|title=China's Oppression of the Uighurs 'The Equivalent of Cultural Genocide'|url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/chinese-oppression-of-the-uighurs-like-cultural-genocide-a-1298171.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121105242/https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/chinese-oppression-of-the-uighurs-like-cultural-genocide-a-1298171.html|archive-date=21 January 2020|access-date=27 April 2020|work=Der Spiegel|last1=Zand|first1=Bernhard}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=12 September 2019|title=Fear and oppression in Xinjiang: China's war on Uighur culture|url=https://www.ft.com/content/48508182-d426-11e9-8367-807ebd53ab77|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414154451/https://www.ft.com/content/48508182-d426-11e9-8367-807ebd53ab77|archive-date=14 April 2020|access-date=27 April 2020|work=Financial Times|last1=Shepherd|first1=Christian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Uyghur Minority in China: A Case Study of Cultural Genocide, Minority Rights and the Insufficiency of the International Legal Framework in Preventing State-Imposed Extinction|year=2020|doi=10.3390/laws9010001|doi-access=free|last1=Finnegan|first1=Ciara|journal=Laws|volume=9|page=1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=Summer 2019|title=China's crime against Uyghurs is a form of genocide|journal=Fourth World Journal |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=76–88 |url=https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=508909415820545;res=IELIAC|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201093948/https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=508909415820545;res=IELIAC|archive-date=2020-02-01|access-date=2020-04-27|last1=Fallon |first1=Joseph E. }}</ref> with many activists, [[NGO]]s, human rights experts, government officials, and the [[U.S. government]] calling it a [[genocide]].<ref name="Globe-genocide">{{cite news|last=Carbert|first=Michelle|date=20 July 2020|title=Activists urge Canada to recognize Uyghur abuses as genocide, impose sanctions on Chinese officials|work=[[The Globe and Mail]]|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-activists-urge-canada-to-recognize-uyghur-abuses-as-genocide-impose/|url-status=live|access-date=20 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101021840/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-activists-urge-canada-to-recognize-uyghur-abuses-as-genocide-impose/|archive-date=1 November 2020}}</ref><ref name="Quartz-genocide">{{cite news|last=Steger|first=Isabella|date=20 August 2020|title=On Xinjiang, even those wary of Holocaust comparisons are reaching for the word "genocide"|work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|url=https://qz.com/1892791/a-consensus-is-growing-that-chinas-uyhgurs-face-genocide/|url-status=live|access-date=20 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023143016/https://qz.com/1892791/a-consensus-is-growing-that-chinas-uyhgurs-face-genocide/|archive-date=23 October 2020}}</ref><ref name="fore_Mene">{{Cite web|date=October 27, 2020|title=Menendez, Cornyn Introduce Bipartisan Resolution to Designate Uyghur Human Rights Abuses by China as Genocide|url=https://www.foreign.senate.gov/press/ranking/release/menendez-cornyn-introduce-bipartisan-resolution-to-designate-uyghur-human-rights-abuses-by-china-as-genocide|access-date=December 18, 2020|work=foreign.senate.gov|publisher=[[United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]]}}</ref><ref name="blac_Blac">{{Cite web|date=December 3, 2020|title=Blackburn Responds to Offensive Comments by Chinese State Media|url=https://www.blackburn.senate.gov/2020/12/blackburn-responds-to-offensive-comments-by-chinese-state-media/accb2b20-54e8-4926-a643-5f2a1cde31fa|access-date=December 18, 2020|publisher=U.S. Senator [[Marsha Blackburn]] of Tennessee}}</ref><ref name="icij_Brit">{{Cite web|last=Alecci|first=Scilla|date=October 14, 2020|title=British lawmakers call for sanctions over Uighur human rights abuses|url=https://www.icij.org/investigations/china-cables/british-lawmakers-call-for-sanctions-over-uighur-human-rights-abuses/|access-date=December 18, 2020|publisher=[[International Consortium of Investigative Journalists]]}}</ref><ref name="ourc_Comm">{{Cite web|date=October 21, 2020|title=Committee News Release – October 21, 2020 – SDIR (43–2)|url=https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/43-2/SDIR/news-release/10903199|access-date=December 18, 2020|publisher=[[House of Commons of Canada]]}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite news|last=Pompeo|first=Mike|date=2021-01-19|title=Genocide in Xinjiang|language=en|work=Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/genocide-in-xinjiang-11611078180|access-date=2021-01-19}}</ref><ref name="wsj._U.S._says">{{Cite web|last=Gordon|first=Michael R.|date=19 January 2021|title=U.S. Says China Is Committing 'Genocide' Against Uighur Muslims|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-declares-chinas-treatment-of-uighur-muslims-to-be-genocide-11611081555|access-date=19 January 2021|newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> |
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[[Al-Qaeda]] included an article in its magazine "Resurgence" promoting East Turkestan Independence titled “Did You Know? 10 Facts About East Turkistan”, the article was ridden with errors and false claims such as claiming Quranic education was banned, and included other claims such as "East Turkistan has never been a part of China" and it was "independent of China for more than 1,800 years", "In 1949, 93 percent of the population of East Turkistan was Uyghur (Turk Muslims) while 7 percent was Chinese", and that "After the Communist takeover in 1949, more than 4.5 million Turkish Muslims were killed by the Communist government", with Al-Qaeda calling for the "occupied Muslim land" "East Turkistan" to be "recovered [into] the shade of the Islamic Caliphate".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Griffiths|first1=James|title=Al-Qaeda magazine calls for Xinjiang to be ‘recovered by the Islamic Caliphate’|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1621190/new-al-qaeda-magazine-calls-xinjiang-be-recovered-islamic-caliphate?page=all|accessdate=6 June 2015|agency=South China Morning Post|date=21 October 2014}}</ref> |
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Critics of the programme have highlighted the concentration of Uyghurs in [[Xinjiang internment camps|state-sponsored internment camps]],<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Danilova|first=Maria|date=2018-11-27|title=Woman describes torture, beatings in Chinese detention camp|url=https://apnews.com/61cdf7f5dfc34575aa643523b3c6b3fe|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213063324/https://apnews.com/61cdf7f5dfc34575aa643523b3c6b3fe|archive-date=2019-12-13|access-date=2019-12-02|website=AP NEWS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Stewart|first=Phil|date=2019-05-04|title=China putting minority Muslims in 'concentration camps,' U.S. says|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-concentrationcamps-idUSKCN1S925K|url-status=live|access-date=2019-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208091303/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-concentrationcamps-idUSKCN1S925K|archive-date=2019-12-08}}</ref> suppression of Uyghur [[Islam in China|religious practices]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Congressional Research Service|date=18 June 2019|title=Uyghurs in China|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10281.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Congressional Research Service|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218075723/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10281.pdf|archive-date=18 December 2020|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Blackwell|first=Tom|date=25 September 2019|title=Canadian went to China to debunk reports of anti-Muslim repression, but was 'shocked' by treatment of Uyghurs|url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canadian-went-to-china-to-debunk-reports-of-anti-muslim-repression-but-was-shocked-by-treatment-of-uyghurs|access-date=2019-12-02|website=National Post|language=en-CA}}</ref> political [[indoctrination]],<ref name="hrw._UN:U2"/><ref name="reut_Musl">{{Cite web|date=September 9, 2018|title=Muslim minority in China's Xinjiang face 'political indoctrination': Human Rights Watch|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-rights/muslim-minority-in-chinas-xinjiang-face-political-indoctrination-human-rights-watch-idUSKCN1LQ01F|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109032307/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-rights/muslim-minority-in-chinas-xinjiang-face-political-indoctrination-human-rights-watch-idUSKCN1LQ01F|archive-date=9 November 2020|access-date=December 18, 2020|work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> severe ill-treatment,<ref name="hrw._UN:U2" /><ref name="bhrc">{{cite web|title=Responsibility of States under International Law to Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang, China|url=https://www.barhumanrights.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/2020-Responsibility-of-States-to-Uyghurs_Final.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921202046/https://www.barhumanrights.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/2020-Responsibility-of-States-to-Uyghurs_Final.pdf|archive-date=21 September 2020|access-date=18 December 2020|publisher=Bar Human Rights Committee}}</ref> and testimonials of alleged human rights abuses including [[Compulsory sterilization|forced sterilization]] and [[Birth control|contraception]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|last1=Enos|first1=Olivia|last2=Kim|first2=Yujin|date=29 August 2019|title=China's Forced Sterilization of Uighur Women Is Cultural Genocide|url=https://www.heritage.org/asia/commentary/chinas-forced-sterilization-uighur-women-cultural-genocide|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202230646/https://www.heritage.org/asia/commentary/chinas-forced-sterilization-uighur-women-cultural-genocide|archive-date=2 December 2019|access-date=2 December 2019|publisher=The Heritage Foundation}}</ref><ref name=":12" /><ref name="bbc">{{Cite news|date=2020-06-29|title=China 'using birth control' to suppress Uighurs|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-53220713|url-status=live|access-date=2020-07-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629222610/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-53220713|archive-date=2020-06-29}}</ref> Chinese government statistics show that from 2015 to 2018, [[birth rate]]s in the mostly Uyghur regions of Hotan and Kashgar plunged by more than 60%.<ref name="apne_Chin">{{Cite web|date=June 28, 2020|title=China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization|url=https://apnews.com/article/269b3de1af34e17c1941a514f78d764c|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216200613/https://apnews.com/article/269b3de1af34e17c1941a514f78d764c|archive-date=16 December 2020|access-date=December 18, 2020|work=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref> In the same period, the birth rate of the whole country decreased by 9.69%, from 12.07 to 10.9 per 1,000 people.<ref name="data_Birt">{{Cite web|title=Birth rate, crude (per 1,000 people) – China|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.CBRT.IN?start=2015&end=2018&locations=CN|access-date=2 January 2021|publisher=[[The World Bank]]}}</ref> Chinese authorities acknowledged that birth rates dropped by almost a third in Xinjiang in 2018, but they denied reports of forced sterilization and genocide.<ref name="cnn-fax">{{cite news|author=Ivan Watson, Rebecca Wright and Ben Westcott|date=21 September 2020|title=Xinjiang government confirms huge birth rate drop but denies forced sterilization of women|work=CNN|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/21/asia/xinjiang-china-response-sterilization-intl-hnk/index.html|url-status=live|access-date=26 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927111925/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/21/asia/xinjiang-china-response-sterilization-intl-hnk/index.html|archive-date=27 September 2020}}</ref> Birth rates have continued to plummet in Xinjiang, falling nearly 24% in 2019 alone when compared to just 4.2% nationwide.<ref name="apne_Chin" /> China paid ethic minority women who were exempt from the standard family planning size limits a lump sum then annual allowance to agree to undergo tubal ligation or IUD implantation after three children in an attempt to keep birthrates to the nationwide standard without imposing strict limits on ethnic minority family sizes. In 2017 the standard rural limit was applied to Uyghurs which lowered their allowed births to the standard for Han Chinese (which had increased from two to three children in 2016).<ref name="The Economist" /> This program may explain the reported fall in Uyghur birthrates, the increase in sterilisation and IUD implantation, and slight increase in Han Chinese births. |
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As part of an effort to reach out to foreign Muslims, on the Ink of Swords (Medad al-Sayouf) Network, an Arabic language magazine titled "Islamic Turkistan" (Turkistan al-Islamia) was issued by ETIM on January 2009 and it described ETIM as "a group of workers for Islam and the mujahideen in the Cause of Allah in order to liberate Turkistan", and said that the aim of ETIM was to "establish an Islamic Caliphate in the light of the Book and the Sunnah", "in the Cause of Allah, promotion of virtue, prevention of vice, and the call to Allah.", to create an Islamic State by means of jihad.<ref name="AcharyaGunaratna2010">{{cite book|author1=Arabinda Acharya|author2=Rohan Gunaratna|author3=Wang Pengxin|title=Ethnic Identity and National Conflict in China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVDIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=22 June 2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-10787-8|pages=73–}}</ref> |
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In 2021, [[Shirzat Bawudun]], the former head of the Xinjiang department of justice, and Sattar Sawut, the former head of the Xinjiang education department, were sentenced to death on terrorism and extremism charges.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Albert |first1=Eleanor |title=China's Hard and Soft Lines on Xinjiang |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/chinas-hard-and-soft-lines-on-xinjiang/ |website=thediplomat.com |publisher=The Diplomat |access-date=10 April 2021}}</ref> Three other educators and two textbook editors were given lesser sentences.<ref>{{cite web |title=China condemns 2 ex-Xinjiang officials in separatism cases |url=https://apnews.com/article/world-news-race-and-ethnicity-beijing-china-national-security-e4d7a915a2e3ebb6c6f50778a2aec81a |website=apnews.com |date=7 April 2021 |publisher=Associated Press |access-date=10 April 2021}}</ref> |
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Fellow Al-Qaeda aligned Islamist organizations with the aim of a world wide Islamic Caliphate cooperate with TIP (ETIM) whose own goal is an Islamic State, with TIP fighting against the militaries of Syria and Pakistan in addition to China and being assisted by Central Asian, Gulf, European, and North American based outfits and the TIP leader [[Abdullah Mansour]] used the words "mujahideen" and "jihadi operation" in a Uighur language video produced by TIP's ''Islam Awazi'' (ئىسلام ئاۋازى) Media Center when TIP took responsibility for the October 29, 2013 Tiananmen Square terrorist attack.<ref>{{cite journal|editor-last1=Acharya|editor-first1=Dr. Arabinda|editor-last2=Harjani|editor-first2=Manoj|title=Terrorism and Political Violence in 2013|journal=Counter Terrorist Trends and Analysis|date=Jan–Feb 2014|volume=6|issue=1|url= http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/CTTA-January14.pdf |accessdate=14 June 2015|page=4|publisher=INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR POLITICAL VIOLE NCE AND TERRORISM RESEARCH S. RAJARATNAM SCHOOL OF INTERNATIONAL ST UDIES NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSIT Y}}</ref> |
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== Militant groups == |
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''Islam Awazi'' released a video showing [[Burqa]] clad women being militarily trained by the Turkistan Islamic Party with guns and RPGs.<ref>{{cite news|last=Roggio|first=Bill|title=Turkistan Islamic Party trains women for jihad|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2013/07/turkistan_islamic_pa_4.php?utm_content=buffer84f4b&utm_source=buffer&utm_medium=twitter&utm_campaign=Buffer|work=Long War Journal|date=July 21, 2013}}</ref><ref>http://www.dailymail.co.uk/video/news/video-4544/Internet-video-shows-Burka-Brigade-women-Taliban-terror-training.html</ref><ref>http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2224336/Taliban-recruits-burkha-brigade--dont-worry-doesnt-look-like-hit-much.html</ref><ref>http://www.military.com/video/operations-and-strategy/terrorism/introducing-talibans-burka-brigade/1932573728001/</ref> |
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{{Further|Turkistan Islamic Party}} |
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The Turkistan Islamic Party (TIP) is an [[Islamic extremism|Islamic extremist]] [[terrorism|terrorist]] organisation seeking the expulsion of China from [[East Turkestan independence movement|"East Turkestan"]].<ref name="NEFA">{{cite web |url = http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/nefatip0409-3.pdf |first=Shaykh |last=Bashir |title = Why Are We Fighting China? |date=1 July 2008 |access-date=7 August 2010 |publisher=[[Nine Eleven Finding Answers Foundation|NEFA Foundation]] |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120609143149/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/nefatip0409-3.pdf |archive-date=9 June 2012 }}</ref> Since its emergence in 2007 it has claimed responsibility for a number of terrorist attacks,<ref name=Guardian/><ref name=Winterbottom/> and the Chinese government accuses it of over 200, resulting in 162 deaths and over 440 injuries.<ref>{{cite web |title=The East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM) |url = https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/east-turkestan-islamic-movement-etim |website=Council on Foreign Relations |access-date=11 September 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180911191452/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/east-turkestan-islamic-movement-etim |archive-date=11 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Hundreds of Uyghurs are thought to reside in Pakistan and Afghanistan and to have fought alongside extremist groups in conflicts such as the [[Syrian Civil War]].<ref>{{cite web |title = Turkistan Islamic Party had significant role in recent Idlib offensive |url = http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/04/turkistan-islamic-party-had-significant-role-recent-idlib-offensive.php |website=The Long War Journal |date=30 April 2015 |first=Caleb |last=Weiss |access-date=12 September 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150721085324/http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/04/turkistan-islamic-party-had-significant-role-recent-idlib-offensive.php |archive-date=21 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the exact size of the Turkistan Islamic Party remains unknown and some experts dispute its ability to orchestrate attacks in China, or that it still exists as a cohesive group.<ref name=Guardian/><ref>{{cite news|last1=Mehsud|first1=Saud|last2=Golovnina|first2=Maria|date=14 March 2014|title=From his Pakistan hideout, Uighur leader vows revenge on China|work=[[Reuters]]|location=DERA ISMAIL KHAN/ISLAMABAD|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pakistan-uighurs-idUSBREA2D0PF20140314|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819205613/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-pakistan-uighurs-idUSBREA2D0PF20140314|archive-date=19 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Johnson |first = Ian |title = Q. and A.: Nick Holdstock on Xinjiang and 'China's Forgotten People' |url = https://sinosphere.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/08/13/q-and-a-nick-holdstock-on-xinjiang-and-chinas-forgotten-people |access-date=11 September 2018 |department=Sinosphere Blog |newspaper = New York Times |date = 13 August 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150819232107/http://sinosphere.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/08/13/q-and-a-nick-holdstock-on-xinjiang-and-chinas-forgotten-people/ |archive-date=19 August 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Camps training children for Jihad are being run by the Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria.<ref>{{cite news|last=Weiss|first=Caleb|title=Saudi al Qaeda cleric showcases training camp for children in Syria|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/09/saudi-al-qaeda-cleric-showcases-training-camp-for-children-in-syria.php|work=Long War Journal|date=September 4th, 2015}}</ref> [[Long War Journal]] writer Caleb Weiss tweeted photos of them.<ref>https://twitter.com/weissenberg7/status/617329727007793152</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/Weissenberg7/status/617527120256966656</ref> |
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The TIP is often assumed to be the same as the earlier East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM), which changed its name to the Turkistan Islamic Party after their leader at the time, [[Hasan Mahsum]], was killed by Pakistani forces in 2003.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Botobekov |first1=Uran |title=Al-Qaeda, the Turkestan Islamic Party, and the Bishkek Chinese Embassy Bombing |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/09/al-qaeda-the-turkestan-islamic-party-and-the-bishkek-chinese-embassy-bombing/ |access-date=3 December 2022 |date=29 September 2016}}</ref><ref name=Winterbottom/><ref name = CFR>{{cite web |title=The East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM) |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/east-turkestan-islamic-movement-etim |website=Council on Foreign Relations |access-date=3 December 2022}}</ref> |
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A video of a training camp in Waziristan in Pakistan's tribal areas showing children being trained with weapons was released by the Turkistan Islamic Party's ''Islam Awazi''.<ref>{{cite news|last=Roggio|first=Bill|title=Turkistan Islamic Party releases video of children in training|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2013/04/turkistan_islamic_pa_2.php|work=Long War Journal|date=April 24, 2013}}</ref> Caleb Weiss tweeted photos of them.<ref>https://twitter.com/Weissenberg7/status/551392424170651648</ref> |
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===Al-Qaeda links=== |
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Journalist for [[RFERL]] Joanna Paraszczuk also tweeted photos.<ref>https://twitter.com/joaska_/status/497989044685373440</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/joaska_/status/551742445839319040</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/joaska_/status/551746695101313026</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/joaska_/status/551741644857294848</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/Terror_Monitor/status/607492876310749186</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/joaska_/status/551345715486535681</ref> |
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The TIP are believed to have links to [[al-Qaeda]] and affiliated groups such as the [[Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan]],<ref name=JamestownFoundation>{{cite journal |first=Jacob |last=Zenn |title=Beijing, Kunming, Urumqi and Guangzhou: The Changing Landscape of Anti-Chinese Jihadists |journal=China Brief |volume=14 |issue=10 |date=23 May 2014 |publisher=Jamestown Foundation |url= https://jamestown.org/program/beijing-kunming-urumqi-and-guangzhou-the-changing-landscape-of-anti-chinese-jihadists/ |access-date=2021-12-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211008171646/https://jamestown.org/program/beijing-kunming-urumqi-and-guangzhou-the-changing-landscape-of-anti-chinese-jihadists/ |archive-date=2021-10-08 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Pakistani Taliban]].{{sfnp|Acharya|Gunaratna|Pengxin|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FVDIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} Philip B. K. Potter writes that despite the fact that "throughout the 1990s, Chinese authorities went to great lengths to publicly link organizations active in Xinjiang—particularly the ETIM—to al-Qaeda [...] the best information indicates that prior to 2001, the relationship included some training and funding but relatively little operational cooperation."<ref name="Potter 2013">{{cite journal |first=Philip B. K. |last=Potter |title = Terrorism in China: Growing Threats with Global Implications |journal=[[Strategic Studies Quarterly]] |date=Winter 2013 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=71–74 |url = http://www.airuniversity.af.mil/Portals/10/SSQ/documents/Volume-07_Issue-4/2013winter-Potter.pdf |access-date=9 June 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143728/http://www.airuniversity.af.mil/Portals/10/SSQ/documents/Volume-07_Issue-4/2013winter-Potter.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="state.gov">{{cite report |url = https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/65479.pdf |title = Foreign terrorist organizations |page=237 |publisher=U.S. State Department |access-date=21 October 2015 }}</ref> Meanwhile, specific incidents were downplayed by Chinese authorities as isolated criminal acts.<ref name="sf1">{{cite news |url = https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/china-evolution-etim |title=China: The Evolution of ETIM |publisher=[[Stratfor]] |date=13 May 2008 |access-date=10 June 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143323/https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/china-evolution-etim |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="HRW"/> However, in 1998 the group's headquarters were moved to [[Kabul]], in [[Taliban]]-controlled [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Afghanistan]], while "China's ongoing security crackdown in Xinjiang has forced the most militant Uyghur separatists into volatile neighboring countries, such as Pakistan," Potter writes, "where they are forging strategic alliances with, and even leading, jihadist factions affiliated with al-Qaeda and the Taliban." The East Turkestan Islamic Movement dropped "East" from its name as it increased its domain.<ref name="sf1"/> The U.S. State Department have listed them as a terrorist organisation since 2002,<ref>{{cite web |title = Individuals and Entities Designated by the State Department Under E.O. 13224 |url = https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/ct/rls/other/des/143210.htm |publisher=U.S. State Department |access-date=4 August 2016 }}</ref> and as having received "training and financial assistance" from al-Qaeda.<ref name="state.gov" /> In October 2020, this designation was lifted.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pompeo |first1=Michael |title=In the Matter of the Designation of the Eastern Turkistan Islamic Movement Also Known as ETIM as a "Terrorist Organization" Pursuant to Section 212(a)(3)(B)(vi)(II) of the Immigration and Nationality Act, as Amended |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/d/2020-24620 |website=Federal Register |date=5 November 2020 |publisher=US Department of State |access-date=18 December 2020}}</ref> |
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A number of members of al-Qaeda have expressed support for the TIP, Xinjiang independence, and/or jihad against China. They include [[Mustafa Setmariam Nasar]],<ref>{{cite book |url = https://archive.org/stream/MuslimsInCentralAsiaAndTheComingBattleOfIslam/MuslimsInCentralAsiaAndTheComingBattleOfIslam_djvu.txt |title = Muslims in Central Asia and The Coming Battle of Islam |author=Mustafa Setmariam Nasar (aliases Abu Musab al-Suri and Umar Abd al-Hakim) |year=1999 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160119223112/https://archive.org/stream/MuslimsInCentralAsiaAndTheComingBattleOfIslam/MuslimsInCentralAsiaAndTheComingBattleOfIslam_djvu.txt |archive-date=19 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Abu Yahya al-Libi]],<ref>{{cite web |url = http://raffaellopantucci.com/2011/06/24/turkistan-islamic-party-video-attempts-to-explain-uyghur-militancy-to-chinese/ |title=Turkistan Islamic Party Video Attempts to Explain Uyghur Militancy to Chinese |publisher=Raffaello Pantucci |date=24 June 2011 |access-date=13 May 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160617060802/https://raffaellopantucci.com/2011/06/24/turkistan-islamic-party-video-attempts-to-explain-uyghur-militancy-to-chinese/ |archive-date=17 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Zenn |first=Jacob |url=http://www.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=42944&no_cache=1 |title=An Overview of Chinese Fighters and Anti-Chinese Militant Groups in Syria and Iraq |publisher=Jamestown Foundation |date=10 October 2014 |journal=China Brief |volume=14 |issue=19 |access-date=13 May 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160625094503/http://www.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=42944&no_cache=1 |archive-date=25 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> and late al-Qaeda leader [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] who has on multiple occasions issued statements naming Xinjiang (calling it "East Turkestan") as one of the "battlegrounds" of "jihad to liberate every span of land of the Muslims that has been usurped and violated."<ref>{{cite news |date=17 September 2013 |title=Zawahiri endorses war in Kashmir but says don't hit Hindus in 'Muslim lands' |agency=Reuters |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url = http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/in-new-guidelines-zawahiri-endorses-war-in-kashmir-but-says-dont-hit-hindus-abroad/1170007/ |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160124140420/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/in-new-guidelines-zawahiri-endorses-war-in-kashmir-but-says-dont-hit-hindus-abroad/1170007/ |archive-date=24 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://jihadintel.meforum.org/176/ayman-al-zawahiri-pledge-of-allegiance-to-new |title=Ayman al-Zawahiri's Pledge of Allegiance to New Taliban Leader Mullah Muhammad Mansour |last1=Al-Tamimi |first1=Aymenn Jawad |date=13 August 2015 |website=Middle East Forum |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150816003156/http://jihadintel.meforum.org/176/ayman-al-zawahiri-pledge-of-allegiance-to-new |archive-date=16 August 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=2 November 2015 |title=Al-Qaeda urges fight against West and Russia |url = http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2015/11/02/-Al-Qaeda-s-Zawahiri-urges-militant-unity-against-Russia.html |publisher=[[Al Arabiya]] |agency=Reuters |location=Cairo |access-date=2 November 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151103195210/http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2015/11/02/-Al-Qaeda-s-Zawahiri-urges-militant-unity-against-Russia.html |archive-date=3 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first1=Ali |last1=Abdelaty |last2=Knecht |first2=Eric |editor-last=Williams |editor-first=Alison |date=1 November 2015 |title = Al Qaeda chief urges militant unity against Russia in Syria |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-qaeda-iduskcn0sq2f920151101 |work = Reuters |access-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151120114416/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/11/01/us-mideast-crisis-qaeda-idUSKCN0SQ2F920151101 |archive-date=20 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Shih |first=Gerry |date=10 September 2016 |title=Rising Uighur militancy changes security landscape for China |url = https://apnews.com/cd7fdd84e95143a88f87d566ac5185b5 |work=Associated Press |access-date=9 June 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140904/https://apnews.com/cd7fdd84e95143a88f87d566ac5185b5 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, the al-Qaeda aligned al-Fajr Media Center distributes TIP promotional material.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://news.siteintelgroup.com/Articles-Analysis/may09-sp-61553380.html |title=TIP Enters Jihadist Mainstream |publisher=[[SITE Intel Group]] |date=15 October 2010 |access-date=13 May 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150511211953/https://news.siteintelgroup.com/Articles-Analysis/may09-sp-61553380.html |archive-date=11 May 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Andrew McGregor, writing for the Jamestown Foundation, opines that "though there is no question a small group of Uyghur militants fought alongside their Taliban hosts against the [[Northern Alliance]] [...] the scores of terrorists Beijing claimed that Bin Laden was sending to China in 2002 never materialized" and that "the TIP's “strategy” of making loud and alarming threats (attacks on the Olympics, use of biological and chemical weapons, etc.) without any operational follow-up has been enormously effective in promoting China's efforts to characterise Uyghur separatists as terrorists."<ref>{{cite journal |title = Will Xinjiang's Turkistani Islamic Party Survive the Drone Missile Death of its Leader? |date=11 March 2010 |journal=Terrorism Monitor |volume=8 |issue=10 |publisher=Jamestown Foundation |first=Andrew |last=McGregor |url = http://www.jamestown.org/programs/tm/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=36144&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=457&no_cache=1#.VwuxPvkrJhE |access-date=11 April 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160514005040/http://www.jamestown.org/programs/tm/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=36144&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=457&no_cache=1#.VwuxPvkrJhE |archive-date=14 May 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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== Reactions == |
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===ISIS/ISIL support for Uyghur militants=== |
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[[File:2016 Czech Demonstration Against Communist party China and its dictator in Prague with National Flags of Tibet & East Turkestan 反中示威與圖博&東土耳其斯坦國旗在捷克.jpg|thumb|Protesters in [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]] carrying Tibetan and East Turkestan flags, 29 March 2016]] |
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In October 2018 and December 2019, Chinese state media aired two documentaries on the conflict and the purported necessity of the internment camps, which reportedly drew mixed reactions on Chinese social media.<ref>{{cite web|title=China diary: Spare no effort to paint a picture |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/opinion/china-diary-spare-no-effort-to-paint-a-picture/cid/1725510 |access-date=12 December 2019 |website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Koetse|first=Manya|title=CCTV Airs Program on Xinjiang's 'Vocational Training Centers': Criticism & Weibo Responses|date=19 October 2018 |url=https://www.whatsonweibo.com/cctv-airs-program-on-xinjiangs-vocational-training-centers-criticism-weibo-responses/|access-date=12 December 2019}}</ref> |
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=== East Turkestan Islamic Movement === |
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The terrorist organization [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] (known as ISIS or ISIL) released a video featuring an 80 year old Uyghur man who came to join ISIS in Syria along with his grandchildren, wife, and daughter after he was inspired by his son who died in combat in Syria. The video featured Uyghur children singing about martyrdom and a 10 year old Uyghur child threatening China, saying : "O Chinese kuffar (non-believers), know that we are preparing in the land of the khilafah (caliphate) and we will come to you and raise this flag in Turkestan with the permission of Allah.”<ref>{{cite news|title=80-year-old Chinese man joins Islamic State|url=http://www.therakyatpost.com/world/2015/06/04/80-year-old-chinese-man-joins-islamic-state/|accessdate=4 June 2015|agency=The Rakyat Post|date=June 4, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Setiawan|first1=Teguh|title=Muhammad Amin, Serdadu ISIS Tertua asal Tiongkok|url=http://m.inilah.com/news/detail/2210582/muhammad-amin-serdadu-isis-tertua-asal-tiongkok|accessdate=4 June 2015|agency=INILAHCOM|date=(3/6)}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first1=Muhaimin|title=Usia 80 Tahun, Inilah Militan ISIS Tertua asal China|url=http://international.sindonews.com/read/1008724/43/usia-80-tahun-inilah-militan-isis-tertua-asal-china-1433393428|accessdate=4 June 2015|agency=SINDONEWS.com|date=4 June 2015 − 11:50 WIB}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=[VIDEO] - Usia Sudah 80 Tahun, Kakek Asal Cina Ini Bergabung dengan ISIS|url=http://jabar.tribunnews.com/2015/06/04/video-usia-sudah-80-tahun-kakek-asal-cina-ini-bergabung-dengan-isis|accessdate=4 June 2015|publisher=TRIBUNJABAR.CO.ID|date=4 January 2015<!-- 13:01-->}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Crowcroft|first1=Orlando|title=The oldest Isis jihadi: 80-year-old Chinese grandfather fights for Islamic State in Syria|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/oldest-isis-jihadi-80-year-old-chinese-grandfather-fights-islamic-state-syria-1504293|accessdate=4 June 2015|agency=International Business Times|date=June 3, 2015 <!-- 17:23 BST --> }}</ref> The old Uyghur man said "'I made hijrah accompanied by my four grandsons, my daughter and my wife".<ref>{{cite AV media |people= |date=Jun 3, 2015 |year= |title=Oldest IS*IS jihadi 80 year old grandfather fights in Syria |trans-title= |medium=video |language= Uyghur audio with Arabic and English subtitles |url= http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MZuRrdryhSk |access-date=4 June 2015 |archive-url= |archive-date= |format= |time= |location= |publisher= |id= |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |ref= }}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |people= |date=Jun 3, 2015 |year= |title= The Oldest Jihadi Of ISIS Who Flees China With his Family |trans-title= |medium=video |language= Uyghur audio with Arabic and English subtitles |url= http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JFHsl_sVQ8Q |access-date=4 June 2015 |archive-url= |archive-date= |format= |time= |location= |publisher= |id= |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |ref= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Prince|first1=Sam|title=WATCH: 80-Year-Old ISIS Soldier Gives Interview|url=http://heavy.com/news/2015/06/oldest-islamic-state-isis-soldier-interview-video-turkestan-youtube-video/|accessdate=4 June 2015|agency=Heavy|date=Published 9:48 am EDT, June 2, 2015}}</ref> |
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The [[East Turkestan Islamic Movement]] has been recognised as a terrorist organisation by the [[United Nations]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=EASTERN TURKISTAN ISLAMIC MOVEMENT {{!}} United Nations Security Council|url=https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/entity/eastern-turkistan-islamic-movement|access-date=12 August 2020|website=www.un.org}}</ref> the United States,<ref>{{cite news|last=Cronk|first=Terri Moon|date=7 February 2018|title=U.S. Forces Strike Taliban, East Turkestan Islamic Movement Training Sites|website=U.S. Department of Defense|url=https://www.defense.gov/News/Article/Article/1435247/us-forces-strike-taliban-east-turkestan-islamic-movement-training-sites/|url-status=live|access-date=8 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208030647/https://www.defense.gov/News/Article/Article/1435247/us-forces-strike-taliban-east-turkestan-islamic-movement-training-sites/|archive-date=8 February 2018}}</ref> the European Union,<ref>{{cite web|title=Consolidated TEXT: 32002R0881 — EN — 10.10.2015|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:02002R0881-20151010&from=EN|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211131757/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:02002R0881-20151010&from=EN|archive-date=11 December 2018|access-date=25 August 2016|website=eur-lex.europa.eu}}</ref> Russia,<ref name="3arabionline.com">{{cite web|date=31 January 2017|title=هؤلاء انغماسيو أردوغان الذين يستوردهم من الصين – عربي أونلاين|url=http://3arabionline.com/?page=article&id=20680|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814135647/http://3arabionline.com/?page=article&id=20680|archive-date=14 August 2017|access-date=29 August 2017|website=3arabionline.com}}</ref> the United Kingdom,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Martina |first1=Michael |last2=Blanchard |first2=Ben |last3=Spring |first3=Jake |date=20 July 2016 |title=Britain adds Chinese militant group to terror list |work=Reuters |editor1-last=Ruwitch |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Macfie |editor2-first=Nick |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-britain-security-idUSKCN1000PT |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814155741/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-britain-security-idUSKCN1000PT|archive-date=14 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |date=17 July 2020 |publisher=Home Office |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/538297/20160715-Proscription-website-update.pdf |title=PROSCRIBED TERRORIST ORGANISATIONS |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026110457/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/538297/20160715-Proscription-website-update.pdf|archive-date=26 October 2016|access-date=27 July 2016}}</ref> Kyrgyzstan,{{efn|The Eastern Turkistan Islamic Party, Organization for Freeing Eastern Turkistan and the Islamic Party of Turkistan were outlawed by Kyrgyzstan's Lenin District Court and its Supreme Court in November 2003.{{sfnp|Karagiannis|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vmKNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 67–]}}{{sfnp|Karagiannis|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vmKNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA112 112–]}}}}<ref name="newface">{{cite magazine |last=Ansari|first=Massoud|date=3 August 2007|title=The New Face of Jihad |url=http://www.newsline.com.pk/NewsAug2007/specrep3aug2007.htm |magazine=[[Newsline (magazine)|Newsline]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610031612/http://www.newsline.com.pk/NewsAug2007/specrep3aug2007.htm|archive-date=10 June 2009|access-date=31 July 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Lansford2015">{{cite book |last=Lansford|first=Tom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PdWTBwAAQBAJ&q=list+uzbekistan+organizations+turkestan&pg=PA818|title=Political Handbook of the World 2015 |date=24 March 2015|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4833-7158-0|pages=818–}}</ref> Kazakhstan,<ref>{{harvp|American Foreign Policy Council|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fQ3AwAAQBAJ&dq=kazakhstan+designated+organizations+islamic+party&pg=PA673 673–]}} |
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* {{harvp|Lovelace|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=K3LnCwAAQBAJ&dq=kazakhstan+designated+organizations+islamic+party&pg=PA168 168–]}} |
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* {{harvp|Omelicheva|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ycYtCgAAQBAJ&dq=kazakhstan+designated+organizations+islamic+party&pg=PA131 131–]}} |
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* {{harvp|Reed|Raschke|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5I2b_hrJO8sC&dq=kazakhstan+designated+organizations+islamic+party&pg=PA206 206–]}}</ref> Malaysia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.moha.gov.my/images/maklumat_bahagian/KK/kdndomestic.pdf|title=Anti Money, Anti-Money Laundering, Anti-Terrorism Financing And Proceeds Of Unlawful Activities Act 2001 / List Of Individuals, Entities And Other Groups And Undertakings Declared By The Minister Of Home Affairs As Specified Entity Under Section 66b(1)}}</ref> Pakistan,<ref>{{cite web|date=24 October 2013|title=Three groups active in Xinjiang banned – Pakistan |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1051477/three-groups-active-in-xinjiang-banned|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117162526/http://www.dawn.com/news/1051477/three-groups-active-in-xinjiang-banned |archive-date=17 November 2016|access-date=29 August 2017 |website=Dawn.Com}}</ref> Turkey,<ref name=":0">{{cite web|date=3 August 2017|title=Turkey lists "E. Turkestan Islamic Movement" as terrorists – People's Daily Online |url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2017/0803/c90883-9250745.html |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170807152808/http://en.people.cn/n3/2017/0803/c90883-9250745.html |archive-date=7 August 2017 |access-date=29 August 2017 |website=En.people.cn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkey-China Relations: From "Strategic Cooperation" to "Strategic Partnership"? |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/turkey-china-relations-strategic-cooperation-strategic-partnership |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191231131506/https://www.mei.edu/publications/turkey-china-relations-strategic-cooperation-strategic-partnership|archive-date=31 December 2019|url-status=live|access-date=31 December 2019|website=Middle East Institute}}</ref> and the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{cite web |title=List of groups designated terrorist organisations by the UAE |work=The National (Abu Dhabi) |date=16 November 2014 |url=http://www.thenational.ae/uae/government/list-of-groups-designated-terrorist-organisations-by-the-uae |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150506021530/http://www.thenational.ae/uae/government/list-of-groups-designated-terrorist-organisations-by-the-uae|archive-date=6 May 2015 |url-status=live|access-date=19 May 2015}} |
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* {{cite news|date=15 November 2014|script-title=ar:مجلس الوزراء يعتمد قائمة التنظيمات الإرهابية |language=ar |trans-title=The Cabinet approves the list of terrorist organisations|agency=[[Emirates News Agency]] (WAM) وكالة أنباء الإمارات |url=http://www.wam.ae/ar/news/emirates-arab-international/1395272465559.html |url-status=dead |access-date=16 November 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141117230142/http://www.wam.ae/ar/news/emirates-arab-international/1395272465559.html |archive-date=17 November 2014|title= }} |
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* {{cite news|date=15 November 2014|title=UAE cabinet endorses new list of terrorist groups|newspaper=[[Kuwait News Agency]] |url= https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2408700&Language=en |access-date=16 November 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141129034608/https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2408700&Language=en |archive-date=29 November 2014|url-status=dead}} |
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* {{cite news|date=15 November 2014|title=UAE blacklists 5 Pakistani groups among 83 as 'militant organisations|newspaper=The Express Tribune|agency=AFP |url= http://tribune.com.pk/story/791818/uae-blacklists-6-pakistani-groups-among-80-as-militant-organisations/|url-status=live|access-date=16 November 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141118025426/http://tribune.com.pk/story/791818/uae-blacklists-6-pakistani-groups-among-80-as-militant-organisations/|archive-date=18 November 2014}} |
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* {{cite web |title=UAE Cabinet approves list of designated terrorist organisations, groups |date=15 November 2014 |agency=Emirates News Agency |url=https://www.wam.ae/en/news/emirates-international/1395272478814.html |access-date=10 February 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160130052552/http://www.wam.ae/en/news/emirates-international/1395272478814.html |archive-date=30 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It is also subject to UN sanctions by the [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]].<ref name="UN-ETIM2">{{cite web|date=April 2007 |title=Governance Asia-Pacific Watch |url= http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan025885.htm |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070824082345/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan025885.htm|archive-date=24 August 2007|access-date=23 August 2007|publisher=[[United Nations]]}}</ref> |
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=== United Nations === |
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Turkish passports were used by Uyghurs who were seeking to contact Mujahidin Indonesia Timor, a pro-ISIS organization in Sulawesi in Indonesia.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zenn|first1=Jacob|title=An Overview of Chinese Fighters and Anti-Chinese Militant Groups in Syria and Iraq|journal=China Brief|date=October 10, 2014 <!-- 04:11 PM --> |volume=14|issue=19|url= http://www.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=42944&no_cache=1#.VbcF4flGR9g |accessdate=14 June 2015|publisher=The Jamestown Foundation}}</ref> |
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In July 2019, 22 countries issued a joint letter to the 41st session of the [[United Nations Human Rights Council|United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC)]], condemning China's mass detention of Uyghurs and other minorities, calling upon China to "refrain from the arbitrary detention and restrictions on freedom of movement of Uyghurs, and other Muslim and minority communities in Xinjiang".<ref name=":13"/><ref name=":14"/><ref name=":11">{{Cite web|date=10 July 2019|title=UN: Unprecedented Joint Call for China to End Xinjiang Abuses|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/un-unprecedented-joint-call-china-end-xinjiang-abuses|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217070044/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/un-unprecedented-joint-call-china-end-xinjiang-abuses|archive-date=17 December 2019|access-date=5 December 2019|website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> |
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In the same UNHRC session, 50 countries issued a joint letter supporting China's Xinjiang policies,<ref name=":13"/><ref name=":152">{{Cite web |title=Letter to UNHRC |url=https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G19/240/77/PDF/G1924077.pdf?OpenElement |access-date=12 August 2020 |website=United Nations Human Rights Council}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ambassadors from 50 countries voice support to China's position on issues related to Xinjiang – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-07/27/c_138263116.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727144158/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-07/27/c_138263116.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 July 2019|access-date=12 August 2020|website=www.xinhuanet.com}}</ref> criticising the practice of "politicizing human rights issues". The letter stated, "China has invited a number of diplomats, international organizations officials and journalist to Xinjiang" and that "what they saw and heard in Xinjiang completely contradicted what was reported in the media."<ref name=":152" /> |
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The Turkish run English language BGNNews news agency reported that the Turkish Meydan newspaper discovered that Uyghur fighters joining ISIL were being helped by businessman Nurali T., who led an [[Zeytinburnu]] district based network in Istanbul, which produced counterfeit Turkish passports numbering up to 100,000 to give to Uyghurs from China and help them go to Turkey form where they would enter Iraq and Syria to join ISIL, Uyghurs from China travel to Malaysia via Cambodia and Thailand and then travel onto Turkey, since a visa is not needed for travel between Turkey and Malaysia, then staying at locations in Istanbul, and then going to Iraq and Syria by traveling to southeastern Turkey, the information was revealed by AG who participates in the network, he noted that even though Turkish authorities are able to detect the fake passports they do not deport the Uyghurs and allow them into Turkey, AG said that: ''“Turkey has secret dealings with the Uighurs. The authorities first confiscate the passports but then release the individuals.”''<ref>{{cite news|last1=|first1=|title=ISIL recruits Chinese with fake Turkish passports from Istanbul|url=http://national.bgnnews.com/isil-recruits-chinese-with-fake-turkish-passports-from-istanbul-haberi/4968|accessdate=4 June 2015|agency=BGNNews|location=Istanbul|date=April 9, 2015}}</ref> |
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In October 2019, 23 countries issued a joint statement at the UN urging China to "uphold its national and international obligations and commitments to respect human rights".<ref name=":1" /> |
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After Thailand deported Uyghurs back to China whom China suspected to have "been on their way to Turkey, Syria or Iraq to join jihad" , John Kirby, a United States State Department spokesman, slammed the move and said Thailand should "allow those remaining ethnic Uighurs to depart voluntarily to a country of their choice".<ref>{{cite news |last=Singh |first=Bajinder Pal |date= 29-08-2015 |title=Why we need to worry about the Grey Wolves of Turkey |url=http://www.dailyo.in/politics/bangkok-bombings-grey-wolves-turkey-thai-government-islamic-terror/story/1/5952.html |newspaper= daily O |location= |access-date= }}</ref> |
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In response, 54 countries issued a joint statement supporting China's Xinjiang policies. The statement "spoke positively of the results of counter-terrorism and de-radicalization measures in Xinjiang and noted that these measures have effectively safeguarded the basic human rights of people of all ethnic groups."<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|author=Ben Westcott and Richard Roth|title=China's treatment of Uyghurs in Xinjiang divides UN members|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/29/asia/china-xinjiang-united-nations-intl-hnk/index.html|access-date=12 August 2020|website=CNN|date=30 October 2019}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=张悦|title=Statement at UN supports China on Xinjiang|url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201910/31/WS5db9ce19a310cf3e3557486d.html|access-date=12 August 2020|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn}}</ref> |
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===2015 anti-China protests in Turkey=== |
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On July 4, 2015, a group of around 2,000 [[Turkish nationalism|Turkish nationalists]] protesting against [[China]]'s fasting ban in Xinjiang mistakenly attacked [[Koreans|South Korean]] [[tourists]] in Istanbul, which led to China issuing a [[travel warning]] to its citizens [[traveling]] to [[Turkey]].<ref>http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/07/05/us-china-turkey-idUSKCN0PF08L20150705</ref> This event negatively impacted [[China–Turkey relations]].<ref>http://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/550973--beijing-troubled-by-turkish-anti-china-protests</ref> |
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In August 2022, the [[UN Human Rights Office assessment of human rights concerns in Xinjiang]] concluded that the extent of [[Xinjiang internment camps|arbitrary and discriminatory detention]] of members of [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]] and other predominantly [[Muslim groups in China]], since 2017, pursuant to law and policy, in context of restrictions and deprivation more generally of fundamental rights enjoyed individually and collectively, may constitute international crimes, in particular [[crimes against humanity]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/31/china-uyghur-muslims-xinjiang-michelle-bachelet-un|title=China's treatment of Uyghurs may be crime against humanity, says UN human rights chief|date=August 31, 2022|website=the Guardian|access-date=1 September 2022|archive-date=1 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901063704/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/31/china-uyghur-muslims-xinjiang-michelle-bachelet-un|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-62744522|title=Torture claims against China Uyghurs credible – UN|date=August 31, 2022|website=BBC News|access-date=1 September 2022|archive-date=1 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901074250/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-62744522|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Cumming-Bruce |first1=Nick |last2=Ramzy |first2=Austin |date=2022-08-31 |title=U.N. Says China May Have Committed 'Crimes Against Humanity' in Xinjiang |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/31/world/asia/un-china-xinjiang-uyghurs.html |access-date=2022-09-01 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901014137/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/31/world/asia/un-china-xinjiang-uyghurs.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[Devlet Bahçeli]], a leader from Turkey's [[Nationalist Movement Party]] (MHP), said in a statement that the attacks by MHP affiliated Turkish youth on South Korean tourists was "understandable", telling the Turkish newspaper ''Hurriyet'', "What feature differentiates a Korean from a Chinese? They see that they both have slanted eyes. How can they tell the difference?".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lefevre |first1= Amy Sawitta |last2=Dikmen |first2=Yesim |date= Jul 9, 2015 <!-- 5:01pm EDT --> |title=Thai PM defends decision to send Uighurs back to China |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/07/09/us-thailand-uighurs-turkey-idUSKCN0PJ18620150709 |newspaper= Reuters |location= |access-date= }}</ref> |
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=== Taiwan === |
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Taiwan, amidst continued conflict with Mainland China, has also denounced China's treatment of the Uyghur people. Analysts have argued that the crisis happening to the Uyghurs is indicative of what Taiwan could face if they were to succumb to the pressures of the PRC in reunifying China and identify this as a driving factor in Taiwan's support. The argument made is that because China evidently has such a hard time accepting and governing over groups of people with varying historical backgrounds, it’s unlikely that China will respect the wishes of the Taiwanese people as much the PRC says they will. The Taiwanese [[Legislative Yuan]] had become the first in Asia to label the Uyghur crisis as a genocide and urged the government to nationally recognize the Xinjiang conflict as a genocide and employ sanctions as a result.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Taiwan Voices Support for Uyghurs in China |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/05/taiwan-voices-support-for-uyghurs-in-china/ |access-date=2024-05-01 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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The [[2015 Bangkok bombing]] is suspected to have been carried out by the [[Pan-Turkism|Pan-Turkic]] neo-fascist [[Turkish nationalism|Turkish ultra-nationalist]] organization [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] due to Thailand's deportation of Uyghur terrorist suspects back to China instead of allowing them to travel to Turkey for asylum. A Turkish man named Adem Karadag was arrested by the Thai police in connection to the bombing with Turkish passports. Bomb making materials were found in his apartment. The Grey Wolves are described by the media as a terrorist group and became famous for their assassinations and killings of journalists, liberals, and leftists in Turkey, their member [[Mehmet Ali Ağca]]'s [[Pope John Paul II assassination attempt|assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II]], and their involvement in the [[Nagorno-Karabakh War]] and the [[First Chechen War|Chechen war]] due to the Muslim and Turkic populations of those areas since their aim is the unification of all Muslim Turkic peoples into one state spanning from Central Asia to the Balkans.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sherwell |first=Philip |date=<!-- 3:50PM BST --> 29 Aug 2015 |title=Bangkok bombing: Was it the Grey Wolves of Turkey? |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/thailand/11832701/Bangkok-bombing-Was-it-the-Grey-Wolves-of-Turkey.html |newspaper=The Telegraph |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Murdoch |first= Lindsay |date= August 30, 2015 <!-- - 2:12PM --> |title=Bangkok bombing: Who are the Turkish terrorist group the Grey Wolves? |url=http://www.smh.com.au/world/bangkok-bombing-who-are-the-turkish-terrorist-group-the-grey-wolves-20150830-gjavjz.html |newspaper= The Sydney Morning Herald |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Murdoch |first=Lindsay |date=August 30, 2015 |title=Grey Wolves Make Prime Suspects in Bangkok Bombing Arrest |url=http://phuketwan.com/tourism/grey-wolves-make-prime-suspects-bangkok-bombing-23081/ |newspaper=Phuket Wan |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Rossington |first= Ben |date= <!-- 22:02 --> 27 August 2015 |title= Bangkok bombings: Police probe 'Grey Wolves' link to attack which killed 20 |url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/bangkok-bombings-police-probe-grey-6334814 |newspaper= The Mirror |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |author=Phuketwan Reporters |date=August 25, 2015 |title=Chinese 'Flock to Phuket'; Grey Wolves Top Suspects; Fresh South Peace Talks; Wanted Pair Held |url= http://phuketwan.com/tourism/phuketwatch-bomber-trail-cools-grey-wolves-top-suspects-fresh-south-peace-talks-wanted-phuket-pair-held-23043/ |newspaper= Phuket Wan |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Cunningham |first=Susan |date=Aug 24, 2015 <!-- @ 6:46 PM --> |title=Thailand's Shrine Bombing - The Case For Turkey's Grey Wolves |url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/susancunningham/2015/08/24/thailands-shrine-bombing-the-case-for-turkeys-grey-wolves/ |newspaper= Forbes Magazine |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |author=AT Editor |date=August 29, 2015 |title= Break in Bangkok blast case? Police arrest possible suspect |url=http://atimes.com/2015/08/bangkok-blast-police-hunt-uighur-escapees/ |newspaper= Asia Times |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Singh |first=Bajinder Pal |date= 2015-08-29 |title=Why we need to worry about the Grey Wolves of Turkey |url=http://www.dailyo.in/politics/bangkok-bombings-grey-wolves-turkey-thai-government-islamic-terror/story/1/5952.html |newspaper= daily O |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Lefevre |first1=Amy Sawitta |last2=Niyomyat |first2=Aukkarapon |date= Aug 27, 2015 <!-- 11:15am EDT --> |title=Thai police look into Turkish connection in Bangkok blast |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/08/27/us-thailand-blast-idUSKCN0QW0MY20150827 |newspaper= Reuters |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=MURDOCH |first= LINDSAY |date= Last updated 21:12, August 30, 2015 |title=Bangkok bombing: Who are the Turkish terrorist group the Grey Wolves? |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/world/asia/71580889/bangkok-bombing-who-are-the-turkish-terrorist-group-the-grey-wolves |newspaper= stuff.co.nz |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |author=ONLINE REPORTERS AND NEWS AGENCIES |date=29 Aug 2015 <!-- at 16:30 --> |title= Police arrest Erawan blast suspect |url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/general/673552/police-hold-erawan-bomb-suspect |newspaper= Bangkok Post |location= |access-date= }}</ref> |
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=== Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act === |
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==Casualties== |
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The [[United States Senate]] and [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] passed the [[Uyghur Act|Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act]] in September 2019 and December 2019 respectively in reaction to the conflict.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lipes|first=Joshua|date=12 September 2019|title=US Senate Passes Legislation to Hold China Accountable for Rights Abuses in Xinjiang|publisher=[[Radio Free Asia]]|url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/act-09122019132709.html|access-date=5 October 2019}}</ref><ref name="ABC-HR">{{cite news|date=4 December 2019|title=Uyghur bill demanding sanctions on Chinese officials passes US House of Representatives|publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-12-04/uyghur-bill-passes-us-house-of-representatives/11765684|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="CNN-HR">{{cite news|last1=Westcott|first1=Ben|last2=Byrd|first2=Haley|date=3 December 2019|title=US House passes Uyghur Act calling for tough sanctions on Beijing over Xinjiang camps|publisher=[[CNN]]|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/12/03/politics/us-xinjiang-bill-trump-intl-hnk/index.html|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="AJ-HR">{{cite news|date=3 December 2019|title=Anger in China as US House passes Uighur crackdown bill|publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/courts-china-anger-house-passes-uighur-crackdown-bill-191204011217627.html|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> The bill requires United States President [[Donald Trump]] to impose sanctions under the [[Magnitsky Act|Global Magnitsky Act]] on Xinjiang Communist Party Secretary [[Chen Quanguo]], which would be the first time such sanctions would be imposed on a member of [[Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP politburo]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lee|first1=Se Young|last2=Brunnstrom|first2=David|date=3 December 2019|title=Trump comments, Uighur bill hurt prospects of U.S.-China deal|work=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-xinjiang/house-debates-uighur-bill-demanding-sanctions-on-senior-chinese-officials-idUSKBN1Y72P6|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Flatley|first=Daniel|date=4 December 2019|title=U.S. House Passes Xinjiang Bill, Prompting Threat From China|agency=[[Bloomberg News]]|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-12-03/u-s-house-ramps-up-china-tensions-with-uighur-human-rights-bill|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> The bill was signed by President Trump into law on 17 June 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lipes|first=Joshua|date=17 June 2020|title=Trump Signs Uyghur Rights Act Into Law, Authorizing Sanctions For Abuses in Xinjiang|work=[[Radio Free Asia]]|url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/act-06082020173916.html|access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref> |
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Over 800 people have been killed in the conflict, either directly as a combatant, or indirectly as a victim of terrorist attacks.<ref>[http://www.systemicpeace.org/warlist/warlist.htm/ CSP - Major Episodes of Violence 1946 - 2014]</ref> |
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=== Deportation of Uyghurs === |
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In 2014, about 500 people have been recorded killed as a result of the conflict.{{#tag:ref|See [http://www.mail.com/int/news/world/2597698-blasts-clashes-chinas-restive-region-kill-12.html#.2394-stage-set1-3 Blasts, clashes in China's restive region kill 12 - World news<!-- Bot generated title -->] |
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Hundreds of Uyghurs fleeing China through [[Southeast Asia]] have been deported back by the governments of Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, and others, drawing condemnation from the U.S., the [[UNHCR]], and human rights groups.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-07-09|title=Thailand forcibly sends nearly 100 Uighur Muslims back to China|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/09/thailand-forcibly-sends-nearly-100-uighur-muslims-back-to-china|access-date=2020-11-25|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Putz |first=Catherine |title=Thailand Deports 100 Uyghurs to China |url = https://thediplomat.com/2015/07/thailand-deports-100-uyghurs-to-china/ |access-date=11 September 2018 |work=The Diplomat |issue=11 July 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181020065056/https://thediplomat.com/2015/07/thailand-deports-100-uyghurs-to-china/ |archive-date=20 October 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The U.S. State Department said deported Uyghurs "could face harsh treatment and a lack of due process" while the UNHCR and [[Human Rights Watch]] have called the deportations a violation of international law.<ref>{{cite news |title = Foreign reaction: Thailand condemned over Uighur |url = https://www.bangkokpost.com/news/general/618712/foreign-reaction-thailand-condemned-over-uighur |access-date=11 September 2018 |work=Bangkok Post |agency=Associated Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = HRW condemns Malaysia for deporting Uighurs |url = http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refdaily?pass=52fc6fbd5&id=510f64d75 |website=www.unhcr.org |publisher=Agence France Presse |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160111221529/http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refdaily?pass=52fc6fbd5&id=510f64d75 |archive-date=11 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Alternatively, countries such as Germany have altered immigration policies to prevent the extradition of Uyghurs back to China, along with Malaysia, as of 2020, following suit. |
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* {{cite news| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/01/us-china-attack-idUSBREA200OQ20140301 | work=Reuters | title=At least 28 die in 'terrorist' attack at Chinese train station: reports | date=1 March 2014}} |
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* {{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-27232924|title=BBC News - Xinjiang station attack: President Xi Jinping urges action|work=BBC News|accessdate=22 October 2014}} |
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* {{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-27502652|title=BBC News - Urumqi attack kills 31 in China's Xinjiang region|work=BBC News|accessdate=22 October 2014}} |
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* {{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-27953164|title=BBC News - China Xinjiang: Police kill 13 attackers|work=BBC News|accessdate=22 October 2014}} |
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* {{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/03/us-china-attacks-xinjiang-idUSKBN0G301H20140803|title=''Almost 100 killed during attacks in China's Xinjiang last week''|work=Reuters|accessdate=22 October 2014}} |
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* {{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2014-09/25/c_127035563.htm|title=40 rioters dead in Luntai county violence in Xinjiang|publisher=|accessdate=22 October 2014}}}} {{or|date=January 2015}} |
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=== Involvement of foreign enterprises === |
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==See also== |
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The role of commercial entities has become increasingly scrutinized, due to the presence of Western enterprises such as Coca-Cola, Volkswagen and Siemens in the region. The major concern here is the fact that the presence of these entities could finance human rights violations and enable the supervision of ethnic minorities by technological cooperation. Moreover, reports have claimed that forced labor prevails in Xinjiang's textile industry.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Alexander Kriebitz |author2=Raphael Max |title=The Xinjiang Case and its Implications from a Business Ethics Perspective |year=2020 |journal=Human Rights Review |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=243–265 |doi=10.1007/s12142-020-00591-0 |s2cid=219509907 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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*[[Human rights in China]] |
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*[[Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict]] |
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*[[Persecution_of_Buddhists]] |
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Based on these allegations, international organizations such as the World Bank have begun to reconsider their involvement in Xinjiang, while textile manufacturers including Adidas or Badger Sportswear have withdrawn from Xinjiang. Divestment also concerns collaboration in the realm of AI and digital technologies, and some enterprises have decided to discontinue the handover of technologies and knowledge to Chinese entities involved in the human rights violations in Xinjiang.<ref>{{cite news |author1=M. Murgia |author2=C. Shepherd |title=US universities reconsider research links with Chinese AI company |url=https://www.ft.com/content/2f112da0-8e19-11e9-a1c1-51bf8f989972 |newspaper=Financial Times |date=14 June 2019 |access-date=17 November 2020 }}</ref> |
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== References == |
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=== Chinese government response === |
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The Chinese government's primary response to allegations of human rights violations has been to deny the allegations. In the context of the Xinjiang conflict, China is doing just that, while maintaining that they are placing Uyghurs into internment camps to prevent the spread of separatist ideology and terrorist rhetoric in the country.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-04-24 |title=Who are the Uyghurs and why is China being accused of genocide? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-22278037 |access-date=2024-05-01 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> China’s response to particularly NGOs (Non-governmental Organizations) and individual actors has been one of immense hostility. China has attempted to discourage current and future dissenters by discrediting domestic human rights defenders and portraying them as criminals. Authorities have also ordered the closure of numerous NGOs and have arrested NGO staff on trumped up charges. In the sphere of multilateral organizations, China has used its membership on the Economic and Social Council’s (ECOSOC) NGO Committee to block NGOs critical of China from being granted UN accreditation, and it has sought to blacklist accredited activists to bar their attendance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=China at the UN: Choking Civil Society |url=https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/china-at-the-un-choking-civil-society/ |access-date=2024-05-01 |website=Journal of Democracy |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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== Outside China == |
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[[File:March for Gaza Washington DC 13 January 2024.jpg|thumb|A woman with a banner demanding freedom for Uyghurs, 13 January 2024]] |
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Due to the increasing tensions between Uyghurs and China, the conflict has also stemmed beyond the Chinese border.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Shamil Shams|date=June 1, 2017|title=Istanbul attack: Why China's Uighurs are joining global jihadist groups|work=[[Deutsche Welle]]|url=https://www.dw.com/en/istanbul-attack-why-chinas-uighurs-are-joining-global-jihadist-groups/a-37035524}}</ref> |
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During the [[Syrian civil war]], a Chinese hostage was murdered by the [[Islamic State]], which claimed its desire to fight against China over Xinjiang.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Blanchard |first=Ben |work=Reuters |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-china-idUSKBN1840UP |title=Syria says up to 5,000 Chinese Uighurs fighting in militant groups |date=11 May 2017 |access-date=24 July 2020}}</ref> These militants are also very active in Syria, mostly [[Idlib]], where it formed to be one of the most radical fighting groups in the conflict, which prompted China to take cautious reactions.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://english.alarabiya.net/en/features/2017/04/22/Many-don-t-speak-Arabic-but-these-Chinese-militants-are-thriving-in-Syria.html |title=Many don't speak Arabic, but these Chinese militants are thriving in Syria |date=22 April 2017 |website=Al Arabiya English |access-date=24 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url= https://english.alarabiya.net/en/features/2016/03/02/China-s-proxy-war-in-Syria-Revealing-the-role-of-Uighur-fighters-.html |title=China's proxy war in Syria: Revealing the role of Uighur fighters |author=Mohanad Hage Ali |date=2 March 2016 |website=Al Arabiya English |access-date=24 July 2020}}</ref> |
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A number of Uyghur militants have been recruited by [[Islamic State|ISIS]]<ref>{{Cite news|date=2017-01-05|title=Turkey nightclub attack: Police 'detain several Uighurs' in raids|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-38517847|access-date=2020-11-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=CHARLIE CAMPBELL|date=July 21, 2016|title=Uighurs Joining ISIS Poses Security Problems for China|url=https://time.com/4416585/isis-islamic-state-china-xinjiang-uighur-xi-jinping/|access-date=2020-11-25|website=Time Magazine}}</ref> and have had a presence in Southeast Asia, with some joining [[Mujahidin Indonesia Timur|Mujahidin Indonesia Timor]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nodirbek Soliev|date=January 2017|title=The Rise of Uyghur Militancy in and Beyond Southeast Asia: An Assessment|url=https://css.ethz.ch/en/services/digital-library/articles/article.html/4696d1ab-5344-42ce-8696-3294dd481d41|journal=Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses|publisher=[[S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies]]}}</ref> |
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== Factors enabling Uyghur subjugation in Xinjiang == |
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In recent decades, China has become an economic behemoth and is far outpacing the US in trade with countries on the continents of Africa and Asia. Due to this newly found 'economic clout', China's neighbors, many of whom hold China as their number one trading partner, do not want to pick a fight, especially if they believe being critical of China will yield negative economic effects for their country. With countries hesitant to critique Chinese actions, the door is left open for arguments supporting China in their assertions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-24 |title=Why African Nations Are Mostly Silent on China's Rights Record |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/why-african-nations-are-mostly-silent-on-china-s-rights-record-/6760590.html |access-date=2024-05-01 |website=Voice of America |language=en}}</ref> |
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== See also == |
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* [[List of ongoing armed conflicts]] |
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* [[Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin]] |
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* [[Islamophobia in China]] |
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* [[Pan-Islamism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]] |
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* [[Three Evils]] |
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* [[Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism]] |
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* [[Han chauvinism]] |
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* [[Borders of China]] |
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== Notes == |
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{{Notelist}} |
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== References == |
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=== Citations === |
=== Citations === |
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{{Reflist| |
{{Reflist|refs= |
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<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Yellinek |first1=Roie |last2=Chen |first2=Elizabeth |date=December 31, 2019 |title=The "22 vs. 50" Diplomatic Split Between the West and China Over Xinjiang and Human Rights |journal=China Brief |volume=19 |issue=22 |publisher=Jamestown Foundation |url=https://jamestown.org/program/the-22-vs-50-diplomatic-split-between-the-west-and-china-over-xinjiang-and-human-rights/ |access-date=2020-08-12}}</ref> |
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<ref name=":14">{{Cite news |date=July 2019 |title=Who cares about the Uyghurs |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/sites/default/files/images/print-edition/20190727_CNM997.png}}</ref> |
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}} |
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=== Sources === |
=== Sources === |
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{{refbegin|40em}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia|editor-first=Ildikó|editor-last=Bellér-Hann|volume=|edition=illustrated|year=2007|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|url=http://books.google.com/?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0754670414|issn=1759-5290|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Acharya |first1=Arabinda |first2=Rohan |last2=Gunaratna |first3=Wang |last3=Pengxin |title = Ethnic Identity and National Conflict in China |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FVDIAAAAQBAJ |year = 2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn = 978-0-230-10787-8}} |
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* {{cite book |title=The Uyghurs: Strangers in Their Own Land|first=Gardner|last=Bovingdon|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2010 |isbn=0231519419}} |
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* {{cite book |author=((American Foreign Policy Council)) |author-link=American Foreign Policy Council |title=The World Almanac of Islamism: 2014 |date=30 January 2014 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4422-3144-3}} |
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* {{cite news |last= BURNS|first= JOHN F. |date=July 6, 1983 |title= ON SOVIET-CHINA BORDER, THE THAW IS JUST A TRICKLE |url= http://www.nytimes.com/1983/07/06/world/on-soviet-china-border-the-thaw-is-just-a-trickle.html |newspaper=The New York Times |location= |publisher= |accessdate=12 May 2014 }} |
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* {{cite book | |
* {{cite book |editor-last=Bellér-Hann |editor-first=Ildikó |title = Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia |year=2007 |publisher=Ashgate |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC |isbn = 978-0-7546-7041-4 |issn = 1759-5290 |access-date=10 March 2014}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Benson |first=Linda |year=1990 |title=The Ili Rebellion: the Moslem Challenge to Chinese Authority in Xinjiang, 1944–1949 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=suuXIhetjZcC |publisher = M. E. Sharpe |isbn = 978-0-87332-509-7}} |
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* {{cite web |url = http://www.oxuscom.com/sovinxj.htm |title = The Soviets in Xinjiang 1911-1949|last1= Dickens |first1=Mark |last2= |first2= |date=1990 |website = OXUS COMMUNICATIONS |publisher= |accessdate=12 May 2014}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Bovingdon |first=Gardner |year=2005 |title=Autonomy in Xinjiang: Han nationalist imperatives and Uyghur discontent |series=Policy Studies |volume=11 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=East-West Center Washington |url= http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS011.pdf |access-date=11 September 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180912055725/https://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS011.pdf |archive-date=12 September 2018 |url-status=dead |isbn=978-1-932728-20-0}} |
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* {{cite book |title=Contemporary China - An Introduction |first=Michael |last=Dillon |volume= |edition=|year=2008|publisher=Routledge |url=http://books.google.com/?id=g25_AgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=1134290543 |accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Bovingdon |first=Gardner |title = The Uyghurs: Strangers in Their Own Land |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NrtIa77Sj2IC |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2010 |isbn = 978-0-2315-1941-0}} |
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* {{cite book |title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim Far Northwest |first=Michael |last=Dillon|volume=|edition=|year=2003|publisher=Routledge |url = http://books.google.com/?id=1ia-2lDtGH4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=1134360967|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book | |
* {{cite book |last=Clarke |first=Michael E. |title = Xinjiang and China's Rise in Central Asia - A History |year=2011 |publisher = Taylor & Francis |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC |isbn = 978-1-1368-2706-8 |access-date=10 March 2014}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Debata |first=Mahesh Ranjan |title=China's Minorities: Ethnic-religious Separatism in Xinjiang |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xe8CUZ0_r4C |year=2007 |publisher=Pentagon Press |isbn= 978-81-8274-325-0}} |
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* {{cite book |title=Dragon Fighter: One Woman's Epic Struggle for Peace with China|first=Rebiya|last=Kadeer|others=Alexandra Cavelius|volume=|edition=illustrated|year=2009|publisher=Kales Press |url = http://books.google.com/?id=eUfsjYQU-lwC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=0979845610 |accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |title = Xinjiang and the Expansion of Chinese Communist Power: Kashgar in the Early Twentieth Century |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=J2MtBAAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn = 978-1-317-64721-8}} |
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* {{cite book |title=Nationalism, Democracy and National Integration in China|editor1-first=Leong H.|editor1-last=Liew|editor2-first=Shaoguang|editor2-last=Wang|volume=|edition=|year=2004|publisher=Taylor & Francis|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ZavAkGUNdSkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0203404297|accessdate=9 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim Far Northwest |year=2004 |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |isbn = 978-0-415-32051-1}} |
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* {{cite book |title=China's Ethnic Minorities and Globalisation |first=Colin|last=Mackerras|author2=Professor and Head of School of Asian and International Studies Colin Mackerras|volume=|edition=|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|url=http://books.google.com/?id=3EWAAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=1134392885|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim Far Northwest |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1ia-2lDtGH4C |isbn = 978-1-1343-6096-3 |access-date=10 March 2014}} |
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* {{cite journal |last=Meehan |first= Lieutenant Colonel Dallace L.|last2= |first2= |date= May–June 1980 |title= Ethnic Minorities in the Soviet Military implications for the decades ahead |url= http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1980/may-jun/meehan.html |journal= Air University Review |publisher= |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi= |accessdate=11 May 2014}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Dwyer |first = Arienne M. |year=2005 |title=The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur identity, Language, Policy, and Political discourse |series=Policy Studies |volume=15 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=East-West Center Washington |url= http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS015.pdf |access-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100524134646/http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS015.pdf |archive-date=24 May 2010 |url-status=dead |isbn=1-932728-29-5}} |
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* {{cite book |title=Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864|first=James A. |last=Millward |volume= |edition=illustrated |year=1998 |publisher=Stanford University Press |url = http://books.google.com/?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=0804729336 |accessdate=10 March 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Finley |first=Joanne N. Smith |title = The Art of Symbolic Resistance: Uyghur Identities and Uyghur-Han Relations in Contemporary Xinjiang |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LQBBAQAAQBAJ |year = 2013 |publisher=BRILL |isbn = 978-90-04-25678-1}} |
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* {{cite book |title=Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang|first=James A.|last=Millward |volume=|edition=illustrated|year=2007|publisher=Columbia University Press |url = http://books.google.com/?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=0231139241|accessdate=10 March 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book | |
* {{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Andrew D. |title = Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949 W. |year=1986 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ |isbn = 978-0-5212-5514-1 |access-date=10 March 2014}} |
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* {{harvc |last=Gladney |first=Dru C. |year=2004<!--publication date, authored 2001--> |c=The Chinese Program of Development and Control, 1978–2001 |pp=101–119 |in=Starr}} |
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* {{cite book |title=The ETIM: China's Islamic Militants and the Global Terrorist Threat |first1=J. Todd |last1=Reed|first2=Diana|last2=Raschke|last=|volume=|edition=|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO |url = http://books.google.com/?id=5I2b_hrJO8sC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=0313365407|accessdate=10 March 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Karagiannis |first=Emmanuel |title=Political Islam in Central Asia: The Challenge of Hizb Ut-Tahrir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vmKNAgAAQBAJ |year=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-23942-8}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Oasis Identities: Uyghur Nationalism Along China's Silk Road|first1=Justin Jon|last1=Rudelson|first2=Justin Ben-Adam|last2=Rudelson|last=|volume=|edition=illustrated|year=1997|publisher=Columbia University Press |url = http://books.google.com/?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=0231107862|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Lovelace |first=Doug |title=Terrorism Documents of International and Local Control: Volumes 90 and 91 |date=29 July 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-538101-6}} |
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*{{cite news |last=RYAN |first= William l.|date= Jan 2, 1969|title= Russians Back Revolution in Province Inside China |url= http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19690102&id=ylsgAAAAIBAJ&sjid=UGQFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4665,144363 |newspaper= The Lewiston Daily Sun |page=3|location= |publisher= |accessdate= 12 May 2014}} |
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*{{cite book|title= |
* {{cite book |title = China's Ethnic Minorities and Globalisation |first=Colin |last=Mackerras |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3EWAAgAAQBAJ |isbn = 978-1-1343-9288-9 |access-date=10 March 2014}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Millward |first=James |title=Violent Separatism in Xinjiang: A Critical Assessment |series=Policy Studies |year=2004 |volume=6 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=East-West Center Washington |url= https://www.eastwestcenter.org/system/tdf/private/PS006.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=32006 |access-date=2 November 2018 |isbn=1-932728-11-2 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171121034905/https://www.eastwestcenter.org/system/tdf/private/PS006.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=32006 |archive-date=21 November 2017}} |
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*{{cite book|title=Islam Outside the Arab World|first1=Ingvar|last1=Svanberg|first2=David|last2=Westerlund|volume=|edition=|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|url=http://books.google.com/?id=jTVjWTllOGgC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=1136113304|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Millward |first=James A. |title=Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang |year=2007 |publisher=Columbia University Press |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA104 |isbn = 978-0-2311-3924-3 |access-date=10 March 2014}} |
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*{{cite news |last= Tinibai|first=Kenjali |date=May 28, 2010 |title=China and Kazakhstan: A Two-Way Street |url= http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/may2010/gb20100528_168520.htm |newspaper= Bloomberg Businessweek |page=1 |location= |publisher= |accessdate=12 May 2014 }} |
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* {{harvc |last=Millward |first=James A. |last2=Tursun |first2=Nabijan |year=2004<!--publication date--> |c=Political History and Strategies of Control 1884–1978 |pp=63–98 |in=Starr}} |
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*{{cite news |last= Tinibai|first=Kenjali |date=2010-05-28 |title= Kazakhstan and China: A Two-Way Street |url= http://engnews.gazeta.kz/art.asp?aid=308213 |newspaper= Gazeta.kz |page=|location= |publisher= |accessdate=12 May 2014 }} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Nathan |first1=Andrew James |last2=Scobell |first2=Andrew |title = China's Search for Security |year=2012 |publisher=Columbia University Press |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=etRkjLv8AosC |isbn = 978-0-2315-1164-3 |access-date=29 June 2019}} |
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*{{cite news |last= Tinibai|first=Kenjali |date=27 May 2010 |title= Kazakhstan and China: A Two-Way Street |url= http://www.tol.org/client/article/21490-kazakhstan-and-china-a-two-way-street.html |newspaper= Transitions Online |page=|location= |publisher= |accessdate=12 May 2014 }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Omelicheva |first=Mariya Y. |title=Counterterrorism Policies in Central Asia |date=13 September 2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-92372-2}} |
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* {{cite book |title=China and the New International Order|editor1-first=Gungwu|editor1-last=Wang|editor2-first=Yongnian|editor2-last=Zheng|volume=|edition=illustrated|year=2008|publisher=Taylor & Francis |url = http://books.google.com/?id=mXXnd81uoMoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=0203932269 |accessdate=9 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book | |
* {{cite book |last1=Reed |first1 = J. Todd |last2=Raschke |first2=Diana |title = The ETIM: China's Islamic Militants and the Global Terrorist Threat |year=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5I2b_hrJO8sC |isbn = 978-0-3133-6540-9 |access-date=10 March 2014}} |
||
* {{cite book |last = Rudelson |first = Justin Jon |title = Oasis Identities: Uyghur Nationalism Along China's Silk Road |year=1997 |publisher=Columbia University Press |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6LN40oBDqH0C |isbn = 978-0-2311-0786-0 |access-date=29 June 2019}} |
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* {{cite book |title=China's Post-Jiang Leadership Succession: Problems and Perspectives |editor1-first=John|editor1-last=Wong|editor2-first=Yongnian|editor2-last=Zheng |volume=|edition=|year=2002 |publisher=World Scientific |url = http://books.google.com/?id=cEdQ1IuJFH4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=981270650X|accessdate=10 March 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Sautman |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=Preferential policies for ethnic minorities in China: The case of Xinjiang |series=Working Papers in the Social Sciences |volume=32 |url= http://repository.ust.hk/dspace/bitstream/1783.1/1152/1/sosc32.pdf |access-date=6 May 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110721094447/http://repository.ust.hk/dspace/bitstream/1783.1/1152/1/sosc32.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{cite book |title=Central Asia Monitor|others=Contributor Institute for Democratic Development|volume=|edition=|year=1993|publisher=Central Asia Monitor |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=cQppAAAAMAAJ|isbn=|accessdate=10 March 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }} |
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* {{cite report |author=Senate Committee on Foreign Relations |title = Annual Report on International Religious Freedom, 2004 |editor=U.S. State Department |year=2005 |publisher=Government Printing Office |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=04dlwzB2SvcC&pg=PA159 |isbn = 0-1607-2552-6}} |
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* {{cite news |author= AP |date=January 31, 1967 |title=Turkestan Refugees Report Raids on Chinese Sinkiang |url= http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1946&dat=19810922&id=3oAxAAAAIBAJ&sjid=9KQFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5348,448513 |newspaper = The New York Times |page=|location= |publisher= |accessdate=12 May 2014 }} |
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* {{harvc |last=Shichor |first=Yitzhak |year=2004<!--publication date--> |c=The Great Wall of Steel Military and Strategy in Xinjiang |pp=120–162 |in=Starr}} |
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* {{cite news |author= UPI |date=Sep 22, 1981 |title=Radio war aims at China Moslems |url= http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1946&dat=19810922&id=3oAxAAAAIBAJ&sjid=9KQFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5348,448513 |newspaper= The Montreal Gazette |page=11 |location= |publisher= |accessdate=12 May 2014 }} |
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* {{cite book |editor-last=Starr |editor-first=S. Frederick |title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland |year=2004 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC |isbn=978-0-7656-1318-9}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Svanberg|first1=Ingvar|last2=Westerlund|first2=David|title=Islam Outside the Arab World |year=2012|publisher=Routledge|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jTVjWTllOGgC |isbn=978-1-136-11330-7|access-date=10 March 2014}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Veeck |first1=Gregory |first2=Clifton W. |last2=Pannell |first3=Christopher J. |last3=Smith |first4=Youqin |last4=Huang |title=China's Geography: Globalization and the Dynamics of Political, Economic, and Social Change |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=K3XdB5o4VFAC&pg=PA102 |year = 2011 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn = 978-0-7425-6784-9}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Versteegh |first1=Kees |first2=Mushira |last2=Eid |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics: A-Ed |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SuNiAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA383 |year=2005 |publisher=Brill |isbn = 978-90-04-14473-6}} |
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{{refend}} |
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== Further reading == |
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{{Ongoing military conflicts}} |
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{{ |
{{refbegin|40em}} |
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* {{cite book |last = Al-Tamimi |first = Naser M. |title = China-Saudi Arabia Relations, 1990-2012: Marriage of Convenience Or Strategic Alliance? |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tYuwAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn = 978-1-134-46153-0}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Bulag |first=Uradyn E. |title = Collaborative Nationalism: The Politics of Friendship on China's Mongolian Frontier |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sQLiMYUk-nIC&pg=PA104 |year=2010 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn = 978-1-4422-0433-1}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |title=Contemporary China - An Introduction |year=2008 |publisher=Routledge |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=g25_AgAAQBAJ |isbn = 978-1-1342-9054-3}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Gladney |first=Dru C. |title = Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic |url= https://archive.org/details/muslimchineseeth00glad |url-access=registration |year=1991 |publisher=Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University |isbn=978-0-674-59496-8}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Gladney |first=Dru C. |title = Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_hJ9aht6nZQC |year=1996 |publisher=Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University |isbn=978-0-674-59497-5}} |
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* {{cite book|ref=none |last=Gladney |first=Dru C. |title=Dislocating China: Muslims, Minorities, and Other Subaltern Subjects |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mzxSNM3_vCEC&pg=PA66 |year=2004 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-29776-7}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Gladney |first=Dru C. |chapter=The Salafiyya Movement in Northwest China: Islamic Fundamentalism among the Muslim Chinese? |editor-last=Manger |editor-first=Leif |title = Muslim Diversity: Local Islam in Global Contexts |year = 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn = 978-1-136-81857-8 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8WGOAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA144}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Harris |first=Rachel |title=Singing the Village: Music, Memory and Ritual Among the Sibe of Xinjiang |publisher=Oxford University Press |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-0-1972-6297-9 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sQlxJdK6wGUC&pg=PA45}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Iredale |first1=Robyn R. |first2=Naran |last2=Bilik |first3=Fei |last3=Guo |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_bPdlQITuOsC&pg=PA170 |title=China's minorities on the move: selected case studies |year=2003 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn =978-0-7656-1023-2}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Kadeer |first=Rebiya |title=Dragon Fighter: One Woman's Epic Struggle for Peace with China |others=Alexandra Cavelius |year=2009 |publisher=Kales Press |isbn=978-0-9798-4561-1 |url= https://archive.org/details/dragonfighterone0000kade |url-access=registration}} |
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* {{cite book |editor1-last=Liew |editor1-first=Leong H. |editor2-last=Wang |editor2-first=Shaoguang |year=2004 |title=Nationalism, Democracy and National Integration in China |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-30750-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9gJVvOEzqrQC}} {{ISBN|978-0-203-40429-4}} (e-book)<!--Info from contents, NOT "Google about"--> |
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* {{cite book |last=Millward |first = James A. |title = Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864 |year=1998 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-2933-8 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Nyíri |first1=Pál |last2=Breidenbach |first2=Joana |title = China Inside Out: Contemporary Chinese Nationalism and Transnationalism |year=2005 |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=978-963-7326-14-1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=icZJJN0wYPcC&pg=PA257}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Safran|first=William|title=Nationalism and ethnoregional identities in China |year=1998 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-7146-4921-4 |url= {{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=MT0VFdKklYoC |page = 35 }}}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Sautman |first=Barry |chapter=Legal Reform and Minority Rights in China |pages=71–102 |editor-last=Nagel |editor-first=Stuart |title=Handbook of Global Legal Policy |year=2000 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8247-7892-7 |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HH94dPJrkA4C&pg=PA79}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Schein |first=Louisa |title=Minority Rules: The Miao and the Feminine in China's Cultural Politics |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=GomyOthrHjUC&pg=PA154 |year=2000 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn = 978-0-8223-2444-7}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Steele |first=Jonathan |title=Soviet Power |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dYqQYs8lnWQC&pg=PA140 |date=24 October 1984 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-52813-3}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Tanner |first=Harold Miles |title=China: a history |year=2009 |publisher=Hackett |isbn=978-0-87220-915-2 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA581}} |
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* {{cite book |editor-last1=Wang |editor-first1=Gungwu |editor2-last=Zheng |editor2-first=Yongnian |title=China and the New International Order |year=2008 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-93226-1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mXXnd81uoMoC}} |
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* {{cite book |title=China's War on Terrorism: Counter-Insurgency, Politics and Internal Security |first=Martin I. |last=Wayne |year=2007 |publisher=Routledge |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2ybmWJXjxUYC |isbn=978-1134106233}} |
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* {{cite book |editor1-last=Wong |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Zheng |editor2-first=Yongnian |title=China's Post-Jiang Leadership Succession: Problems and Perspectives |year=2002 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-9-812-70650-8 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=cEdQ1IuJFH4C}} |
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{{refend}} |
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== External links == |
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{{Library resources box}} |
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* [https://xinjiang.sppga.ubc.ca/ Xinjiang Documentation Project at the University of British Columbia] |
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* [https://journals.openedition.org/chinaperspectives/648#bodyftn57 The Uyghurs in Xinjiang – Detailed history of the background to the Xinjiang conflict] |
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{{Chinese conflicts}} |
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{{China national security}} |
{{China national security}} |
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{{Post-Cold War Asian conflicts}} |
{{Post-Cold War Asian conflicts}} |
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{{Xinjiang topics}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Xinjiang conflict}} |
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[[Category:Terrorism in China]] |
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[[Category:History of Xinjiang]] |
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[[Category:Xinjiang conflict| ]] |
[[Category:Xinjiang conflict| ]] |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:20th-century conflicts]] |
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[[Category:21st-century conflicts]] |
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[[Category:East Turkestan independence movement]] |
[[Category:East Turkestan independence movement]] |
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[[Category:Anti-Islam sentiment in China]] |
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[[Category:Religion-based wars]] |
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[[Category:Terrorism in China]] |
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[[Category:Separatism in China]] |
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[[Category:Wars involving the People's Republic of China]] |
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[[Category:Uyghurs]] |
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[[Category:Islam-related controversies in Asia]] |
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[[Category:Asian resistance to colonialism]] |
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[[Category:Rebellions in China]] |
[[Category:Rebellions in China]] |
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[[Category:Conflicts in 2013]] |
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[[Category:Conflicts in 2014]] |
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[[Category:Conflicts in 2015]] |
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[[Category:Ongoing conflicts]] |
Revision as of 09:31, 19 May 2024
Xinjiang conflict | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of Terrorism in China, and the War on Terror | |||||||
Xinjiang, highlighted red, shown within China | |||||||
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
People's Republic of China (from 1949)
Republic of China (until 1950s, limited involvement)
Xinjiang (1933–1944)
|
East Turkestan independence movement
East Turkistan Education and Solidarity Association[3](denied by ETESA[4][5])
Supported by:
First East Turkestan Republic (1933–1934) Supported by: Kingdom of Afghanistan (1933–1934) | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Xi Jinping (CCP General Secretary, CMC Chairman: 2012–present)
Previous leaders
|
Previous leaders | ||||||
Units involved | |||||||
Xinjiang Militia Xinjiangese Armed civilians and volunteers Xinjiang Army (1933–1944) Xinjiang Army (1912–1933; 1944–1949) New 36th Division (1932–1948) |
Terrorists and separatists Supported by: Kingdom of Afghanistan Volunteer (1933–1934) | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
1,000+ dead c. (2007–2014)[9][10] |
History of Xinjiang |
---|
The Xinjiang conflict (Chinese: 新疆冲突), also known as the East Turkistan conflict, Uyghur–Chinese conflict or Sino-East Turkistan conflict (as argued by the East Turkistan Government-in-Exile),[13] is an ongoing ethnic geopolitical conflict in what is now China's far-northwest autonomous region of Xinjiang, also known as East Turkistan. It is centred around the Uyghurs, a Turkic ethnic group who constitute a plurality (or 'relative majority'[a]) of the region's population.[15][16]
Since the incorporation of the region into the People's Republic of China, factors such as the mass state-sponsored migration of Han Chinese from the 1950s to the 1970s, government policies promoting Chinese cultural unity and punishing certain expressions of Uyghur identity,[17][18] and harsh responses to separatism[19][20] have contributed to tension between the Uyghurs, and state police and Han Chinese.[21] This has taken the form of both terrorist attacks and wider public unrest such as the Baren Township conflict, 1997 Ürümqi bus bombings, protests in Ghuljia, June 2009 Shaoguan Incident and the resulting July 2009 Ürümqi riots, 2011 Hotan attack, April 2014 Ürümqi attack, May 2014 Ürümqi attack, 2014 Kunming attack as well as the 2015 Aksu colliery attack. Uyghur organizations such as the World Uyghur Congress denounce totalitarianism, religious intolerance, and terrorism as an instrument of policy.[22]
In 2014, the Chinese government launched the Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism in Xinjiang. In recent years, the Chinese Communist Party under Xi Jinping Administration's policy has been marked by much harsher policies, including mass surveillance and the incarceration without trial of over one million Uyghurs and other Muslim minority ethnic groups in internment camps.[23][24][b][c] Numerous reports have stated that many of these minorities have been used for prison labour.[25] International observers have labelled the forced Sinicization campaign to be an instance of crimes against humanity,[26][27] cultural genocide,[28][29][30][31][32][33] as well as physical genocide.[23][34][35]
The Chinese government has denied charges of genocide and other human rights abuses, characterising the centres as deradicalisation and integration programs and were the subject of dispute at the 44th session of the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC); 39 countries condemned China's treatment of the Uyghurs in Xinjiang in June 2020.[36] Similarly, in July, a group of 45 nations issued a competing letter to the UNHRC, defending China's treatment of both Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities in Xinjiang.[37] Various groups and media organizations worldwide have disputed denials that human rights violations have occurred.[d]
Background
Xinjiang is a large central-Asian region within the People's Republic of China comprising numerous minority groups: 45% of its population are Uyghurs, and 40% are Han.[47] Its heavily industrialised capital, Ürümqi, has a population of more than 2.3 million, about 75% of whom are Han, 12.8% are Uyghur, and 10% are from other ethnic groups.[47]
In general, Uyghurs and the mostly Han government disagree on which group has greater historical claim to the Xinjiang region: Uyghurs believe their ancestors were indigenous to the area, whereas government policy considers Xinjiang to have belonged to China since around 200 BC during Han Dynasty.[48] According to Chinese policy, Uyghurs are classified as a National Minority; they are considered to be no more indigenous to Xinjiang than the Han, and have no special rights to the land under the law.[48] During the Mao era the People's Republic oversaw the migration into Xinjiang of millions of Han, who have been accused of economically dominating the region,[49][50][51][52] although a 2008 survey on both ethnic groups has contradicted the allegation.[53]
Current Chinese minority policy is based on affirmative action, and has reinforced a Uyghur ethnic identity that is distinct from the Han population.[54][55] However, Human Rights Watch describes a "multi-tiered system of surveillance, control, and suppression of religious activity" perpetrated by state authorities.[18] It is estimated that over 100,000 Uyghurs are currently held in political "re-education camps",[19] and far-reaching surveillance operations using drones produced by DJI are being undertaken.[56] China justifies such measures as a response to the terrorist threat posed by extremist separatist groups.[20] These policies, in addition to some long-standing prejudices between the Han and Uyghurs,[57][58][59][60][61] have sometimes resulted in tension between the two ethnic groups.[62] As a result of the policies, the Uyghurs' freedoms of religion and of movement have been curtailed,[63][64] and most of them believe the government downplays their history and traditional culture.[48][failed verification]
On the other hand, some Han citizens view Uyghurs as benefiting from special treatment, such as preferential admission to universities and exemption from the (now abandoned) one-child policy,[65] and as "harbouring separatist aspirations".[66] Nonetheless, it was observed in 2013 that at least in the workplace, Uyghur-Han relations seemed relatively friendly,[67] and a survey from 2009 suggested that 70% of Uyghur respondents had Han friends while 82% of Han had Uyghur friends.[68]
Due to exemption from the one-child policy, Uyghur numbers increased from 5.5 million in 1980s to over 12 million in 2017.[69] Ethnic minority couples were paid incentives to keep their family size below the legal limit and accept sterilisation after three children preceding the removal of the preferential policy.[70]
Restrictions
Islamic leaders during the Cultural Revolution were forced to take part in acts against their religion, such as eating pork.[71] China does not enforce the law against children attending mosques on non-Uyghurs outside Xinjiang.[72][73] Since the 1980s Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools (中阿学校)) have been permitted by the Chinese government in Muslim areas, excluding Xinjiang because of its separatist sentiment.[e][75][76][77]
Hui Muslims employed by the state, unlike Uyghurs, are allowed to fast during Ramadan. The number of Hui going on Hajj is expanding and Hui women are allowed to wear veils, but Uyghur women are discouraged from wearing them.[78] Muslim ethnic groups in different regions are treated differently by the Chinese government with regard to religious freedom. Religious freedom exists for Hui Muslims, who can practice their religion, build mosques and have their children attend them; more restrictions are placed on Uyghurs in Xinjiang.[79] Hui religious schools are allowed, and an autonomous network of mosques and schools run by a Hui Sufi leader was formed with the approval of the Chinese government.[80][81] According to The Diplomat, Uyghur religious activities are curtailed but Hui Muslims are granted widespread religious freedom; therefore, Chinese government policy is directed against Uyghur separatism.[82]
In the last two decades of the 20th century, Uyghurs in Turpan were treated favourably by China with regard to religion; while Kashgar and Hotan were subject to more stringent government control.[83][84][85] Uyghur and Han Communist officials in Turpan turned a blind eye to the law, allowing Islamic education of Uyghur children.[86][87] Religious celebrations and the Hajj were encouraged by the Chinese government for Uyghur Communist Party members, and 350 mosques were built in Turpan between 1979 and 1989.[88] As a result, Han, Hui and the Chinese government were then viewed more positively by Uyghurs in Turpan.[89] In 1989, there were 20,000 mosques in Xinjiang.[90] Until separatist disturbances began in 1996, China allowed people to ignore the rule prohibiting religious observance by government officials.[91] Large mosques were built with Chinese government assistance in Ürümqi.[92] While rules proscribing religious activities were enforced in southern Xinjiang, conditions were comparatively lax in Ürümqi.[93]
According to The Economist, in 2016 Uyghurs faced difficulties travelling within Xinjiang and live in fenced-off neighbourhoods with checkpoint entrances. In southern Ürümqi, each apartment door has a QR code so police can easily see photos of the dwelling's authorized residents.[94]
In 2017, overseas Uyghur activists claimed that new restrictions were being imposed, including people being fined heavily or subjected to programmes of "re-education" for refusing to eat during fasting in Ramadan, the detention of hundreds of Uyghurs as they returned from Mecca pilgrimages, and many standard Muslim names, such as Muhammad, being banned for newborn children.[95][96] It was claimed that Han officials had been assigned to reside in the homes of those with interned Uyghur family members as part of the government's "Pair Up and Become Family" program.[97][98] There were also reportedly separate queues for Uyghurs and outsiders, where the former needed to get their identity cards checked at numerous points.[99]
Timeline
Pre-20th century
The history of the region has become highly politicised, with both Chinese and nationalist Uyghur historians frequently overstating the extent of their groups' respective ties to the region.[100][101] In reality, it has been home to many groups throughout history, with the Uyghurs arriving from Central Asia in the 10th century.[102] Although various Chinese dynasties have at times exerted control over parts of what is now Xinjiang,[103] the region as it exists today came under Chinese rule as a result of the westward expansion of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, which also saw the annexation of Mongolia and Tibet.[104]
Early Qing rule was marked by a "culturally pluralist" approach, with a prohibition on Chinese settlement in the region, and indirect rule through supervised local officials.[104][105] An increased tax burden placed on the local population due to rebellions elsewhere in China later led to a number of Hui-led Muslim rebellions.[101][106] The region was subsequently recaptured, and was established as an official province in 1884.[citation needed]
Near the end of their rule the Qing tried to colonize Xinjiang along with other parts of the imperial frontier. To accomplish this goal they began a policy of settler colonialism by which Han Chinese where resettled on the frontier.[107]
20th century
After the 1928 assassination of Yang Zengxin, governor of the semi-autonomous Kumul Khanate in east Xinjiang under the Republic of China, he was succeeded by Jin Shuren. On the death of the Kamul Khan Maqsud Shah in 1930, Jin abolished the Khanate entirely and took control of the region as warlord.[108] Corruption, appropriation of land, and the commandeering of grain and livestock by Chinese military forces were all factors which led to the eventual Kumul Rebellion that established the First East Turkestan Republic in 1933.[109][110][111] In 1934, it was conquered by warlord Sheng Shicai with the aid of the Soviet Union. Sheng's leadership was marked by heavy Soviet influence, with him openly offering Xinjiang's valuable natural resources in exchange for Soviet help in crushing revolts, such as in 1937.[112] Although already in use,[f] it was in this period that the term "Uyghur" was first used officially over the generic "Turkic", as part of an effort to "undermine potential broader bases of identity" such as Turkic or Muslim. In 1942, Sheng sought reconciliation with the Republic of China, abandoning the Soviets.[citation needed]
In 1944, the Ili Rebellion led to the Second East Turkestan Republic. Though direct evidence of Soviet involvement remains circumstantial, and rebel forces were primarily made up of Turkic Muslims with the support of the local population, the new state was dependent on the Soviet Union for trade, arms, and "tacit consent" for its continued existence.[114] When the Communists defeated the Republic of China in the Chinese Civil War, the Soviets helped the Communist People's Liberation Army (PLA) recapture it, and it was annexed by the People's Republic in 1949.
The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region was established in 1955.[115]
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, between 60,000 and 200,000 Uyghurs, Kazakhs, and other minorities fled China to the USSR, largely as a result of the Great Leap Forward.[116][117] As the Sino-Soviet split deepened, the Soviets initiated an extensive propaganda campaign criticising China, encouraging minority groups to migrate – and later revolt – and attempting to undermine Chinese sovereignty by appealing to separatist tendencies. In 1962, China stopped issuing exit permits for Soviet citizens, as the Soviet consulate had been distributing passports to enable the exodus.[118] A resulting demonstration in Yining was met with open fire by the PLA, sparking further protests and mass defections. China responded to these developments by relocating non-Han populations away from the border, creating a "buffer zone" which would later be filled with Han farmers and Bingtuan militia.[116][117][118] Tensions continued to escalate throughout the decade, with ethnic guerrilla groups based in Kazakhstan frequently raiding Chinese border posts,[119][120] and Chinese and Soviet forces clashing on the border in 1969.[119][121][122]
From the 1950s to the 1970s, a state-orchestrated mass migration into Xinjiang has raised the number of Han from 7% to 40% of the population, exacerbating ethnic tensions.[123] On the other hand, a declining infant-mortality rate, improved medical care and non-applicability of China's one-child policy on minorities have helped the Uyghur population in Xinjiang grow from four million in the 1960s to eight million in 2001.[124]
In 1968, the East Turkestan People's Party was the largest militant Uyghur separatist organization, and may have received support from the Soviet Union.[125][126][127] During the 1970s, the Soviets likely supported the United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan (URFET),[6] which issued a series of press releases responsible for creating the impression of an active, organized resistance movement, despite involving only a handful of individuals.[128][129][130] Its founder, Yusupbek Mukhlis came to be resented by other Uyghur groups for "exaggerating Uyghur involvement in militant activities", including falsely claiming credit for terrorist attacks.[131]
Xinjiang's importance to China increased after the 1979 Soviet assistance to Afghanistan, which led to China's perception of being encircled by the Soviets.[132] China supported the Afghan mujahideen during the Soviet assistance to the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and broadcast reports of Soviet atrocities committed on Afghan Muslims to Uyghurs to counter Soviet broadcasts to Xinjiang that Soviet Muslim minorities had a better life.[133] Anti-Soviet Chinese radio broadcasts targeted Central Asian ethnic minorities, such as the Kazakhs.[134] The Soviets feared disloyalty by the non-Russian Kazakh, Uzbek, and Kyrgyz in the event of a Chinese invasion of Soviet Central Asia, and Russians were taunted by Central Asians: "Just wait till the Chinese get here, they'll show you what's what!"[135] Chinese authorities viewed Han migrants in Xinjiang as vital to defence against the Soviet Union.[136] China established camps to train the Afghan mujahideen near Kashgar and Hotan, investing hundreds of millions of dollars in small arms, rockets, mines, and anti-tank weapons.[137] During the 1980s, student demonstrations and riots against police action assumed an ethnic aspect, and the April 1990 Baren Township riot has been acknowledged as a turning point.[138]
The Soviet Union supported Uyghur nationalist propaganda and Uyghur separatist movements against China. Soviet historians claimed that the Uyghur native land was Xinjiang; and Uyghur nationalism was promoted by Soviet versions of history on turcology.[139] This included support of Uyghur historians such as Tursun Rakhimov, who wrote more historical works supporting Uyghur independence, claiming that Xinjiang was an entity created by China made out of the different parts of East Turkestan and Zungharia.[140] Bellér-Hann describes these Soviet Uyghur historians were waging an "ideological war" against China, emphasizing the "national liberation movement" of Uyghurs throughout history.[141] The CPSU supported the publication of works which glorified the Second East Turkestan Republic and the Ili Rebellion against China in its anti-China propaganda war.[142]
1990s to 2007
China's "Strike Hard" campaign against crime, beginning in 1996, saw thousands of arrests, as well as executions, and "constant human rights violations", and also marked reduction in religious freedom.[143] These policies, and a feeling of political marginalisation, contributed to the fermentation of groups who carried out numerous guerrilla operations, including sabotage and attacks on police barracks, and occasionally even acts of terrorism including bomb attacks and assassinations of government officials.
A February 1992 Ürümqi bus bombing, attributed to the Shock Brigade of the Islamic Reformist Party, resulted in three deaths.[143]
A police roundup and execution of 30 suspected separatists[144] during Ramadan resulted in large demonstrations in February 1997, characterised as riots by Chinese state media outlet China Daily[145] and peaceful by Western media.[146] The demonstrations culminated in the 5 February Ghulja incident, in which a People's Liberation Army (PLA) crackdown led to at least nine deaths[147] and possibly more than 100.[144] 25 February Ürümqi bus bombings killed nine people and injured 68. Responsibility for the attacks was acknowledged by Uyghur exile groups.[148][149]
In Beijing's Xidan district, a bus bomb killed two people on 7 March 1997; Uyghur separatists claimed responsibility for the attack.[150] Uyghur participation in the bombing was dismissed by the Chinese government, and the Turkish-based Organisation for East Turkistan Freedom admitted responsibility for the attack.[143][149] The bus bombings triggered a change in policy, with China acknowledging separatist violence.[151] The situation in Xinjiang quieted until mid-2006, although ethnic tensions remained.[152]
In 2005, Uygur author Nurmemet Yasin was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment for inciting separatism following his publication of an allegorical short story, "The Blue Pigeon".[153]
2007–present
It is apparent that the number of violent incidents and uprisings increased from the 1990s, peaking in 2014, although their extent is difficult to confirm independently due to restrictions on the access of independent observers and international journalists.[154] Nonetheless, the majority of events during this period were characterised as spontaneous clashes or riots by "disorganized, disgruntled, fairly impulsive young men".[154][155]
According to Vaughan Winterbottom, although the Turkistan Islamic Party distributes propaganda videos and its Arabic Islamic Turkistan magazine (documented by Jihadology.net and the Jamestown Foundation) the Chinese government apparently denied the party's existence; China claimed that there was no terrorist connection to its 2008 bus bombings as the TIP claimed responsibility for the attacks.[156] In 2007, police raided a suspected TIP terrorist training camp.[157] The following year, an attempted suicide bombing on a China Southern Airlines flight was thwarted[158] and the Kashgar attack resulted in the death of sixteen police officers four days before the beginning of the Beijing Olympics.[159]
During the night of 25–26 June 2009, in the Shaoguan incident in Guangdong, two people were killed and 118 injured.[160] The incident reportedly triggered the July 2009 Ürümqi riots; others were the September 2009 Xinjiang unrest and the 2010 Aksu bombing, after which 376 people were tried.[161] The July 2011 Hotan attack led to the deaths of 18 people, 14 of whom were attackers. Although the attackers were ethnic Uyghurs,[162]both Han and Uyghurs were victims.[163] That year, six ethnic Uyghur men unsuccessfully attempted to hijack an aircraft heading to Ürümqi, a series of knife and bomb attacks occurred in July and the Pishan hostage crisis occurred in December.[164] Credit for the attacks was professed by the Turkistan Islamic Party.[165]
On 28 February 2012, an attack in Yecheng left 20 people dead, including seven attackers.[166] On 24 April 2013, clashes in Bachu occurred between a group of armed men and social workers and police near Kashgar. The violence left at least 21 people dead, including 15 police and officials.[167][168][169] According to a local government official, the clashes broke out after three other officials reported that suspicious men armed with knives were hiding in a house outside Kashgar.[170] Two months later, on 26 June, riots in Shanshan left 35 dead, including 22 civilians, 11 rioters and 2 police officers.[171]
On 28 October 2013, an SUV ploughed through a group of pedestrians near Tiananmen Square in central Beijing, crashed into a stone bridge and caught fire, causing dozens of casualties. Chinese authorities quickly identified the driver as Uyghur.[172][156]
In 2014, the conflict intensified. In January, eleven Uighur militants were killed by Kyrgyz security forces.[173][174] They were identified as Uyghurs by their appearance, and their personal effects indicated that they were separatists.[175]
On 1 March, a group of knife-wielding terrorists attacked the Kunming Railway Station, killing 31 and injuring 141.[176] China blamed Xinjiang militants for the attack,[177] and over 380 people were arrested in the following crackdown. A captured attacker and three others were charged on 30 June.[178] Three of the suspects were accused of "leading and organising a terror group and intentional homicide", although they did not directly take part since they had been arrested two days earlier.[179] On 12 September, a Chinese court sentenced three people to death and one to life in prison for the attack.[180] Social media had initially been the main portal for covering the attack, due to lack of coverage on Chinese TV.[181][182][57] The attack was praised by ETIM.[183]
On 18 April, a group of 16 Chinese citizens identified as ethnic Uyghurs engaged in a shootout with Vietnamese border guards after seizing their guns when they were being detained to be returned to China. Five Uyghurs and two Vietnamese guards died in the incident. Ten of the Uyghurs were men, and the rest were women and children.[184][185][186][187]
Twelve days later, two attackers stabbed people before detonating their suicide vests at an Ürümqi train station. Three people, including the attackers, were killed.[188][189][190]
On 22 May, two suicide car bombings occurred after the occupants threw explosives from their vehicles at an Ürümqi street market. The attacks killed 43 people and injured more than 90, one of the deadliest attacks to date in the Xinjiang conflict.[190][191][192] On 5 June, China sentenced nine people to death for terrorist attacks in Xinjiang.[193]
According to the Xinhua News Agency, on 28 July, 37 civilians were killed by a gang armed with knives and axes in the towns of Elixku and Huangdi in Shache County and 59 attackers were killed by security forces. Two hundred fifteen attackers were arrested after they stormed a police station and government offices. The agency also reported that 30 police cars were damaged or destroyed and dozens of Uyghur and Han Chinese civilians were killed or injured. The Uyghur American Association claimed that local Uyghurs had been protesting at the time of the attack. Two days later, the moderate imam of China's largest mosque was assassinated in Kashgar after morning prayers.[194]
On 21 September, Xinhua reported that a series of bomb blasts killed 50 people in Luntai County, southwest of the regional capital Ürümqi. The dead consisted of six civilians, four police officers and 44 rioters.[195]
On 12 October, four Uyghurs armed with knives and explosives attacked a farmers' market in Xinjiang. According to police, 22 people died (including police officers and the attackers).[196]
On 29 November, 15 people were killed and 14 injured in a Shache County attack. Eleven of the killed were Uyghur militants.[197]
On 18 September 2015, in Aksu, an unidentified group of knife-wielding terrorists attacked sleeping workers at a coal mine and killed as many as 50 people, before fleeing into the mountains.[10] The Turkistan Islamic Party has claimed responsibility for the attack.[198] On 18 November, a 56-day manhunt for the attackers concluded with security forces killing 28 assailants. One member of the gang surrendered to authorities.[10][199]
The Bangkok bombing is suspected to have been carried out by the Turkish ultranationalist organisation known as the Grey Wolves in response to Thailand's deportation of 100 Uyghur asylum-seekers back to China. A Turkish man was arrested by Thai police in connection with the bombing and bomb-making materials were found in his apartment.[200][201][202] Due to the terrorist risk and counterfeiting of passports, Uyghur foreigners in Thailand were placed under surveillance by Defence Minister Prawit Wongsuwon[203][204][205][206] and Thai police were placed on alert after the arrival of two Turkish Uyghurs.[207]
On 30 August 2016, Kyrgyzstan's Chinese embassy was struck by a suicide bombing by a Uyghur, according to Kyrgyz news.[208] The suicide bomber was the only fatality from the attack. The casualties included wounds suffered by Kyrgyz staff members and did not include Chinese.[174][209] A Kyrgyzstan government agency pointed the finger at Nusra allied Syrian based Uyghurs.[210]
Police killed 4 militants who carried out a bombing on 28 December 2016 in Karakax.[211]
On 14 February 2017, three knife wielding attackers killed five people before being killed by police.[212][213]
In the period 2013–2017 there were 330,918 arrests in the province accounting for 7.3% of total arrests in China. This compares to 81,443 arrests in the previous five years.[12] In March 2019, Chinese officials said that they have arrested more than 13,000 militants in Xinjiang since 2014.[214]
Aftermath
In 2014, the Chinese government launched the Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism in Xinjiang.[215] Since that year, the government has pursued a policy which has led to more than one million Muslims (the majority of them Uyghurs) being held in secretive detention camps without any legal process[216][217] in what has become the largest-scale detention of ethnic and religious minorities since the Holocaust.[218] Critics of the policy have described it as the sinicization of Xinjiang and called it an ethnocide or cultural genocide,[216][219][220][221][222][223] with many activists, NGOs, human rights experts, government officials, and the U.S. government calling it a genocide.[224][225][226][227][228][229][230][231]
Critics of the programme have highlighted the concentration of Uyghurs in state-sponsored internment camps,[232][233] suppression of Uyghur religious practices,[234][235] political indoctrination,[217][236] severe ill-treatment,[217][237] and testimonials of alleged human rights abuses including forced sterilization and contraception.[238][232][239] Chinese government statistics show that from 2015 to 2018, birth rates in the mostly Uyghur regions of Hotan and Kashgar plunged by more than 60%.[240] In the same period, the birth rate of the whole country decreased by 9.69%, from 12.07 to 10.9 per 1,000 people.[241] Chinese authorities acknowledged that birth rates dropped by almost a third in Xinjiang in 2018, but they denied reports of forced sterilization and genocide.[242] Birth rates have continued to plummet in Xinjiang, falling nearly 24% in 2019 alone when compared to just 4.2% nationwide.[240] China paid ethic minority women who were exempt from the standard family planning size limits a lump sum then annual allowance to agree to undergo tubal ligation or IUD implantation after three children in an attempt to keep birthrates to the nationwide standard without imposing strict limits on ethnic minority family sizes. In 2017 the standard rural limit was applied to Uyghurs which lowered their allowed births to the standard for Han Chinese (which had increased from two to three children in 2016).[70] This program may explain the reported fall in Uyghur birthrates, the increase in sterilisation and IUD implantation, and slight increase in Han Chinese births.
In 2021, Shirzat Bawudun, the former head of the Xinjiang department of justice, and Sattar Sawut, the former head of the Xinjiang education department, were sentenced to death on terrorism and extremism charges.[243] Three other educators and two textbook editors were given lesser sentences.[244]
Militant groups
The Turkistan Islamic Party (TIP) is an Islamic extremist terrorist organisation seeking the expulsion of China from "East Turkestan".[245] Since its emergence in 2007 it has claimed responsibility for a number of terrorist attacks,[172][156] and the Chinese government accuses it of over 200, resulting in 162 deaths and over 440 injuries.[246] Hundreds of Uyghurs are thought to reside in Pakistan and Afghanistan and to have fought alongside extremist groups in conflicts such as the Syrian Civil War.[247] However, the exact size of the Turkistan Islamic Party remains unknown and some experts dispute its ability to orchestrate attacks in China, or that it still exists as a cohesive group.[172][248][249]
The TIP is often assumed to be the same as the earlier East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM), which changed its name to the Turkistan Islamic Party after their leader at the time, Hasan Mahsum, was killed by Pakistani forces in 2003.[250][156][251]
Al-Qaeda links
The TIP are believed to have links to al-Qaeda and affiliated groups such as the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan,[252] and the Pakistani Taliban.[253] Philip B. K. Potter writes that despite the fact that "throughout the 1990s, Chinese authorities went to great lengths to publicly link organizations active in Xinjiang—particularly the ETIM—to al-Qaeda [...] the best information indicates that prior to 2001, the relationship included some training and funding but relatively little operational cooperation."[2][254] Meanwhile, specific incidents were downplayed by Chinese authorities as isolated criminal acts.[1][18] However, in 1998 the group's headquarters were moved to Kabul, in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan, while "China's ongoing security crackdown in Xinjiang has forced the most militant Uyghur separatists into volatile neighboring countries, such as Pakistan," Potter writes, "where they are forging strategic alliances with, and even leading, jihadist factions affiliated with al-Qaeda and the Taliban." The East Turkestan Islamic Movement dropped "East" from its name as it increased its domain.[1] The U.S. State Department have listed them as a terrorist organisation since 2002,[255] and as having received "training and financial assistance" from al-Qaeda.[254] In October 2020, this designation was lifted.[256]
A number of members of al-Qaeda have expressed support for the TIP, Xinjiang independence, and/or jihad against China. They include Mustafa Setmariam Nasar,[257] Abu Yahya al-Libi,[258][259] and late al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri who has on multiple occasions issued statements naming Xinjiang (calling it "East Turkestan") as one of the "battlegrounds" of "jihad to liberate every span of land of the Muslims that has been usurped and violated."[260][261][262][263][264] Additionally, the al-Qaeda aligned al-Fajr Media Center distributes TIP promotional material.[265]
Andrew McGregor, writing for the Jamestown Foundation, opines that "though there is no question a small group of Uyghur militants fought alongside their Taliban hosts against the Northern Alliance [...] the scores of terrorists Beijing claimed that Bin Laden was sending to China in 2002 never materialized" and that "the TIP's “strategy” of making loud and alarming threats (attacks on the Olympics, use of biological and chemical weapons, etc.) without any operational follow-up has been enormously effective in promoting China's efforts to characterise Uyghur separatists as terrorists."[266]
Reactions
In October 2018 and December 2019, Chinese state media aired two documentaries on the conflict and the purported necessity of the internment camps, which reportedly drew mixed reactions on Chinese social media.[267][268]
East Turkestan Islamic Movement
The East Turkestan Islamic Movement has been recognised as a terrorist organisation by the United Nations,[269] the United States,[270] the European Union,[271] Russia,[272] the United Kingdom,[273][274] Kyrgyzstan,[g][277][278] Kazakhstan,[279] Malaysia,[280] Pakistan,[281] Turkey,[282][283] and the United Arab Emirates.[284] It is also subject to UN sanctions by the Security Council.[285]
United Nations
In July 2019, 22 countries issued a joint letter to the 41st session of the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC), condemning China's mass detention of Uyghurs and other minorities, calling upon China to "refrain from the arbitrary detention and restrictions on freedom of movement of Uyghurs, and other Muslim and minority communities in Xinjiang".[286][287][288]
In the same UNHRC session, 50 countries issued a joint letter supporting China's Xinjiang policies,[286][289][290] criticising the practice of "politicizing human rights issues". The letter stated, "China has invited a number of diplomats, international organizations officials and journalist to Xinjiang" and that "what they saw and heard in Xinjiang completely contradicted what was reported in the media."[289]
In October 2019, 23 countries issued a joint statement at the UN urging China to "uphold its national and international obligations and commitments to respect human rights".[291]
In response, 54 countries issued a joint statement supporting China's Xinjiang policies. The statement "spoke positively of the results of counter-terrorism and de-radicalization measures in Xinjiang and noted that these measures have effectively safeguarded the basic human rights of people of all ethnic groups."[291][292]
In August 2022, the UN Human Rights Office assessment of human rights concerns in Xinjiang concluded that the extent of arbitrary and discriminatory detention of members of Uyghur and other predominantly Muslim groups in China, since 2017, pursuant to law and policy, in context of restrictions and deprivation more generally of fundamental rights enjoyed individually and collectively, may constitute international crimes, in particular crimes against humanity.[293][294][295]
Taiwan
Taiwan, amidst continued conflict with Mainland China, has also denounced China's treatment of the Uyghur people. Analysts have argued that the crisis happening to the Uyghurs is indicative of what Taiwan could face if they were to succumb to the pressures of the PRC in reunifying China and identify this as a driving factor in Taiwan's support. The argument made is that because China evidently has such a hard time accepting and governing over groups of people with varying historical backgrounds, it’s unlikely that China will respect the wishes of the Taiwanese people as much the PRC says they will. The Taiwanese Legislative Yuan had become the first in Asia to label the Uyghur crisis as a genocide and urged the government to nationally recognize the Xinjiang conflict as a genocide and employ sanctions as a result.[296]
Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act
The United States Senate and House of Representatives passed the Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act in September 2019 and December 2019 respectively in reaction to the conflict.[297][298][299][300] The bill requires United States President Donald Trump to impose sanctions under the Global Magnitsky Act on Xinjiang Communist Party Secretary Chen Quanguo, which would be the first time such sanctions would be imposed on a member of CCP politburo.[301][302] The bill was signed by President Trump into law on 17 June 2020.[303]
Deportation of Uyghurs
Hundreds of Uyghurs fleeing China through Southeast Asia have been deported back by the governments of Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, and others, drawing condemnation from the U.S., the UNHCR, and human rights groups.[304][305] The U.S. State Department said deported Uyghurs "could face harsh treatment and a lack of due process" while the UNHCR and Human Rights Watch have called the deportations a violation of international law.[306][307] Alternatively, countries such as Germany have altered immigration policies to prevent the extradition of Uyghurs back to China, along with Malaysia, as of 2020, following suit.
Involvement of foreign enterprises
The role of commercial entities has become increasingly scrutinized, due to the presence of Western enterprises such as Coca-Cola, Volkswagen and Siemens in the region. The major concern here is the fact that the presence of these entities could finance human rights violations and enable the supervision of ethnic minorities by technological cooperation. Moreover, reports have claimed that forced labor prevails in Xinjiang's textile industry.[308]
Based on these allegations, international organizations such as the World Bank have begun to reconsider their involvement in Xinjiang, while textile manufacturers including Adidas or Badger Sportswear have withdrawn from Xinjiang. Divestment also concerns collaboration in the realm of AI and digital technologies, and some enterprises have decided to discontinue the handover of technologies and knowledge to Chinese entities involved in the human rights violations in Xinjiang.[309]
Chinese government response
The Chinese government's primary response to allegations of human rights violations has been to deny the allegations. In the context of the Xinjiang conflict, China is doing just that, while maintaining that they are placing Uyghurs into internment camps to prevent the spread of separatist ideology and terrorist rhetoric in the country.[310] China’s response to particularly NGOs (Non-governmental Organizations) and individual actors has been one of immense hostility. China has attempted to discourage current and future dissenters by discrediting domestic human rights defenders and portraying them as criminals. Authorities have also ordered the closure of numerous NGOs and have arrested NGO staff on trumped up charges. In the sphere of multilateral organizations, China has used its membership on the Economic and Social Council’s (ECOSOC) NGO Committee to block NGOs critical of China from being granted UN accreditation, and it has sought to blacklist accredited activists to bar their attendance.[311]
Outside China
Due to the increasing tensions between Uyghurs and China, the conflict has also stemmed beyond the Chinese border.[312]
During the Syrian civil war, a Chinese hostage was murdered by the Islamic State, which claimed its desire to fight against China over Xinjiang.[313] These militants are also very active in Syria, mostly Idlib, where it formed to be one of the most radical fighting groups in the conflict, which prompted China to take cautious reactions.[314][315]
A number of Uyghur militants have been recruited by ISIS[316][317] and have had a presence in Southeast Asia, with some joining Mujahidin Indonesia Timor.[318]
Factors enabling Uyghur subjugation in Xinjiang
In recent decades, China has become an economic behemoth and is far outpacing the US in trade with countries on the continents of Africa and Asia. Due to this newly found 'economic clout', China's neighbors, many of whom hold China as their number one trading partner, do not want to pick a fight, especially if they believe being critical of China will yield negative economic effects for their country. With countries hesitant to critique Chinese actions, the door is left open for arguments supporting China in their assertions.[319]
See also
- List of ongoing armed conflicts
- Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin
- Islamophobia in China
- Pan-Islamism and Pan-Turkism
- Three Evils
- Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism
- Han chauvinism
- Borders of China
Notes
- ^ A plurality is known as a relative majority in British and Commonwealth English.[14]
- ^
Further independent reports:
- John, Sudworth (24 October 2018). "China's hidden camps". BBC News. Archived from the original on 5 January 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- Shih, Gerry (17 May 2018). "'Permanent cure': Inside the re-education camps China is using to brainwash Muslims". Business Insider. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 15 September 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
- Rauhala, Emily (10 August 2018). "New evidence emerges of China forcing Muslims into 'reeducation' camps". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
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- ^ Human Rights Watch gives the following compilation of estimates of the detained population:
- Zenz, Adrian (15 May 2018). "New Evidence for China's Political Re-Education Campaign in Xinjiang". China Brief. 18 (10). Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 24 August 2018.
- Chinese Human Rights Defenders (CHRD) and Equal Rights Initiative (ERI), "China: Massive Numbers of Uyghurs & Other Ethnic Minorities Forced into Re-education Programs", 3 August 2018 (accessed 24 August 2018).
- 'Eradicating Ideological Viruses': China's Campaign of Repression Against Xinjiang's Muslims (Report). Human Rights Watch. 9 September 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019. "Zenz estimated the detainee number by extrapolating from a leaked Xinjiang police report, released by a Turkish TV station run by Uyghur exiles, as well as from reports by Radio Free Asia. CHRD and ERI made the estimate by extrapolating the percentages of people detained in villages as reported by dozens of Uyghur villagers in Kashgar Prefecture during interviews with CHRD."
- ^ Per Foreign Policy,[38] New York Times,[39] Bloomberg,[40] BBC,[41] Deutsche Welle,[42] Amnesty International,[27][43] Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty,[44] France24[45] and Toronto Star.[46]
- ^ The People's Republic, founded in 1949, banned private confessional teaching from the early 1950s to the 1980s, until a more liberal stance allowed religious mosque education to resume and private Muslim schools to open. Moreover, except in Xinjiang for fear of secessionist feelings, the government allowed and sometimes encouraged the founding of private Muslim schools in order to provide education for people who could not attend increasingly expensive state schools or who left them early, for lack of money or lack of satisfactory achievements.[74]
- ^ The First East Turkestan Republic had considered the name "Uyghuristan", with some early coins bearing that name, but settled on the "East Turkestan Republic" on the basis that there were other Turkic peoples in Xinjiang and the new government.[113]
- ^ The Eastern Turkistan Islamic Party, Organization for Freeing Eastern Turkistan and the Islamic Party of Turkistan were outlawed by Kyrgyzstan's Lenin District Court and its Supreme Court in November 2003.[275][276]
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Further reading
- Al-Tamimi, Naser M. (2013). China-Saudi Arabia Relations, 1990-2012: Marriage of Convenience Or Strategic Alliance?. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-46153-0.
- Bulag, Uradyn E. (2010). Collaborative Nationalism: The Politics of Friendship on China's Mongolian Frontier. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-0433-1.
- Dillon, Michael (2008). Contemporary China - An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-1342-9054-3.
- Gladney, Dru C. (1991). Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic. Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University. ISBN 978-0-674-59496-8.
- Gladney, Dru C. (1996). Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic. Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University. ISBN 978-0-674-59497-5.
- Gladney, Dru C. (2004). Dislocating China: Muslims, Minorities, and Other Subaltern Subjects. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-29776-7.
- Gladney, Dru C. (2013). "The Salafiyya Movement in Northwest China: Islamic Fundamentalism among the Muslim Chinese?". In Manger, Leif (ed.). Muslim Diversity: Local Islam in Global Contexts. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-81857-8.
- Harris, Rachel (2004). Singing the Village: Music, Memory and Ritual Among the Sibe of Xinjiang. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1972-6297-9.
- Iredale, Robyn R.; Bilik, Naran; Guo, Fei (2003). China's minorities on the move: selected case studies. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-1023-2.
- Kadeer, Rebiya (2009). Dragon Fighter: One Woman's Epic Struggle for Peace with China. Alexandra Cavelius. Kales Press. ISBN 978-0-9798-4561-1.
- Liew, Leong H.; Wang, Shaoguang, eds. (2004). Nationalism, Democracy and National Integration in China. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-30750-5. ISBN 978-0-203-40429-4 (e-book)
- Millward, James A. (1998). Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2933-8.
- Nyíri, Pál; Breidenbach, Joana (2005). China Inside Out: Contemporary Chinese Nationalism and Transnationalism. Central European University Press. ISBN 978-963-7326-14-1.
- Safran, William (1998). Nationalism and ethnoregional identities in China. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7146-4921-4.
- Sautman, Barry (2000). "Legal Reform and Minority Rights in China". In Nagel, Stuart (ed.). Handbook of Global Legal Policy. CRC Press. pp. 71–102. ISBN 978-0-8247-7892-7.
- Schein, Louisa (2000). Minority Rules: The Miao and the Feminine in China's Cultural Politics. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2444-7.
- Steele, Jonathan (24 October 1984). Soviet Power. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-52813-3.
- Tanner, Harold Miles (2009). China: a history. Hackett. ISBN 978-0-87220-915-2.
- Wang, Gungwu; Zheng, Yongnian, eds. (2008). China and the New International Order. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-93226-1.
- Wayne, Martin I. (2007). China's War on Terrorism: Counter-Insurgency, Politics and Internal Security. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134106233.
- Wong, John; Zheng, Yongnian, eds. (2002). China's Post-Jiang Leadership Succession: Problems and Perspectives. World Scientific. ISBN 978-9-812-70650-8.