William Shakespeare | |
---|---|
Born | April 1564 (exact date unknown) Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England |
Died | 23 April 1616 Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England |
Occupation | Playwright, poet, actor |
Signature | |
William Shakespeare (IPA: ['wɪliəm 'ʃeɪkspɪə]) (baptised 26 April 1564 – died 23 April 1616)[I] was an English poet and playwright. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer of the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist.[1] His surviving works include approximately 38 plays and 154 sonnets, as well as a variety of other poems.[II] He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "The Bard").
Born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, at eighteen Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children. Some time between 1585 and 1592 Shakespeare moved to London, where he was an actor, writer, and part-owner of the playing company the Lord Chamberlain's Men (later known as the King's Men), with which he found financial success. Shakespeare appears to have retired to Stratford in 1613, where he died three years later at the age of 52.
A number of Shakespeare's works, including Macbeth, Hamlet and King Lear, are ranked among the greatest plays of Western literature.[2] Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1590 and 1612, and he is one of the few playwrights of his time considered to have excelled in both tragedy and comedy.
His works have greatly influenced subsequent theatre and literature, through their innovative use of plot, language, and genre. However, Shakespeare is perhaps best known for expressing the wide range of human experience. He created complete human beings at a time when characters in many plays were either flat, or merely archetypes. Thus characters such as Macbeth and Shylock could commit despicable acts, yet still command the audience's sympathy because they were flawed human beings, not monsters.
Because of Shakespeare's popularity, his works have been translated into every major living language[3] and performed all over the world. Shakespeare has even influenced the English language itself; many of his quotations and neologisms have passed into everyday usage. There are many speculations about the man, including whether the works attributed to him were actually written by another playwright, as well as questions pertaining to his sexuality and religious beliefs.[4]
Life
Early life
William Shakespeare (also spelled Shakspere, Shaksper, Shaxper, and Shake-speare)[III][IV] was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in April 1564,[5] the son of John Shakespeare, a successful glover and alderman from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden, a daughter of the gentry.[6] He was their eldest son, and the third child among eight.[7] His birth is widely assumed to have occurred at the family house on Henley Street, the site now known as the "Shakespeare Birthplace"; however there is no firm evidence and other houses have been claimed as his place of birth.[8][9] The record of Shakespeare's christening is dated 26 April of that year. Because his christening is likely to have happened within 3 days of birth, tradition has settled on 23 April (St George's Day)[V] as his birthday.[10] This date has a convenient symmetry, for Shakespeare died on the same day: 23 April,[VI] in 1616.[11]
Shakespeare may have attended King Edward VI Grammar School in central Stratford, but no school records of the time survive.[12] As the son of a prominent town official, he was entitled to attend free of charge.[13] The school probably would have provided an intensive education in Latin grammar and literature, although Elizabethan-era grammar schools varied in quality.[12]
On 28 November 1582, at the age of eighteen, he married twenty-six year old Anne Hathaway.[14] One document identifies her as being "of Temple Grafton," near Stratford, and the marriage may have taken place there.[15] Two neighbours of Hathaway posted bonds stating there were no impediments to the marriage.[16] There appears to have been some haste in arranging the ceremony, presumably because Anne was three months pregnant.[17] On 26 May 1583, Shakespeare's first child, Susanna, was baptised at Stratford.[18] Twin children, a son, Hamnet, and a daughter, Judith, were baptised on 2 February 1585.[19] Hamnet died of the bubonic plague in 1596 aged 11. His date of death is not known, but he was buried on 11 August.[20]
From his marriage until his appearance on the London theatrical scene, Shakespeare left few traces in the historical record. The period from 1585 (when his twin children were born) until 1592 has become known as Shakespeare's "lost years" because no evidence survives of exactly where he was or why he left Stratford for London.[21] Numerous stories attempt to account for Shakespeare's life during this time—including one that Shakespeare got in trouble for poaching deer, one that he worked as a schoolmaster for the Catholic Hoghton family in Lancashire, and one that he minded the horses of theatre patrons in London. However, little direct evidence supports these stories, and they all appear to have begun circulating after Shakespeare's death.[22][23]
London and theatrical career
By 1592, Shakespeare was established as a playwright in London, and his reputation was high enough for Robert Greene to denounce him as "an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tygers hart wrapt in a Players hyde, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blanke verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his owne conceit the onely Shake-scene in a countrey."[24] (Although interpretations differ, the italicised line certainly parodies the phrase "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" which Shakespeare wrote in Henry VI, part 3.)
"All the world's a stage, |
— Famous lines from Shakespeare's comedy
As You Like It, Act II Scene 7[25] |
Within two years Shakespeare was an actor, writer and part-owner of the playing company the Lord Chamberlain's Men[26]—which, like others of the period, took its name from its aristocratic sponsor, the Lord Chamberlain.[26] It became popular enough for the new king, James I, to adopt the company himself, after which it became known as the King's Men.[26]
In 1596, Shakespeare moved to the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopsgate.[27] In 1598, he appeared at the top of a list of actors in Every Man in His Humour by Ben Jonson,[28] and his name was featured on the title pages of published quartos—a sign that his name itself was a selling point for the volume.[29]
He seems to have moved across the River Thames to Southwark sometime around 1599,[30] the same year he became part-owner of the Globe Theatre.[31] By 1604, he had moved north of the river, lodging just north of St Paul's Cathedral with a Huguenot family named Mountjoy. He helped arrange a marriage between the Mountjoys' daughter and their apprentice Stephen Bellott. Bellott later sued his father-in-law for defaulting on part of the promised dowry, and Shakespeare was called as a witness.[32] According to various documents of legal affairs and commercial transactions, Shakespeare grew rich enough during his stay in London to buy a property in Blackfriars, London, and own the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place.[33]
There is a tradition that Shakespeare continued to act in various parts of his plays, such as the ghost of Hamlet's father, Adam in As You Like It, and the Chorus in Henry V. This, however, has little scholarly basis.[34]
Later years
Shakespeare appears to have retired to Stratford in 1613.[12] He died on 23 April 1616[35] at age 52; according to tradition, on the day of his birthday. He was married to Anne Hathaway until his death and was survived by her and their two daughters, Susanna and Judith. Although Susanna married Dr John Hall,[36] there are no direct descendants of Shakespeare alive today.[37] Judith married Thomas Quiney but all of their children died very young,[38] and Susanna's daughter Elizabeth Hall died in 1670, marking the end of Shakespeare's lineage.[37]
Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon. He was granted the honour of burial in the chancel, not on account of his literary fame but for purchasing a share of the tithe of the church for £440.[39][40] Shakespeare's funeral monument, on the church wall nearest his grave,[41] has a bust of him posed in the act of writing. Shakespeare may have written his own epitaph:[42]
Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,
To dig the dust enclosèd here.
Blest be the man that spares these stones,
And cursed be he that moves my bones.
Works
Plays
Many of Shakespeare's plays are reputed to be among the greatest—not only in the English language but in all of Western literature.[43] They have been translated into every major living language[44] and are continually performed all over the world.
Chronology and publication
Shakespeare did not write every word of the plays commonly attributed to him. Several show signs of collaboration, revision, or both. This was not uncommon at the time for collaboration frequently occurred between dramatists.[45]
The chronology of Shakespeare's plays cannot be established accurately. Many of his plays were printed in quarto versions of varying quality during his lifetime; however there is no evidence that Shakespeare was involved in their publication. Some of these have been labelled "bad quartos"; that is mangled versions of the plays usually believed to have been reconstructed from the faulty memories of some of the players. These bad quartos were described as "stol'n and surreptitious copies" in the First Folio.[46] The First Folio was published by John Heminges and Henry Condell—two of Shakespeare's former colleagues from the King's Men—in 1623, around seven years after Shakespeare's death. It comprised a collection of 36 of Shakespeare's plays, and remains the only extant source for around sixteen of them.[47][48] The First Folio divided the plays into their traditional categories: tragedies, histories and comedies.
Each play that survives in several texts has signficant textual variants—differences between those texts—both large and small. These corruptions may stem from compositors' misreadings or faulty source material: which may have been Shakespeare's own foul papers, a theatrical prompt-book, or a scribe's fair copy.[49] Other textual variations are harder to discount: for instance, the widely different quarto and folio versions of King Lear. Traditionally, editors have used a conflated Lear which includes every scene from both versions. However, some modern editors see the two as meaningfully distinct works.[50]
Sources
Like many of his contemporaries, Shakespeare based his plays on the works of other playwrights or reworked earlier stories and historical material.[51] Hamlet (c. 1601) is believed to be a reworking of an older, lost play (the so-called Ur-Hamlet),[52] and King Lear also of an earlier play, King Leir.[53] For plays on historical subjects, Shakespeare relied heavily on two principal texts: Plutarch's Parallel Lives (from the 1579 English translation by Sir Thomas North) and the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed's The Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland (which provided material for Macbeth and King Lear);[54] using the former for his Roman plays and the latter for his history plays. Shakespeare may have borrowed stylistic elements from contemporary playwrights like Christopher Marlowe.[VII]
Performances
During Shakespeare's lifetime, many of his plays were performed at the Globe and Blackfriars Theatres[55] by the Lord Chamberlain's Men—known from 1603 as the King's Men after King James, who adopted the company. The Globe opened in autumn 1599[56] in Southwark, on the south bank of the Thames. Most of Shakespeare's post-1599 plays were first staged at the Globe, including Julius Caesar, Macbeth, Othello, King Lear and Hamlet. After 1608 the King's Men used the indoor Blackfriars during the winter, and the Globe during the summer.[57]
Among the actors in Shakespeare's playing company were Richard Burbage, Richard Cowley , William Kempe, and both Henry Condell and John Heminges, known today for collecting and editing the plays of Shakespeare's First Folio (1623). Richard Burbage played the title role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare's plays, including Hamlet, Othello, Richard III and King Lear.[58] Richard Cowley played Verges in Much Ado About Nothing. William Kemp played Peter in Romeo and Juliet and possibly Bottom in A Midsummer Night's Dream.
- For a history of the performance of Shakespeare's plays, see Performance history.
Sonnets
"Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? |
— Famous lines from Shakespeare's Sonnet 18. [59] |
Shakespeare's sonnets comprise a collection of 154 poems that deal with themes such as love, beauty, and mortality. The form used has since been called the Shakespearean sonnet, and is still in use today. Poems are divided into 14 lines with 3 quatrains, followed by a closing couplet; the rhyme scheme being abab cdcd efef gg, each letter corresponding to a rhyming line.[60]
All but two of the 154 poems first appeared in the 1609 publication entitled SHAKE-SPEARE'S Sonnets; numbers 138 ("When my love swears that she is made of truth") and 144 ("Two loves have I, of comfort and despair") were previously published in a 1599 miscellany entitled The Passionate Pilgrim.[61] The circumstances of the sonnets' publication are unclear. The 1609 text is dedicated to a "Mr. W.H.", described as "the only begetter" of the poems. It is not known whether this was written by Shakespeare or the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, whose initials appear at the bottom of the dedication page. Nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was—though there are many theories, including one that he was the "fair youth" featured in the sonnets[62]—or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication.[63]
Other poems
Besides his sonnets, Shakespeare wrote three known longer narrative poems: "Venus and Adonis", "The Rape of Lucrece" and "A Lover's Complaint." "Venus and Adonis" and "The Rape of Lucrece" are based on classical works by the Roman poet Ovid, while "A Lover's Complaint" tells the original story of a scorned love—although a few scholars question if Shakespeare was the poem's actual author.[64] These poems were all written in the rhyme royal, using the rhyme scheme ababbcc.[65][66] They appear to have been written either in an attempt to win the patronage of a rich benefactor—a common practice of the time—or as the result of such patronage. The Rape of Lucrece and Venus and Adonis were both dedicated to Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton.[67] Each was written between 1593 and 1594, while theatres were closed because of the plague.[68] Shakespeare also wrote the short poem "The Phoenix and the Turtle", an allegorical look at the death of ideal love. An anthology, The Passionate Pilgrim, was attributed to him upon its first publication in 1599, but in fact only five of its poems would be definitively accredited to Shakespeare, and the attribution was withdrawn in the second edition.[69]
Style
Shakespeare's stagecraft and verse style bear the marks of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods in which he lived,[70] his style developing not only with his own tastes and skills as a playwright but also in response to the tastes and requirements of his audiences.[71]
Although Shakespeare wrote some passages in prose, he wrote a large proportion of his plays and poems in iambic pentameter. In some of his early works, he added punctuation at the end of the iambic pentameter lines to strengthen the rhythm.[72] He and other dramatists at the time used this form of blank verse for much of the dialogue between characters in order to elevate the poetry of drama.[73] To end many scenes in his plays he used a rhyming couplet, creating suspense.[74] A typical example occurs in Macbeth: as Macbeth leaves the stage to murder Duncan (to the sound of a chiming clock), he says,[75]
Hear it not Duncan; for it is a knell
That summons thee to heaven or to hell.
His plays make effective use of the soliloquy, in which a character makes a solitary speech, giving the audience insight to the character's motivations and inner conflict.[76] Among his most famous soliloquies are To be or not to be, All the world's a stage, and What a piece of work is a man. The character either speaks to the audience directly (in the case of choruses, or characters that become epilogues), or more commonly, speaks to himself or herself in the fictional realm.[77] Shakespeare's writing features extensive wordplay, with double entendres and clever rhetorical flourishes.[78] Humor (largely influenced by Plautus)[79] is a key element in all of Shakespeare's plays. His works have been considered controversial through the centuries for his use of bawdy (that is, sexual) punning,[80] to the extent that "virtually every play is shot through with sexual puns."[81] Indeed, in the nineteenth century, popular censored versions of the plays were produced as The Family Shakespeare by Henrietta Bowlder (writing anonymously) and later by her brother Thomas Bowdler.[82] Comedy is not confined to Shakespeare's comedies, and is a core element of many of the tragedy and history plays. For example, comic scenes dominate over historical material in Henry IV, Part 1.[83]
Influence on theatre, literature, and language
Shakespeare's works have been a major influence on subsequent theatre and literature. Not only did he create some of the most admired plays in Western literature[43]—Macbeth, Hamlet and King Lear being ranked among the world's greatest plays—[84] but also he expanded the dramatic possibilities of characterisation, plot, language, and genre.[85][86][87] In Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare mixed tragedy and comedy to create a new genre: romantic tragedy. At the time, romance was not considered a worthy topic for tragedy, but Shakespeare's new form made it respectable.[88] He adapted the soliloquy: using it not only to "convey information" of a character or event in the play, but also to explore a character's inner motivations and conflict.[89]
Shakespeare's works express the complete range of human experience.[90] His characters were human beings[91] who commanded the sympathy of audiences when many other playwrights' characters were flat or archetypes.[92][93] Macbeth commits six murders by the end of the fourth act, and is responsible for many deaths offstage, yet still commands an audience's sympathy until the very end[94] because he is seen as a flawed human being, not a monster.[95] Hamlet knows that he must avenge the death of his father, but he is too indecisive, too self-doubting, to carry this out until he has no choice.[96] His failings cause his downfall, and he exhibits some of the most basic human reactions and emotions. Shakespeare's people were complex and human in character. By making the protagonist's character development central to the plot, Shakespeare changed what could be accomplished with drama.[97]
Shakespeare's influence stretches beyond drama and includes novelists such as Herman Melville,[98] Charles Dickens,[99] Thomas Hardy,[100] and William Faulkner.[101] Dickens peppered his writings with Shakespearean quotations;[102] even his titles, 25 of which were drawn from Shakespeare, reflect his admiration for him.[103] In Moby Dick, Melville frequently used Shakespearean devices such as the extended soliloquy.[104] The novel's protagonist, Captain Ahab, is a classic tragic hero, inspired by Shakespearean characters like King Lear.[105] Shakespeare influenced several British poets; the Romantic poets, in particular, were drawn to to the themes he expounded such as self-consciousness.[106] Critic George Steiner described all English poetic dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson as "feeble variations on Shakespearean themes."[107]
Shakespeare's writings helped to shape modern English. Before and during Shakespeare's lifetime the grammar and spelling of English were not fixed;[108] but once Shakespeare came to be considered a genius, as his plays gained popularity in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, his language became integral to English. In the first comprehensive dictionary of the English language, by Samuel Johnson, Shakespeare was quoted more times than any other writer. Other standardization projects helped embed Shakespearean language within English, as many of Shakespeare's words and phrases were standardized in the language.[109]
Reputation
"He was not of an age, but for all time." |
—Ben Jonson, in an epitaph to The Bard written in the early 1600s.[110] |
Shakespeare's reputation among his contemporaries was generous, but not overwhelming.[111] In 1598, Francis Meres singled him out from a group of English poets which he compared with the greatest of Greece and Rome,[112] and described him as "the most excellent" among English playwrights of both comedy and tragedy.[113] Shakespeare was alluded to alongside Chaucer, Gower and Spenser by the authors of the Parnassus plays at St John's College, Cambridge between 1598 and 1601.[114] In the years following Shakespeare's death, his rival Ben Jonson would record both praise and criticism. He described Shakespeare as "soul of the age! The applause, delight, the wonder of our stage" in his prefatory poem to the First Folio, yet elsewhere asserted that "Shakespeare wanted art".[115]
In Restoration society, the vogue for neoclassicism, and tastes at the Royal courts, led to a consensus which ranked Shakespeare below Ben Jonson and John Fletcher. [116] The influential critic John Dryden acknowledged this consensus, and sought to modify it in 1668, saying of Jonson: "I admire him, but I love Shakespeare".[117] At this time the collaborative works of Beaumont and Fletcher were twice as popular as those of Shakespeare in the theatres.[118] From the late 17th century, Shakespeare began to be considered as the supreme English-language playwright and poet.[119] His classic status was established by a series of critically annotated versions of his works, including those by Nicholas Rowe in 1709, Alexander Pope in 1725, and most influentially, Samuel Johnson in 1765.[120][121] Johnson's strongest criticism of Shakespeare was in the over-use of puns: "A quibble was to him the fatal Cleopatra for which he lost the world, and was content to lose it."[122]
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Shakespeare's reputation spread across Europe, largely as a result of the treatment of his works by Voltaire,[123] Goethe,[124] Stendhal[125] and Victor Hugo.[126]
"There is no eminent writer ... whom I can despise so entirely as I despise Shakespeare when I measure my mind against his." |
—George Bernard Shaw, on Shakespeare's mind.[127] |
Neoclassicism ceased to be regarded as a weakness of Shakespeare in the Romantic era, when his genius began to be acknowledged by other, more individual standards: particularly as a result of the works of the translator and critic August Wilhelm Schlegel in Germany, and the poet and lecturer Samuel Taylor Coleridge in England.[128] This reverence for Shakespeare became parodied in the term bardolatry, which would be attacked by George Bernard Shaw who argued that, after Ibsen, Shakespeare had become antiquated and would need to be set aside.[129] Others, such as Leo Tolstoy, dismissed the plays of Shakespeare. [130] Throughout the nineteenth century, performances of Shakespeare became increasingly pictorial, using highly elaborate scenery, detailed costumes and props, spectacular effects and the frequent use of tableaux.[131]
Twentieth century criticism developed as a reaction to the views of scholars such as A. C. Bradley who in Shakespearean Tragedy stated that we study poetry "in order to reproduce in ourselves more faintly that which went on in the poet's mind when he wrote."[132] Such views were challenged by structuralist thinkers, who stressed the inabilty of language to communicate the true feeling of a speaker or writer - concentrating instead on the artificial nature of language, and the importance of the relationships between words.[133] Poststructuralists carried this thinking further, arguing that a text such as a play cannot have a single comprehensible meaning: that its meaning is in a constant free play with other meanings and uses of language.[134] Shakespeare's works have been analysed from feminist and Marxist perspectives, and among feminists they have been reviled for upholding the male "phallocentric" world view[135] yet occasionally admired for their portrayals of female characters: including, famously, by Germaine Greer.[136]
Today, Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest writer of the English language[137] and the world's pre-eminent dramatist.[138] Shakespeare's plays are more frequently staged than the works of any other playwright. They have been adapted into a large number of films—including Hollywood movies marketed to teenage audiences,[VIII]—though many simply use his plots rather than his dialogue.[IX] Shakespeare is often referred to as the most filmed author ever:[139] there are more than 420 feature-length film versions of his plays.[140]
Speculations about Shakespeare
Authorship
Around 150 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to be expressed about the authorship of Shakespeare's works.[141] Alternative candidates proposed include Francis Bacon,[142] Christopher Marlowe,[143] and Edward de Vere, the Earl of Oxford.[144] Although all alternative candidates are rejected in academic circles, popular interest in the subject continues.[145]
Religion
Some scholars claim that there is evidence that members of Shakespeare's family were recusant Catholics, at a time when many Catholic practices, most notably Mass, were illegal.[146] The strongest evidence is a tract professing secret Catholicism signed by John Shakespeare, father of the poet.[147] Shakespeare's mother, Mary Arden, was a member of a conspicuous and determinedly Catholic family in Warwickshire,[148] and in 1606, William's daughter Susannah was listed as one of the residents of Stratford refusing to take Holy Communion, which may suggest Catholic sympathies.[149]
While none of this evidence proves Shakespeare's own Catholic sympathies, Clare Asquith has claimed that those sympathies are detectable in his writing.[X] Other scholars agree with the suggestion that Shakespeare was Catholic; but this is by no means universally accepted. The Catholic Encyclopedia questions not only his Catholicism but his Christianity, enquiring whether "Shakespeare was not infected with the atheism, which... was rampant in the more cultured society of the Elizabethan age."[150]
Sexuality
There is little direct evidence of Shakespeare's sexuality. At 18 he married Anne Hathaway, who was then 26 and pregnant. Their first of their three children, Susanna, was born on 26 May 1583; six months after the marriage.[151] It is possible that Shakespeare felt trapped by this marriage, since he left his family and moved to London after only three years of marriage.[152] While in London, Shakespeare may have had affairs with different women; one anecdote of uncertain validity asserts that he had an affair during the performance of one of his plays.[153] Possible evidence of other affairs is found in his twenty-six love poems addressed to a married woman (the so-called "Dark Lady" sonnets).[154]
In recent decades some scholars have taken a different view of Shakespeare's sexuality, asserting that possible homoerotic allusions in his works suggest Shakespeare was bisexual.[155] Others, however, interpret them as expressions of intense friendship rather than sexual love.[156]
Bibliography
Classification
Shakespeare's works include the 36 plays which appear in the First Folio, which are listed here according to their Folio classification as tragedies, histories and comedies.[157] In addition, two comedies, Pericles, Prince of Tyre and The Two Noble Kinsmen do not appear in the First Folio, but subsequently became accepted into the canon of Shakepeare's works since scholars generally accept the evidence that Shakespeare had a substantial hand in writing them.[158] Shakespeare's poems were also not included in the folio. Other works attributed to him are classified, below, as Lost Plays or Apocrypha.
Today, five of the comedies are usually considered as a separate subgenre, the late romances, and these plays are highlighted with an asterisk (*) below.[159]
In 1896, the critic F. S. Boas coined the expression "problem plays" for four of Shakespeare's plays—All’s Well that Ends Well, Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cressida and Hamlet.[160] In the first three, he identified moral ambiguities: Cressida's betrayal of Troilus's love (against the dominating plot theme of an history play), and the external interventions (the enforced marriages) at the end of All's Well and Measure for Measure. Boas found a psychological problem in Hamlet: the protagonist's motives remain inscrutable even by the end of the play. Common to all four is the depiction of a corrupted society. Today, scholars classify Hamlet among the great tragedies, leaving the three plays marked with a ‡ symbol below in the category of problem plays.[161]
Many of the plays have been alternatively classified as tragicomedies, because of their combination of comic and tragic motifs.[162] However, this classification has not become universal so no plays are marked as tragicomedies, below. Some scholars use the term as roughly synonymous with the romances.[163]
Plays that are thought to be only partly written by Shakespeare are marked with a † symbol, below.
Poems |
Lost plays |
Apocrypha
|
Notes and references
Notes
- ^ Dates use the Julian Calendar. Under the Gregorian calendar, Shakespeare was baptised on May 6 and died on May 3.[164]
- ^ The exact figures are unknowable. See Shakespearean authorship, Shakespeare's collaborations and Shakespeare Apocrypha for further details.
- ^ The point is illustrated by reference to the Stratford Parish Register of 1579: it records the arrangements for the burial of Shakespeare's sister, Anne: "Mr Shaxpers dawter".[165]
- ^ Spelling was not fixed in Elizabethan times, hence the variation.[166]
- ^ Shakespeare would refer to the saint in the battle cry of Henry V: "Upon this charge, cry God for Harry, England and Saint George!"[167]
- ^ These dates use the Julian calendar. Under the Gregorian calendar, Shakespeare died on May 3.[164]
- ^ An essay by Harold Brooks suggests Marlowe's Edward II influenced Shakespeare's Richard III,[168] Others scholars, though, discount this, stating that the parallels are simply commonplace. [169]
- ^ See particularly William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet
- ^ See particularly 10 Things I Hate About You, O (film) and She's the Man.
- ^ "In spite of the difficulties of working under the eyes of the Cecil faction, Shakespeare appeared to have found a new métier—that of highly placed apologist for the Catholic opposition." [170]
- ^ Pericles was co-written with George Wilkins.[171]
- ^ The Two Noble Kinsmen was co-written with John Fletcher. [172]
- ^ Henry VI, Part 1 is usually thought to be the work of a group of collaborators.[173]
- ^ Henry VIII was co-written with John Fletcher. [174]
- ^ Titus Andronicus was co-written with Thomas Middleton.[175]
- ^ Timon of Athens was co-written with George Peele.[176]
- ^ The text of Macbeth which survives has plainly been altered by later hands. Most notable is the inclusion of two songs from Thomas Middleton's play The Witch (1615)[177]
- ^ Cardenio was apparently co-written with John Fletcher.[178][179]
References
- ^ "William Shakespeare". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-06-14., "William Shakespeare". MSN Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2007-06-14., "William Shakespeare". Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2007-06-14.
- ^ Brown, Calvin Smith; Harrison, Robert L. (1970) Masterworks of World Literature Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 4.
- ^ Craig, Leon Harold (2003). Of Philosophers and Kings: Political Philosophy in Shakespeare's "Macbeth" and "King Lear". University of Toronto Press. p. 3.
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(help) - ^ Taylor, Gary (1990). Reinventing Shakespeare: A Cultural History from the Restoration to the Present. Hogarth Press. pp. pp.145, 210–23, 261–5. ISBN 0-7012-0888-0.
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- ^ Michell, John (1996). Who Wrote Shakespeare?. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 62–63. ISBN 0-500-28113-0.
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- ^ a b c Mobley, Jonnie Patricia (1996). Manual for Hamlet: Access to Shakespeare. Lorenz Educational Publishers. p. 5.
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- ^ Schoenbaum, 77-78
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- ^ Wood, Michael (2003). Shakespeare. New York: Basic Books, 83. ISBN 0-465-09264-0.
- ^ Schoenbaum, 93
- ^ Schoenbaum, 94
- ^ Schoenbaum, 224
- ^ Honigmann, E. A. J. (1999). Shakespeare: The Lost Years (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. p. 1.
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- ^ Greenblatt, Stephen (2004). Will in the World How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare. London: Jonathan Cape. pp. p210. ISBN 0-224-06276X.
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(help) - ^ Shakespeare, William. As You Like It. Act II Scene 7 Lines 139-143. Quoted on "http://www.enotes.com/shakespeare-quotes/all-world-s-stage" (HTML). enotes. Retrieved 2007-06-19.
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- ^ a b c Best, Michael (Nov 2005). "The Lord Chamberlain's Men". Internet Shakespeare Editions. Internet Shakespeare Editions, University of Victoria. Retrieved 2007-06-06.
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(help) - ^ Alchin, L. K. "William Shakespeare in London". William Shakespeare info. Retrieved 2007-06-06.
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(help) - ^ Adams, J. Q. (1923). A Life of William Shakespeare. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 275.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ Knutson, Roslyn (2001). Playing Companies and Commerce in Shakespeare's Time. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 17.
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(help) - ^ Shapiro, James (2005). 1599 A Year in the Life of William Shakespeare. Faber and Faber. pp. p122. ISBN 0-571-21480-0.
{{cite book}}
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has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ A.M. (1958). Shakespeare's Stage. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-300-02689-7.
- ^ Schoenbaum, 260-264
- ^ Bentley, G. E. (1961). Shakespeare: A Biographical Handbook. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 36.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ Ackroyd, Peter (2005). Shakespeare: The Biography. London: Chatto and Windus. pp. p220. ISBN 1-856-19726-3.
{{cite book}}
:|pages=
has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Schoenbaum, pgs. 24-26 and 296
- ^ Schoenbaum, 287
- ^ a b Schoenbaum, 319
- ^ Schoenbaum, 296
- ^ Wilson, Ian (1999). Shakespeare: The Evidence. St. Martin's Press. p. 309.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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suggested) (help) - ^ Deelman, Christian (1964). The Great Shakespeare Jubilee. Viking Press. p. 15.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Holderness, Graham (2001). Cultural Shakespeare: Essays in the Shakespeare Myth. Univ of Hertfordshire Press. pp. 152–154.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Schoenbaum, 306
- ^ a b Gaskell, Philip (1998). Landmarks in English Literature. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 13–14.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Craig, Leon Harold (2003). Of Philosophers and Kings: Political Philosophy in Shakespeare's "Macbeth" and "King Lear". University of Toronto Press. p. 3.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Thomson, Peter Conventions of Playwriting in Wells, Stanley (2003). Shakespeare: an Oxford Guide. Oxford University Press. p. 49. ISBN 0-19-924522-3.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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suggested) (help) - ^ Pollard, Alfred W. (1909). Shakespeare Quartos and Folios. London: Metheun. pp. xi.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ "Covering EJ." The English Journal. (Dec 1993) 82.8, 7
- ^ Alchin, L. K. (2005). "First Folio". The Life, Times, Works and Biography of William Shakespeare. Retrieved 2007-06-10.
- ^ Bowers, Fredson (1955). On Editing Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Dramatists. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 8–10.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Taylor, Gary (1983). The Division of the Kingdoms. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198129505.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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suggested) (help) - ^ Langbaine, Gerard (1688). Momus Triumphans. London. pp. A4v.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Shakespeare, William (1982). Harold Jenkins (ed.). Hamlet. London: Metheun. pp. 82–85.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Hunter, G. K. (1997). English Drama 1586-1642: The Age of Shakespeare. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 494–496.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Dutton, Richard and Howard, Jean, ed. (2003). A Companion to Shakespeare's Works: The Histories. Blackwell Publishing. p. 147.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - ^ Foakes, R. A. "Playhouses and Players" in Branmuller, A. R. and Hattaway, Michael "The Cambridge Companion to English Renaissance Drama", 6 and 33
- ^ Nagler, A.M. Shakespeare's Stage. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02689-7, 7.
- ^ Foakes, 33
- ^ Ringler, William Jr. (1997) "Shakespeare and His Actors: Some Remarks on King Lear" from Lear from Study to Stage: Essays in Criticism edited by James Ogden and Arthur Hawley Scouten, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 127.
- ^ Shakespeare, William (1914). "SONNET 18". The Oxford Shakespeare: the Complete Works of William Shakespeare. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2007-06-22.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ The Sonnet, from ProQuest Genre Pages, ProQuest, 2005
- ^ Booth, 333, 342, 545
- ^ Smith, Hallet. (1974) "Sonnets," The Riverside Shakespeare, pp 1745-8. Houghton Mifflin
- ^ Booth, 545.
- ^ Jackson, MacD P. "A Lover's Complaint Revisited" from Shakespeare Studies edited by Susan Zimmermann, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2004, pages 267-294.
- ^ Hyland, Peter. An Introduction to Shakespeare's Poems Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, 96.
- ^ Burrow, Colin. Introduction to The Complete Sonnets and Poems by William Shakespeare, Oxford University Press, 2002, 55.
- ^ Chambers, Edmund Kerchever (1936). Shakespeare: A Survey of Facts and Problems. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1.61.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Frye, Roland Mushat (Jul 2005). Shakespeare: The Art of the Dramatist. Routledge Library Editions: Shakespeare. p. 288. ISBN 0-415-35289-4.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Feuillerat, Albert (1927). Venus and Adonis, Lucrece, and the Minor Poems. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 187.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Wilson, F. P. (1945). Elizabethan and Jacobean. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 26.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Bentley, G. E. "The Profession of Dramatist in Shakespeare's Time," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 115 (1971), 481.
- ^ Introduction to Hamlet by William Shakespeare, Barron's Educational Series, 2002, 11.
- ^ Elizabethan Period (1558–1603), from ProQuest Period Pages, ProQuest, 2005
- ^ Miller, Carol (2001). Irresistible Shakespeare. New York: Scholastic Professional. pp. p18. ISBN 0-439-09844-0.
{{cite book}}
:|pages=
has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Macbeth Act 2, Scene 1
- ^ Clemen, Wolfgang H. (1987) Shakespeare's Soliloquies, trans. Charity S. Stokes, Routledge, 11.
- ^ Maurer, Margaret (2005). "Shakespeare and the History of Soliloquies". Shakespeare Quarterly. 56 (4): 504.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) Retrieved through Proquest on June 6, 2007 here. - ^ Mahood, Molly Maureen (1988). Shakespeare's Wordplay. Routledge. p. 9.
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: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Andrews, John. F. "Humor in Shakespeare's Plays." from Shakespeare's World and Work Charles Scribner's Sons, 2001.)
- ^ Partridge, Eric (1947). Shakespeare's Bawdy. London: Routledge. pp. Preface p.xi. ISBN 0-415-05076-6.
- ^ Wells,, Stanley (2004). Looking for Sex in Shakespeare. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-521-54039-9.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - ^ Wells, Stanley Looking for Sex in Shakespeare 19-20.
- ^ Kastan, David Scott (ed.) King Henry IV, Part 1 (The Arden Shakespeare:Third Series, Thomson, London 2002) Introduction, 14.
- ^ Brown, Calvin Smith; Harrison, Robert L. Masterworks of World Literature Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970, 4.
- ^ Miola, Robert S. (2000). Shakespeare's Reading. Oxford University Press.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Chambers, Edmund Kerchever (1944). Shakespearean Gleanings. Oxford University Press. p. 35.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Mazzeno, Laurence W. (1996) [1949]. Masterplots: 1,801 Plot Stories and Critical Evaluations of the World's Finest Literature. Salen Press. p. 2837.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Levenson, Jill L. "Introduction" to Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, Oxford University Press, 2000, pages 49-50. In her discussion about the play's genre, Levenson quotes scholar H.B. Charlton Romeo and Juliet creating a new genre of "romantic tragedy."
- ^ Clemen, Wolfgang H., Shakespeare's Soliloquies Routledge, 1987, 179.
- ^ Reich, John J., and Cunningham, Lawrence S. Culture And Values: A Survey of the Humanities Thomson Wadsworth, 2005, 354.
- ^ Webster, Margaret. Shakespeare Without Tears Courier Dover Publications, 2000, 194.
- ^ Bennett, J. A. W. , Gray, Douglas, et al. The Oxford history of English literature: The Age of Shakespeare Oxford University Press, 1997, 503.
- ^ Leggatt, Alexander. "Arden of Faversham" from Shakespeare Survey by Stanley Wells (editor), Cambridge University Press, 2002, 121.
- ^ Dotterer, Ronald L. Shakespeare: Text, Subtext, and Context Susquehanna University Press, 1989, 91.
- ^ McCarthy, Mary. "General MacBeth" from The Tragedy of Macbeth by William Shakespeare, Signet Classic, 1998, 162.
- ^ Berryman, John. Berryman's Shakespeare: Essays, Letters and Other Writings Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2001, pages 114-116.
- ^ Frye, Roland Mushat. (2005) Shakespeare:The Art of the Dramatist. Routledge, pg. 118. ISBN 0-415-35289-4
- ^ Hovde, Carl F. "Introduction" Moby-Dick by Herman Melville, Spark Publishing, 2003, xxvi.
- ^ Gager, Valerie L. (1996). Shakespeare and Dickens: The Dynamics of Influence. Cambridge University Press. p. 163.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Millgate, Michael, and Wilson, Keith, Thomas Hardy Reappraised: Essays in Honour of Michael Millgate University of Toronto Press, 2006, 38.
- ^ Kolin, Philip C. Shakespeare and Southern Writers: A Study in Influence. University Press of Mississippi. p. 124.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Gager, Valerie L. (1996). Shakespeare and Dickens: The Dynamics of Influence. Cambridge University Press. p. 251.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Gager, Valerie L. (1996). Shakespeare and Dickens: The Dynamics of Influence. Cambridge University Press. p. 186.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Bryant, John. "Moby Dick as Revolution" The Cambridge Companion to Herman Melville Robert Steven Levine (editor). Cambridge University Press, 1998, 82.
- ^ Falk, Robert. "Shakespeare in America: A Survey to 1900" Shakespeare Survey by Allardyce Nicoll (editor), Cambridge University Press, 2002, 116. Falk also notes that Melville discovered Shakespeare at an influential point in the writing of Moby-Dick and that the play King Lear partly inspired Melville to make the novel a tragic drama.
- ^ Dotterer, Ronald L. (1989). Shakespeare: Text, Subtext, and Context. Susquehanna University Press. p. 108.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Dotterer, Ronald L. (1989). Shakespeare: Text, Subtext, and Context. Susquehanna University Press. p. 108.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Introduction to Hamlet by William Shakespeare, Barron's Educational Series, 2002, 12.
- ^ Lynch, Jack. Samuel Johnson's Dictionary: Selections from the 1755 Work that Defined the English Language. Delray Beach, FL: Levenger Press (2002), 12.
- ^ Bartlett, John. "Ben Jonson. (1572–1637)". John Bartlett (1820–1905). Familiar Quotations, 10th ed. 1919. Retrieved 2007-06-14.
- ^ Grady, Hugh. "Shakespeare Criticism 1600-1900" in deGrazia, Margreta and Wells, Stanley (eds.) The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare (2001, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-65094-1), 267
- ^ Grady, 265
- ^ Greer, Germaine (1986). Past Masters - William Shakespeare. Oxford University Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-19-287538-8.
- ^ Grady, 266
- ^ Grady, 266-7
- ^ Grady, 269
- ^ Dryden, John "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy", cited by Grady, 269. The quotation appears in Levin at 215
- ^ Levin, Harry "Critical Approaches to Shakespeare from 1660 to 1904" in Wells, Stanley (ed.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies" (Cambridge University Press, 1986) 215
- ^ Dobson, Michael "The Making of the National Poet: Shakespeare, Adaptation and Authorship, 1660-1769 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992) cited by Grady, 270
- ^ Grady, 270-271
- ^ Levin, 217
- ^ Johnson, Samuel "Preface", cited by Levin at 218
- ^ Voltaire's "Philosophical Letters" (1733) cited by Grady, 272
- ^ Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's "Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship" (1795) cited by Grady, 272-273
- ^ Stendhal's pamphlets "Racine et Shakespeare" (1823-5) cited by Grady, 274
- ^ Hugo, Victor. Preface to "Cromwell" (1827) and "William Shakespeare" (1864) cited by Grady, 274
- ^ Shaw, George Bernard "Blaming the Bard" in The Saturday Review 26 Sep 1896, quoted in Wilson, Edwin (ed.) "Shaw on Shakespeare" (E.P.Dutton & Co., 1961) 49-56, at 50.
- ^ Levin, 223
- ^ Grady, 276
- ^ Orwell, George. "Lear, Tolstoy and the Fool"
- ^ Schoch, Richard "Pictorial Shakespeare" in Wells, Stanley and Stanton, Sarah (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) 58-59
- ^ Bradley, A. C. "Shakespearean Tragedy" (1904) cited by Hawkes, Terence "Shakespeare and New Critical Approaches" in Wells, Stanley (ed.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies" (Cambridge University Press, 1986) 288
- ^ Hawkes, 288-91
- ^ Hawkes, 292
- ^ Hawkes 287-301
- ^ Greer, Germaine: extract from "The Female Eunuch" (McGraw Hill, New York, 1971) reproduced in Barnet, Sylvan (ed.) "The Taming of the Shrew" (Signet Classic Edition, 1987) 189-90
- ^ Reich, John J. (2005). Culture And Values: A Survey of the Humanities. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 102.
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suggested) (help) - ^ "William Shakespeare". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-06-14., "William Shakespeare". MSN Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2007-06-14., "William Shakespeare". Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2007-06-14.
- ^ Voigts-Virchow, Eckartm. Janespotting and Beyond: : British Heritage Retrovisions Since the Mid-1990s Gunter Narr Verlag, 2004, 92.
- ^ Young, Mark (editor). The Guinness Book of Records 1999 Guinness World Records Editors, Bantam Books, 358.
- ^ Love, Harold (2002). Attributing Authorship: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 194–209. ISBN 0521789486
- ^ Gibson, H.N. (2005). The Shakespeare Claimants: A Critical Survey of the Four Principle Theories Concerning the Authorship of the Shakespearean Plays. Routledge. p. 48.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Gibson, H.N. (2005). The Shakespeare Claimants: A Critical Survey of the Four Principle Theories Concerning the Authorship of the Shakespearean Plays. Routledge. p. 124.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Gibson, H.N. (2005). The Shakespeare Claimants: A Critical Survey of the Four Principle Theories Concerning the Authorship of the Shakespearean Plays. Routledge. p. 72.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Kathman, David "The Question of Authorship" in Wells, Stanley (ed.) (2003). Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide. Oxford University Press. p. 620. ISBN 0-19-924522-3.
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help); Love, Harold (2002). Attributing Authorship: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 194–209. ISBN 0521789486; Schoenbaum, S. (1993). Shakespeare's Lives (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283155-0.{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help); Holderness, Graham (1988). The Shakespeare Myth. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-2635-0.{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Pritchard, Arnold (1979). Catholic Loyalism in Elizabethan England. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 3ff.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Wood, Michael (2003). Shakespeare. New York: Basic Books. pp. 75–78. ISBN 0-465-09264-0.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Ackroyd, Peter (2005). Shakespeare: The Biography. Doubleday. p. 29.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Ackroyd, Peter (2005). Shakespeare: The Biography. Doubleday. p. 451.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Knight, Kevin. The Religion of Shakespeare Catholic Encyclopedia on CD-ROM. Copyright 2007. (Retrieved 23 Dec 2005.)
- ^ Greenblatt, 120-121
- ^ Greenblatt, 143
- ^ Manningham, John (1868). Diary of John Manningham, of the Middle Temple, and of Bradbourne, Kent, barrister-at-law, 1602-1603. Westminster: J.B. Nichols and Sons.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Fort, J. A. "The Story Contained in the Second Series of Shakespeare's Sonnets." The Review of English Studies. (Oct 1927) 3.12, 406-414
- ^ Charles, Casey (Fall 1998). "Was Shakespeare gay? Sonnet 20 and the politics of pedagogy". College Literature. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
{{cite web}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Pequigneyx, Joseph (1985). Such Is My Love: A Study of Shakespeare's Sonnets. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Snyder, Susan (2002). "Session 1" (HTML). The Genres of Shakespeare's Plays. Fathom Knowledge Network. Retrieved 2007-06-06.
- ^ Kathman, 629
- ^ Edwards, Phillip, "Shakespeare's Romances, 1900-1957," Shakespeare Survey 11 (1958): 1-10.
- ^ Schanzer, Ernest (1963). The Problem Plays of Shakespeare. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. pp. p2. ISBN 0-4153-5305-X.
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:|pages=
has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Bloom (1998), 325-380
- ^ Ristine, Frank (1911). English Tragicomedy: Its History and Origins. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 102.
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: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Potter, Lois (ed.) The Two Noble Kinsmen (The Arden Shakespeare: third series, Thomson, 1997) introduction 2-6 ISBN 1-904271-18-9
- ^ a b "Calendar Conversions". Yahoo! Geocities. Yahoo!. Retrieved 2007-06-14.
- ^ Ackroyd (2005), 66
- ^ French, George Russell Shakspeareanna Genealogica (1868) cited by Michell, 14.
- ^ Henry V: Act 3, Scene 1, line 34
- ^ Morris, Brian Robert. (1968) Christopher Marlowe New York : Hill and Wang. pages 65-94. ISBN 0-809-06780-3
- ^ Taylor, Gary. William Shakespeare: A Textual Companion 116
- ^ Asquith, Claire (2006). Shadowplay: The Hidden Beliefs and Coded Politics of William Shakespeare. US: PublicAffairs. p. 121. ISBN 1-586-48387-0.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ Bloom (1998), 30
- ^ Lois Potter (ed.) "The Adren Shakespeare: The Two Noble Kinsmen" third series (Thompson, 1997) introduction p.1
- ^ Edward Burns (ed.) "The Arden Shakespeare: King Henry VI Part 1" (Thomson, 2000) introduction pp.73-84
- ^ Gordon McMullan (ed.) "The Arden Shakespeare: King Henry VIII" third series (Thomson, 2000) introduction p.198
- ^ Boyd, Brian. Shakespeare. Co-Author: A Historical Study of Five Collaborative Plays.
- ^ George, David. "Shakespeare and Pembroke's Men." Shakespeare Quarterly. (Oct 1981) 32.3, 305-323.
- ^ Brooke, Nicholas, ed. The Tragedy of Macbeth Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998:57
- ^ Bradford, Gamaliel Jr. "The History of Cardenio by Mr. Fletcher and Shakespeare." Modern Language Notes (February 1910) 25.2, 51-56
- ^ Freehafer, John. "'Cardenio', by Shakespeare and Fletcher." PMLA. (May 1969) 84.3, 501-513.
Further reading
- Burgess, Anthony (1970). Shakespeare. London: Cape. ISBN 0-7867-0972-3.
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(help) Biography - Greenblatt, Stephen (2004). Will in the World: How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare. New York: Norton. ISBN 0-224-06276-X.
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(help) Biography - Fields, Bertram (2006). Players: The Mysterious Identity of William Shakespeare. New York: Regan Books. ISBN 0-060-83417-X.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Bloom, Harold (1999). Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human. New York: Riverhead Books. ISBN 1-573-22751-X.
{{cite book}}
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(help) Literary Criticism - Wood, Michael (2003). In Search of Shakespeare. BBC Books. ISBN 0-563-53477-X.
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(help) Companion to the television series of the same title. - Ackroyd, Peter (2005). Shakespeare: The Biography. London: Chatto and Windus. ISBN 1-856-19726-3.
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(help) Biography. - Rowse, A. L. (1988). Shakespeare the Man. New York: St. Martin’s Press. ISBN 0-312-03425-3.
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(help) Biography. - Schoenbaum, Samuel (1977). William Shakespeare, A Compact Documentary Life. Oxford U. Press. ISBN 0-195-02433-8.
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(help) Biography - Cruttwell, Patrick (1954). The Shakespearean Moment and Its Place in the Poetry of the 17th century. London: Chatto and Windus.
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(help)
External links
- Open Source Shakespeare includes the complete works, an advanced search function, a complete concordance, and some statistics about the works.
- The Internet Shakespeare Editions at the University of Victoria has old spelling versions of all the texts, with newly edited modern texts for some works; facsimiles, an extensive section on the life and times, a growing database of Shakespeare in performance, and a detailed section of links.
- Mr William Shakespeare and the Internet
- The Shakespeare Wiki
- William Shakespeare Search Engine
- National Geographic article about Shakespeare's coinages
- Designing Shakespeare - 40 years of Shakespearian performance in London and Stratford, featuring thousands of high-quality photographs, cast lists, reviews and interviews
- The Royal Shakespeare Company - probably the most famous classical theatre company in the world. This site has all the latest information on current and future productions, ticket sales, merchandising as well as press and educational resources.
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