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| birthname = Vincent Willem van Gogh |
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'''Vincent Willem van Gogh''' (sometimes erroneously pronounced [ˈvɪnsənt væn ˈɡɒf] or [ˈvɪnsənt vɑn ˈɡɔx] in British English and [ˈvɪnsənt væn ˈɡoʊ] in US English; the correct [[Dutch language|Dutch pronunciation]] is {{IPAudio|Pronunciation_Vincent_van_Gogh.ogg|[ˈvɪnsɛnt fɑn ˈxɔx]}}) ([[30 March]] [[1853]] – [[29 July]] [[1890]]) was a [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[Post-Impressionism|Post-Impressionist]] artist. His paintings and drawings include some of the world's best known, most popular and most expensive pieces. |
'''Vincent Willem van Gogh''' (sometimes erroneously pronounced [ˈvɪnsənt væn ˈɡɒf] or [ˈvɪnsənt vɑn ˈɡɔx] in British English and [ˈvɪnsənt væn ˈɡoʊ] in US English; the correct [[Dutch language|Dutch pronunciation]] is {{IPAudio|Pronunciation_Vincent_van_Gogh.ogg|[ˈvɪnsɛnt fɑn ˈxɔx]}}) ([[30 March]] [[1853]] – [[29 July]] [[1890]]) was a [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[Post-Impressionism|Post-Impressionist]] artist. His paintings and drawings include some of the world's best known, most popular and most expensive pieces. |
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Van Gogh spent his early life working for a firm of art dealers. After a brief spell as a teacher, he became a missionary worker in a very poor mining region. He did not embark upon a career as an artist until 1880. |
Van Gogh spent his early life working for a firm of art dealers. After a brief spell as a teacher, he became a missionary worker in a very poor mining region. He did not embark upon a career as an artist until 1880. Initially, he worked with sombre colours, until he encountered [[Impressionism]] and [[Neo-Impressionism]] in Paris. He incorporated their brighter colours and style of painting into a uniquely recognizable style, which was fully developed during the time he spent at [[Arles]], [[France]]. Van Gogh produced more than 2,000 works, including around 900 paintings and 1,100 drawings and sketches, during the last ten years of his life. Most of his best-known works were produced in the final two years of his life, during which time he cut off part of his left ear following a breakdown in his friendship with [[Paul Gauguin]]. After this he suffered recurrent bouts of mental illness, which led to his suicide. |
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⚫ | The central figure in Vincent van Gogh's life was his brother [[Theo van Gogh (art dealer)|Theo]], who continually and selflessly provided financial support. Their lifelong friendship is documented in numerous letters they exchanged from August 1872 onwards. Van Gogh is a pioneer of what came to be known as ''[[Expressionism]]''. He had an enormous influence on [[Modern art|20th century art]], especially on the [[Fauvism|Fauves]] and [[German Expressionism|German Expressionists]]. |
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Initially, van Gogh worked only with sombre colours, until he encountered [[Impressionism]] and [[Neo-Impressionism]] in Paris. He incorporated their brighter colours and style of painting into a uniquely recognizable style, which was fully developed during the time he spent at [[Arles]], [[France]]. |
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==Life== |
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He produced more than 2,000 works, including around 900 paintings and 1,100 drawings and sketches, during the last ten years of his life. Most of his best-known works were produced in the final two years of his life, during which time he cut off part of his left ear following a breakdown in his friendship with [[Paul Gauguin]]. After this he suffered recurrent bouts of mental illness, which led to his suicide. |
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⚫ | |||
Van Gogh is a pioneer of what came to be known as ''[[Expressionism]]''. He had an enormous influence on [[Modern art|20th century art]], especially on the [[Fauvism|Fauves]] and [[German Expressionism|German Expressionists]]. |
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==Biography== |
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:''For a timeline, see [[Vincent van Gogh chronology]]''. |
:''For a timeline, see [[Vincent van Gogh chronology]]''. |
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===Early life |
===Early life, 1853 to 1869=== |
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Vincent Willem van Gogh was born in [[Zundert|Groot-Zundert]], a village close to [[Breda]] in the Province of [[North Brabant]] in the southern [[Netherlands]].<ref>[http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/expressionism/Vincent-Van-Gogh.html Vincent Van Gogh - Biography, Quotes & Paintings], retrieved [[June 14]] 2007.</ref> Vincent was the son of Anna Cornelia Carbentus and Theodorus van Gogh, a minister of the [[Dutch Reformed Church]]. He was given the same name as his grandfather |
Vincent Willem van Gogh was born in [[Zundert|Groot-Zundert]], a village close to [[Breda]] in the Province of [[North Brabant]] in the southern [[Netherlands]].<ref>[http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/expressionism/Vincent-Van-Gogh.html Vincent Van Gogh - Biography, Quotes & Paintings], retrieved [[June 14]] 2007.</ref> Vincent was the son of Anna Cornelia Carbentus and Theodorus van Gogh, a minister of the [[Dutch Reformed Church]]. He was given the same name as his grandfather--and as a first brother who had been stillborn exactly one year before. It has been suggested<ref>Lubin, Albert J. ''Stranger on the earth: A psychological biography of Vincent van Gogh,'' Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1972. ISBN 0-03-091352-7. pages 82–84</ref> that having been given the same name as his dead elder brother might have had a deep psychological impact on the young Vincent, and that elements of his art, such as the portrayal of pairs of male figures, can be traced back to this. The practice of reusing a name in this way was not an uncommon one. The name "Vincent" was often used in the Van Gogh family: the baby's grandfather was called Vincent van Gogh (1789-1874); he had received his degree of theology at the [[University of Leiden]] in 1811. Grandfather Vincent had six sons, three of whom became art dealers, including another Vincent, referred to in Van Gogh's letters as "Uncle Cent." Grandfather Vincent had perhaps been named after his own father's uncle, the successful sculptor Vincent van Gogh (1729-1802).<ref name=erickson9> Erickson, page 9.</ref> Art and religion were the two occupations to which the Van Gogh family gravitated. |
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Four years after Van Gogh was born, his brother [[Theo van Gogh (art dealer)|Theodorus]] |
Four years after Van Gogh was born, his brother [[Theo van Gogh (art dealer)|Theodorus]], or Theo, was born on [[1 May]] [[1857]]. There was also another brother named Cor and three sisters, Elizabeth, Anna and Wil. As a child, Vincent was serious, silent and thoughtful. In 1860 he attended the Zundert village school, where the only teacher was [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] and there were around 200 pupils. From 1861 he and his sister Anna were taught at home by a governess, until [[1 October]], [[1864]], when he went away to the elementary [[boarding school]] of Jan Provily in [[Zevenbergen]], the Netherlands, about 20 miles away. He was distressed to leave his family home, and recalled this even in adulthood. On [[15 September]] [[1866]], he went to the new middle school, [[Willem II College]] in [[Tilburg]], the Netherlands. Constantijn C. Huysmans, who had achieved a certain success himself in Paris, taught Van Gogh to draw at the school and advocated a systematic approach to the subject. In March 1868 Van Gogh abruptly left school and returned home. His comment on his early years was: "My youth was gloomy and cold and sterile...."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/14/347.htm|title= Letter from Vincent van Gogh to Theo van Gogh - Nuenen, c. 18 December 1883}}</ref> |
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===Art dealer and preacher |
===Art dealer and preacher, 1869 to 1878=== |
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In July 1869, at the age of fifteen, |
In July 1869, at the age of fifteen, Vincent obtained a position with the art dealer [[Goupil & Cie]] in [[The Hague]] through his Uncle Vincent ("Cent"), who had built up a good business which became a branch of the firm. After his training, Goupil transferred him to [[London]] in June 1873, where he lodged at 87 Hackford Road, [[Brixton]]<ref>{{cite web |
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| title =Hackford Road |
| title =Hackford Road |
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| url =http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/1/007.htm%20007 |
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| accessdate =2007-03-24}}</ref> This was a happy time for Vincent: he was successful at work, and was already, at the age of 20, earning more than his father.<ref>Theo's wife later remarked that this was the happiest year of Vincent's life. Wilkie, pages 34-36</ref> He fell in love with his landlady's daughter, Eugénie Loyer,<ref>Wilkie, pages 38 - 52</ref> |
| accessdate =2007-03-24}}</ref> This was a happy time for Vincent, and one of the few in his life: he was successful at work, and was already, at the age of 20, earning more than his father.<ref> Theo's wife later remarked that this was the happiest year of Vincent's life. Wilkie, pages 34-36</ref> He fell in love with his landlady's daughter, Eugénie Loyer,<ref>Wilkie, pages 38 - 52</ref>but when he finally confessed his feeling to her, she rejected him, saying that she was already secretly engaged to a previous lodger. Vincent became increasingly isolated and fervent about religion. His father and uncle sent him to Paris, where he became resentful at how art was treated as a commodity, and he manifested this to the customers. On [[1 April]] [[1876]], it was agreed that his employment should be terminated. |
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[[Image:Cuesmes JPG001.jpg|thumb|right|The house where Van Gogh stayed in Cuesmes in 1880; it was while living here that he decided to become an artist.]] |
[[Image:Cuesmes JPG001.jpg|thumb|right|The house where Van Gogh stayed in Cuesmes in 1880; it was while he was living here that he decided to become an artist.]] |
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His religious emotion grew to the point where he felt he had found his true vocation in life, and he returned to England to do unpaid work, first as a supply teacher in a small boarding school overlooking the harbour in [[Ramsgate]]; he made some sketches of the view. The proprietor of the school relocated to [[Isleworth]], [[Middlesex]]. Vincent decided to walk to the new location. |
His religious emotion grew to the point where he felt he had found his true vocation in life, and he returned to England to do unpaid work, first as a supply teacher in a small boarding school overlooking the harbour in [[Ramsgate]]; he made some sketches of the view. The proprietor of the school relocated to [[Isleworth]], [[Middlesex]]. Vincent decided to walk to the new location. But this new position did not work out, and Vincent became a nearby [[Methodism|Methodist]] minister's assistant in wanting to "preach the gospel everywhere." |
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At |
At Christmas that year he returned home, and then worked in a bookshop in [[Dordrecht]] for six months. But he was not happy in this new position, and he spent most of his time in the back of the shop either doodling, or translating passages from the [[Bible]] into English, French, and German.<ref name=callow54> Callow, page 54</ref> His roommate from this time, a young teacher called Görlitz, later recalled that Vincent ate frugally, preferring to eat no meat.<ref>See the recollections gathered in Dordrecht by [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/5/etc-94a.htm M. J. Brusse], Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant, May 26 and June 2, 1914.</ref><ref>"he would not eat meat, only a little morsel on Sundays, and then only after being urged by our landlady for a long time. Four potatoes with a suspicion of gravy and a mouthful of vegetables constituted his whole dinner"— from a letter to Frederik van Eeden, to help him with preparation for his article on Van Gogh in ''[[De Nieuwe Gids]]'' (issue 1 December, 1890), quoted in ''Van Gogh: A Self-Portrait; Letters Revealing His Life as a Painter,'' selected by [[W. H. Auden]], New York Graphic Society, Greenwich, CT. 1961. See pages 37 – 39.</ref> In an effort to support his wish to become a pastor, his family sent him to Amsterdam in May 1877 where he lived with his uncle Jan van Gogh, a rear admiral in the navy.<ref>Erickson page 23</ref> Vincent prepared for university, studying for the theology entrance exam with his uncle [[Johannes Stricker]], a respected theologian who published the first "Life of Jesus" available in the Netherlands. Vincent failed at his studies and had to abandon them. He left uncle Jan's house in July 1878. He then studied, but failed, a three-month course at the Protestant missionary school (''Vlaamsche Opleidingsschool'') in Laeken, near Brussels. |
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===Borinage and Brussels |
===Borinage and Brussels, 1879 to 1880=== |
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In January 1879 Van Gogh got a temporary post as a missionary in the village of [[Petit Wasmes]]<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/8/129.htm 129], April 1879, and Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/8/132.htm 132]. Van Gogh lodged in Wasmes, at 22 rue de Wilson, with Jean-Baptiste Denis, a breeder or grower ('cultivateur', in the French original) according to Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/18/553b.htm 553b]. In the recollections of his nephew Jean Richez, gathered by Wilkie (in the 1970s!), page 72-78, Denis and his wife Esther were running a bakery, and Richez admits that the only source of his knowledge is Aunt Esther.</ref> in the |
In January 1879 Van Gogh got a temporary post as a missionary in the village of [[Petit Wasmes]]<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/8/129.htm 129], April 1879, and Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/8/132.htm 132]. Van Gogh lodged in Wasmes, at 22 rue de Wilson, with Jean-Baptiste Denis, a breeder or grower ('cultivateur', in the French original) according to Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/18/553b.htm 553b]. In the recollections of his nephew Jean Richez, gathered by Wilkie (in the 1970s!), page 72-78, Denis and his wife Esther were running a bakery, and Richez admits that the only source of his knowledge is Aunt Esther.</ref> in the coal-mining district of [[Borinage]] in [[Belgium]], bringing his father's profession to people felt to be the most wretched and hopeless in Europe. Taking Christianity to what he saw as its logical conclusion, Vincent opted to live like those he preached to, sharing their hardships to the extent of sleeping on straw in a small hut at the back of the baker's house where he was billeted;<ref>Wilkie page 75</ref> the baker's wife used to hear Vincent sobbing all night in the little hut.<ref>Wilkie, page 77</ref> His choice of squalid living conditions did not endear him to the appalled church authorities, who dismissed him for "undermining the dignity of the priesthood." After this he walked to Brussels,<ref>Letter from mother to Theo, [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/8/etc-fam-1879.htm 7 August 1879] and Callow, work cited, page 72</ref> returned briefly to the Borinage, to the village of [[Cuesmes]], but acquiesced to pressure from his parents to come "home" to [[Etten-Leur|Etten]]. He stayed there until around March the following year,<ref>there are different views as to this period; Jan Hulsker in ''Vincent and Theo van Gogh, a dual biography,'' Fuller Publications, Ann Arbor, 1990. ISBN 0-940537-05-2 opts for a return to the Borinage and then back to Etten in this period; the forthcoming catalogue for the 2006 Budapest Van Gogh exhibition supports the line taken in this article</ref> to the increasing concern and frustration of his parents. There was considerable conflict between Vincent and his father, and his father made enquiries about having his son committed to a lunatic asylum<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/10/158.htm 158]</ref> at [[Geel]].<ref>see Jan Hulsker's speech ''The Borinage Episode and the Misrepresentation of Vincent van Gogh,'' Van Gogh Symposium, 10-11 May 1990, referenced in Erickson, pages 67-68</ref> This series of enquiries on his father's part marked the first known claim that Vincent-Willem Van Gogh might not have been sane. |
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In 1880, Vincent followed the suggestion of his brother Theo and took up art in earnest. In autumn 1880, he went to Brussels, intending to follow Theo's recommendation to study with the prominent Dutch artist [[Willem Roelofs]], who persuaded Van Gogh (despite his aversion to formal schools of art) to attend the Royal Academy of Art. There he not only studied anatomy, but the standard rules of modelling and perspective, all of which, he said, "you have to know just to be able to draw the least thing." Vincent wished to become an artist while in God's service as he stated, "to try to understand the real significance of what the great artists, the serious masters, tell us in their masterpieces, that leads to God; one man wrote or told it in a book; another in a picture."<ref>{{cite web |
Vincent fled back to Cuesmes where he lodged with a miner named Charles Decrucq,<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/8/134.htm 134], dated 20 August 1880 from Cuesmes; also Wilkie, page 79</ref> with whom he stayed until October. He became increasingly interested in the everyday people and scenes around him, which he recorded in drawings. In 1880, Vincent followed the suggestion of his brother Theo and took up art in earnest. In autumn 1880, he went to Brussels, intending to follow Theo's recommendation to study with the prominent Dutch artist [[Willem Roelofs]], who persuaded Van Gogh (despite his aversion to formal schools of art) to attend the Royal Academy of Art. There he not only studied anatomy, but the standard rules of modelling and perspective, all of which, he said, "you have to know just to be able to draw the least thing." Vincent wished to become an artist while in God's service as he stated, "to try to understand the real significance of what the great artists, the serious masters, tell us in their masterpieces, that leads to God; one man wrote or told it in a book; another in a picture."<ref>{{cite web |
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| title =Vincent Van Gogh biography |
| title =Vincent Van Gogh biography |
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===Etten |
===Etten, 1881=== |
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[[Image:Vincent Willem van Gogh 129.jpg|thumb|Still-Life, arranged by [[Anton Mauve]] and executed by |
[[Image:Vincent Willem van Gogh 129.jpg|thumb|Still-Life, arranged by [[Anton Mauve]] and executed by Vincent van Gogh, December 1881.]] |
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In April 1881, Van Gogh went to live in the countryside with his parents in Etten and continued drawing, using neighbours as subjects. Through the summer he spent much time walking and talking with his recently widowed cousin, Kee Vos-Stricker, the daughter of his mother's older sister and Johannes Stricker, who had shown real warmth towards his nephew.<ref name=erickson5>Erickson, page 5.</ref> Kee was seven years older than Vincent, and had an eight-year-old son. Vincent proposed marriage, but she flatly refused with the words: "No, never, never" ('' |
In April 1881, Van Gogh went to live in the countryside with his parents in Etten and continued drawing, using neighbours as subjects. Through the summer he spent much time walking and talking with his recently widowed cousin, Kee Vos-Stricker, the daughter of his mother's older sister and Johannes Stricker, who had shown real warmth towards his nephew.<ref name=erickson5>Erickson, page 5.</ref> Kee was seven years older than Vincent, and had an eight-year-old son. Vincent proposed marriage, but she flatly refused with the words: "No, never, never!" (The Dutch original is ''"Niet, nooit, nimmer!"'').<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/10/153.htm 153] to Theo dated 3 November 1881</ref> At the end of November he wrote a strong letter to Uncle Stricker,<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/10/161.htm 161] to Theo 23 November 1881</ref> and then, very soon after, hurried to Amsterdam where he talked with Stricker again on several occasions,<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/10/164.htm 164] from Etten c.21 December 1881, describing the visit in more detail</ref> but Kee refused to see him at all. Her parents told him, "Your persistence is disgusting!"<ref name="Letter193">Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/11/193.htm 193] from Vincent to Theo, The Hague, 14 May 1882</ref> In desperation he held his left hand in the flame of a lamp, saying, "Let me see her for as long as I can keep my hand in the flame."<ref name="Letter193"/> He did not clearly recall what happened next, but assumed that his uncle blew out the flame. Her father, "Uncle Stricker," as Vincent refers to him in letters to Theo, made it clear that there was no question of Vincent and Kee marrying, given Vincent's inability to support himself financially.<ref name=Gayford130> Gayford, work cited, pages 130 – 131</ref> What he saw as the hypocrisy of his uncle and former tutor affected Vincent deeply. At Christmas he quarreled violently with his father, even refusing a gift of money, and immediately left for The Hague.<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/11/166.htm 166], </ref> |
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===Drenthe and The Hague |
===Drenthe and The Hague, 1881 to 1883=== |
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In January 1882 he settled in The Hague, where he called on his cousin-in-law, the painter [[Anton Mauve]], who encouraged him towards painting. He soon fell out with Mauve, however, perhaps over the issue of drawing from plaster casts; but Mauve appeared to go suddenly cold towards |
In January 1882 he settled in The Hague, where he called on his cousin-in-law, the painter [[Anton Mauve]], who encouraged him towards painting. He soon fell out with Mauve, however, perhaps over the issue of drawing from plaster casts; but Mauve appeared to go suddenly cold towards van Gogh, refusing to return a couple of his letters. Van Gogh guessed that Mauve had learned of his new domestic relationship with an alcoholic prostitute by the name of Clasina Maria Hoornik (born February 1850, The Hague;<ref>Callow, page 116, citing the work of Hulsker</ref> she was known as Sien) and her young daughter.<ref>Callow pages 123 - 124</ref> Van Gogh had met Sien towards the end of January.<ref>Callow page 117</ref> Sien had a five year-old daughter, and was pregnant. She had already had two other children who had died, although van Gogh was unaware of this.<ref>Callow, page 116, citing the research of [[Jan Hulsker]]; the two dead children were born in 1874 and 1879.</ref> On 2 July, Sien gave birth to a baby boy, Willem.<ref>Wilkie, page 176. Forceps were used in the birth. Baby Willem was 3.42 kg and 53 cm at birth, suggesting conception occurred late August or early September 1881 ... see Wilkie page 201. Van Gogh had visited The Hague briefly 23 – 26 August where he visited [[Anton Mauve]] and viewed the [[Panorama Mesdag]]</ref> When his father discovered the details of this relationship, considerable pressure was put on van Gogh<ref>Callow, page 132</ref> to abandon Sien and her children. van Gogh was at first defiant in the face of his family's opposition. |
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[[Image:Vincent Willem van Gogh 016.jpg|thumb|left|Vincent van Gogh: View from his atelier in The Hague, watercolour]] |
[[Image:Vincent Willem van Gogh 016.jpg|thumb|left|Vincent van Gogh: View from his atelier in The Hague, watercolour]] |
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His uncle Cornelis, an art dealer, commissioned 20 ink drawings of the city from him; they were completed by the end of May.<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/11/203.htm 203], 30 May 1882 (postcard written in English) </ref> In June |
His uncle Cornelis, an art dealer, commissioned 20 ink drawings of the city from him; they were completed by the end of May.<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/11/203.htm 203], 30 May 1882 (postcard written in English) </ref> In June, van Gogh spent three weeks in hospital suffering [[gonorrhoea]], a venereal disease that was much feared at the time.<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/11/206.htm 206]8 or 9 June 1882</ref> In the summer, he began to paint in oil. |
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In autumn 1883, after a year with Sien, he abandoned her and the two children. |
In autumn 1883, after a year with Sien, he abandoned her and the two children. Van Gogh had thought of moving the family away from the city, but in the end he made the break.<ref>Arnold, page 38</ref> It is possible that lack of money had pushed Sien back to prostitution; the home had become a less happy one, and van Gogh may have felt family life was irreconcilable with his artistic development. When van Gogh left, Sien gave her daughter to her mother, and baby Willem to her brother, and moved to Delft and then Antwerp.<ref name="Wilkiepg183">Wilkie, page 183</ref> Willem remembered being taken to visit his mother in Rotterdam at around the age of 12, where his uncle tried to persuade Sien to marry in order to legitimize the child. Willem remembered his mother saying: "But I know who the father is. He was an artist I lived with nearly 20 years ago in The Hague. His name was Van Gogh." She then turned to Willem and said, "You are called after him."<ref>Wilkie, page 185</ref> Willem believed himself to be Van Gogh's son, but the timing of the birth makes this unlikely.<ref>Wilkie, page 201</ref> In 1904 Sien drowned herself in the river [[Scheldt]].<ref name="Wilkiepg183"/> |
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Van Gogh moved to the Dutch province of [[Drenthe]] in the north of the Netherlands, and in December, driven by loneliness, to stay with his parents who were by then living in [[Nuenen]], [[North Brabant]], also in the Netherlands. |
Van Gogh moved to the Dutch province of [[Drenthe]] in the north of the Netherlands, and in December, driven by loneliness, to stay with his parents who were by then living in [[Nuenen]], [[North Brabant]], also in the Netherlands. |
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===Nuenen |
===Nuenen, 1883 to 1885=== |
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[[Image:Vincent Van Gogh - The Potato Eaters.png|thumb|''[[The Potato Eaters]]'' |
[[Image:Vincent Van Gogh - The Potato Eaters.png|thumb|''[[The Potato Eaters]]'', whose Dutch title is ''De Aardappeleters'', painted 1885.]] |
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In [[Nuenen]], he devoted himself to drawing, paying boys to bring him birds' nests<ref>Johannes de Looyer, Karel van Engeland, Hendricus Dekkers, and Piet van Hoorn all as old men recalled being paid 5, 10 or 50 cents per nest, depending on the type of bird. See Wilkie, pages 25-26, and |
In [[Nuenen]], he devoted himself to drawing, paying boys to bring him birds' nests<ref>Johannes de Looyer, Karel van Engeland, Hendricus Dekkers, and Piet van Hoorn all as old men recalled being paid 5, 10 or 50 cents per nest, depending on the type of bird. See Wilkie, pages 25-26, and Theo's son's [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/15/etc-435a.htm note]</ref> and rapidly<ref> Vincent's nephew [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/15/etc-435a.htm noted] some reminiscences of local residents in 1949, including the description of the speed of his drawing</ref> sketching the weavers in their cottages. In autumn 1884, a neighbour's daughter, Margot Begemann, ten years older than Vincent, accompanied him constantly on his painting forays and fell in love, which he reciprocated (though less enthusiastically). They agreed to marry, but were opposed by both families. Margot tried to kill herself with [[strychnine]] and Vincent rushed her to the hospital.<ref>Wilkie, page 82</ref> |
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On [[26 March]] [[1885]], Van Gogh's father died of a stroke. Van Gogh grieved deeply. For the first time there was interest from Paris in some of his work. In spring he painted what is now considered his first major work, ''[[The Potato Eaters]]'' |
On [[26 March]] [[1885]], Van Gogh's father died of a stroke. Van Gogh grieved deeply. For the first time in his life, there was interest from Paris in some of his work. In spring he painted what is now considered his first major work, ''[[The Potato Eaters]]'', which in Dutch is ''De Aardappeleters''. In August his work was exhibited for the first time, in the windows of a paint dealer, Leurs, in The Hague. In September he was accused of making one of his young peasant sitters pregnant,<ref>the girl was Gordina de Groot, who died in 1927; she claimed the father was not Van Gogh, but a relative; see Wilkie page 26</ref> and the Catholic village priest forbade villagers from modelling for him. |
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During his time in Nuenen Van Gogh's palette was of sombre earth tones, particularly dark brown, and he showed no sign of developing the vivid colouration that distinguishes his later, best known work. (When Vincent complained that Theo was not making enough effort to sell his paintings in Paris, Theo replied that they were too dark and not in line with the current style of bright Impressionist paintings.) During his two-year stay in Nuenen, he completed numerous drawings and watercolours, and nearly 200 oil paintings. |
During his time in Nuenen, Van Gogh's palette was one of sombre earth tones, particularly dark brown, and he showed no sign of developing the vivid colouration that distinguishes his later, best known work. (When Vincent complained that Theo was not making enough effort to sell his paintings in Paris, Theo replied that they were too dark and not in line with the current style of bright Impressionist paintings.) During his two-year stay in Nuenen, he completed numerous drawings and watercolours, and nearly 200 oil paintings. |
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===Antwerpen |
===Antwerpen, 1885 and 1886=== |
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[[Image:Skull with a Burning Cigarette.jpg|thumb|150px|left|''Skull |
[[Image:Skull with a Burning Cigarette.jpg|thumb|150px|left|''Skull With A Burning Cigarette '', oil on canvas, 1885.]] |
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In November 1885 |
In November of 1885, Van Gogh moved to [[Antwerpen]] and rented a small room above a paint dealer's shop in the Rue des Images.<ref name=callow181>Callow, page 181</ref> He had little money and ate poorly, preferring to spend what money his brother Theo sent to him on painting materials and models. Bread, coffee, and tobacco were his staple intake. In February of 1886, he wrote to Theo saying that he could only remember eating six hot meals since May of the previous year. His teeth loosened and caused him much pain.<ref name=callow184>Callow, page 184</ref> While in Antwerpen, he applied himself to the study of colour theory and spent time looking at work in museums, particularly the work of [[Peter Paul Rubens]], gaining encouragement to broaden his palette to [[carmine]], [[cobalt blue|cobalt]] and [[emerald green]]. He also bought some Japanese [[Ukiyo-e]] woodcuts in the docklands, which he imitated and incorporated into the background of some of his paintings.<ref name=hammacher84>Hammacher, page 84</ref> It was while he was living in Antwerpen that Vincent began to drink [[absinthe]] heavily.<ref name=callow253>Callow, page 253</ref> He was treated by Dr Cavenaile whose surgery was near the docklands,<ref>Vincent's doctor was Hubertus Amadeus Cavenaile; Wilkie, pages 143-146</ref> possibly for [[syphilis]];<ref>Arnold, page 77. The evidence for syphilis is thin, coming solely from interviews with the grandson of the doctor; see Tralbaut, M. E. ''Vincent van Gogh,'' New York, The Alpine Fine Arts Collection, 1981, pages 177-178, and Wilkie, pages 143-146</ref> the treatment of alum irrigations and sitz baths was jotted down by Vincent in one of his notebooks.<ref>van der Wolk, J. ''The Seven Sketchbooks of Vincent van Gogh: a facsimile edition,'' Harry Abrams Inc, New York, 1987, pages 104-105</ref> |
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In January 1886 he matriculated at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Antwerpen, studying painting and drawing. Despite disagreements over his rejection of academic teaching, he nevertheless took the higher-level admission exams. For most of February |
In January of 1886, he matriculated at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Antwerpen, studying painting and drawing. Despite disagreements over his rejection of academic teaching, he nevertheless took the higher-level admission exams. For most of the month of February Van Gogh was ill, run down by overwork, a poor diet, and his excessive smoking. |
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===Paris |
===Paris, 1886 to 1888=== |
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[[Image:Paris rue lepic 54.jpg|thumb|right|54, Rue Lepic, |
[[Image:Paris rue lepic 54.jpg|thumb|right|54, Rue Lepic, Paris, Seine Department, Republique du France.]] |
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In March 1886 |
In March of 1886, Van Gogh moved to Paris to study at [[Fernand Cormon]]'s studio, and in May of 1886 his mother and sister Wil moved to [[Breda]].<ref>70 of Van Gogh's abandoned paintings were bought by a junk dealer, who burned some of them and sold others at very low prices.</ref> The brothers first shared Theo's Rue Laval apartment on [[Montmartre]]. In June, they took a larger flat at 54 Rue Lepic, further uphill. As there was no longer the need to communicate by letters, less is known about Van Gogh's time in Paris than earlier or later periods of his life. For some months he worked at Cormon's studio where he frequented the circle of the British-Australian artist [[John Peter Russell]], and met fellow students like [[Émile Bernard]] and [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]], who used to meet at the paint store run by Julien "Père" Tanguy, which was at that time the only place to view works by [[Paul Cézanne]]. |
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For some months Vincent worked at Cormon's studio where he frequented the circle of the British-Australian artist [[John Peter Russell]], and met fellow students like [[Émile Bernard]] and [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]], who used to meet at the paint store run by Julien "Père" Tanguy, which was at that time the only place to view works by [[Paul Cézanne]]. |
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⚫ | It was not difficult to see and study Impressionist works in Paris at this time. In 1886, for example, two large vanguard exhibitions were staged, the 8th and final exhibition of the Impressionists and an exhibition of the Artistes Indépendants. In these shows Neo-Impressionism made its first appearance; works of [[Georges Seurat]], the master of the [[pointillism|pointillist]] style, and [[Paul Signac]] were the talk of the town. Though Theo, too, kept a stock of [[Impressionism|Impressionist]] paintings in his gallery on Boulevard Montmarte, by artists including [[Claude Monet]], [[Alfred Sisley]], [[Edgar Degas]] and [[Camille Pissarro]], Vincent evidently had problems acknowledging these recent ways to see and paint. Conflicts arose, and at the turn of 1886 to 1887 Theo found shared life with Vincent "almost unbearable," but in the spring of 1887 they made peace. Then Vincent set out for a campaign in Asnières, where he became personally acquainted with [[Paul Signac]]. Vincent and his friend Emile Bernard, who lived with parents in Asnières, adopted elements of the [[pointillism|"pointillé"]], or pointillism, style, where many small dots are applied to the canvas, resulting in an optical blend of hues, when seen from a distance. The theory behind this also stresses the value of [[complementary colour]]s in proximity—for example, blue and orange—as such pairings enhance the brilliance of each colour by a physical effect (known as optical mixing) on the receptors in the eye. |
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⚫ | In November of 1887, Theo and Vincent met and befriended [[Paul Gauguin]], who was newly arrived in Paris.<ref>D. Druick & P. Zegers, ''Van Gogh and Gauguin: The Studio of the South,'' Thames & Hudson, 2001, page 81; Gayford, work cited, page 50</ref> Towards the end of the year, Vincent arranged an exhibition of paintings by himself, Bernard, Anquetin and (probably) Toulouse-Lautrec in the ''Restaurant du Chalet'', on Montmartre. There, Bernard and Anquetin sold their first painting, and Vincent exchanged work with Gauguin, who soon departed to [[Pont-Aven]]. But the discussions on art, artists and their social situation started during this exhibition continued, and expanded to visitors of the show like Pissarro and his son, Signac and Seurat. |
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⚫ | It was not difficult to see and study Impressionist works in Paris at this time. In 1886, for example, two large vanguard exhibitions were staged, the 8th and final exhibition of the Impressionists and an exhibition of the Artistes Indépendants. In these shows Neo-Impressionism made its first appearance; works of [[Georges Seurat]] and [[Paul Signac]] were the talk of the town. Though Theo, too, kept a stock of [[Impressionism|Impressionist]] paintings in his gallery on Boulevard Montmarte, by artists including [[Claude Monet]], [[Alfred Sisley]], [[Edgar Degas]] and [[Camille Pissarro]], Vincent evidently had problems acknowledging these recent ways to see and paint. Conflicts arose, and at the turn of 1886 to 1887 Theo found shared life with Vincent "almost unbearable," but in spring 1887 they made peace. Then Vincent set out for a campaign in Asnières, where he became personally acquainted with [[Paul Signac]]. Vincent and his friend Emile Bernard, who lived with parents in Asnières, adopted elements of the [[pointillism|"pointillé"]] |
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⚫ | Finally in February of 1888, when Van Gogh felt worn out from life in Paris, he left the city, having painted over 200 paintings during his two years there. Only hours before his departure, accompanied by Theo, he paid his first and only visit to Seurat in his atelier.<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/18/510.htm 510], Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/18/544a.htm 544a]</ref> |
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⚫ | In November 1887, Theo and Vincent met and befriended [[Paul Gauguin]], who |
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⚫ | Finally in February 1888, when |
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⚫ | Van Gogh arrived on [[21 February]], [[1888]], at the railroad station in [[Arles]], crossed Place Lamartine, entered the city through the Porte de la Cavalerie, and took quarters a few steps further, at the ''Hôtel-Restaurant Carrel'', 30 Rue Cavalerie. He had ideas of founding a [[Utopia]]n art colony. His companion for two months was the Danish artist, Christian Mourier-Petersen. In March, he painted local landscapes, using a gridded "perspective frame." Three of his pictures were shown at the annual exhibition of the [[Société des Artistes Indépendants]]. In April, he was visited by the American painter, [[Dodge MacKnight]], who was then resident in [[Fontvieille, Bouches-du-Rhône|Fontvieille]] nearby. |
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⚫ | Van Gogh arrived on [[21 February]] [[1888]], at the railroad station in [[Arles]], crossed Place Lamartine, entered the city through the Porte de la Cavalerie, and took quarters a few steps further, at the ''Hôtel-Restaurant Carrel'', 30 Rue Cavalerie. He had ideas of founding a [[Utopia]]n art colony. His companion for two months was the Danish artist, Christian Mourier-Petersen. In March, he painted local landscapes, using a gridded "perspective frame." Three of his pictures were shown at the annual exhibition of the [[Société des Artistes Indépendants]]. In April he was visited by the American painter, [[Dodge MacKnight]], who was resident in [[Fontvieille, Bouches-du-Rhône|Fontvieille]] nearby. |
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⚫ | On 1 May, Van Gogh signed a lease, for 15 francs a month, to rent the four rooms in the right hand side of the "[[Yellow House (Arles)|Yellow House]]," so called because its outside walls were yellow in colour, at No. 2 Place Lamartine. The house was unfurnished, and it had been uninhabited for some time, so Van Gogh was not able to move in immediately. He had been staying at the Hôtel Restaurant Carrel in the Rue de la Cavalerie, just inside the medieval gate to the city, with the old Roman Arena in view. The rate charged by the hotel was 5 francs a week, which Van Gogh regarded as excessive. He disputed the price, and took the case to the local arbitrator, who awarded him a twelve franc reduction on his total bill.<ref>Alfred Nemeczek, ''Van Gogh in Arles,'' Prestel Verlag, 1999, ISBN 3-7913-2230-3, pages 59 – 61.</ref> On 7 May, Van Gogh moved out of the Hôtel Carrel, and moved into the Café de la Gare.<ref>Gayford, ''The Yellow House,'' page 16</ref> He became friends with the proprietors, Joseph and Marie Ginoux. Although the Yellow House had to be furnished before he could fully move in, Van Gogh was able to use it as a studio.<ref name=callow219>Callow, p 219</ref> His major project at this time was a series of paintings intended to form the [[The Décoration for the Yellow House|''"Décoration'' For The Yellow House]]." |
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⚫ | In June, he visited [[Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer]]. He gave drawing lessons to a [[Zouave]] second lieutenant, [[Portrait of Paul-Eugène Milliet|Paul-Eugène Milliet]], who also became a companion. MacKnight introduced him to [[Eugène Boch]], a Belgian painter, who stayed at times in Fontvieille (they exchanged visits in July). Gauguin agreed to join him in Arles. In August he painted sunflowers; Boch visited again. On 8 September, upon advice from his friend the station's postal supervisor [[The Roulin Family|Joseph Roulin]], he bought two beds,<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/18/534.htm 534]; Gayford, page 18</ref> and he finally spent the first night in the still sparsely furnished Yellow House on 17 September.<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/18/537.htm 537]; Nemeczek, page 61</ref> |
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⚫ | On |
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⚫ | [[Image:red vineyards.jpg|thumb|left|''[[The Red Vineyard]]'', painted in November of 1888, exhibited at the [[Pushkin Museum]], [[Moscow]]. Sold to [[Anna Boch]], 1890.]] On 23 October, Gauguin eventually arrived in Arles, after repeated requests from Van Gogh. During November they painted together. Uncharacteristically, Van Gogh painted some pictures from memory, deferring to Gauguin's ideas in this. Their first joint outdoor painting exercise was conducted at the picturesque [[Alyscamps]].<ref>Martin Gayford, ''The Yellow House: Van Gogh, Gauguin, and Nine Turbulent Weeks in Arles,'' Fig Tree, Penguin, 2006. ISBN 0-670-91497-5. See page 61</ref> It was in November that Van Gogh painted ''[[The Red Vineyard]]'', the only painting he is known to have sold during his lifetime. |
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In June he visited [[Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer]]. He gave drawing lessons to a [[Zouave]] second lieutenant, [[Portrait of Paul-Eugène Milliet|Paul-Eugène Milliet]], who also became a companion. MacKnight introduced him to [[Eugène Boch]], a Belgian painter, who stayed at times in Fontvieille (they exchanged visits in July). Gauguin agreed to join him in Arles. In August he painted [[sunflower]]s; Boch visited again. |
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⚫ | In December the two artists visited [[Montpellier]] and viewed works by [[Gustave Courbet|Courbet]] and [[Eugene Delacroix|Delacroix]] in the Museé Fabre. However, their relationship was deteriorating badly. They quarrelled fiercely about art. Van Gogh felt an increasing fear that Gauguin was going to desert him, and what he described as a situation of "excessive tension" reached a crisis point on [[23 December]], [[1888]], when Van Gogh allegedly stalked Gauguin with a razor and then instead cut off the lower part of his own left ear, which he wrapped in newspaper and gave to a prostitute named Rachel in the local brothel, asking her to "keep this object carefully."<ref> According to Doiteau & Leroy, the diagonal cut removed the lobe and probably a little more. </ref> Gauguin left Arles and did not see Van Gogh again. Van Gogh was hospitalised and in a critical state for a few days. He was immediately visited by Theo (whom Gauguin had notified), as well as Madame Ginoux and frequently by Roulin. In January of 1889, Van Gogh returned to the "Yellow House", but spent the following month between hospital and home, diagnosed as suffering from hallucinations and paranoia that he was being poisoned. In March the police closed his house, after a petition by thirty townspeople, who called him ''fou roux'' ("the redheaded madman"). Signac visited him in hospital, and Van Gogh was allowed home in his company. In April he moved into rooms owned by Dr. Rey, after floods damaged paintings in his own home. On 17 April Theo married Johanna Bonger in Amsterdam. |
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[[Image:red vineyards.jpg|thumb|left|''[[The Red Vineyard]]'' (November 1888), [[Pushkin Museum]], [[Moscow]]). Sold to [[Anna Boch]], 1890.]] |
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⚫ | On [[8 May]], [[1889]], Van Gogh, accompanied by a caretaker, the Reverend Salles, committed himself to the mental hospital of Saint-Paul-de-Mausole in a former monastery in [[Saint Rémy de Provence]], a little less than 20 miles from Arles. The monastery was a mile and a half out of the town and was in an area of cornfields, vineyards, and olive trees. The hospital was run by a former naval doctor, Dr. [[Théophile Peyron]], who had no specialist qualifications. Theo van Gogh arranged for his brother to have two small rooms, one for use as a studio, although in reality they were simply adjoining cells with barred windows.<ref name=callow246>Callow, page 246</ref> During his stay there, the clinic and its garden became his main subject. At this time some of his work was characterised by swirls, as in one of his best-known paintings ''[[The Starry Night]]''. He took some short supervised walks, which gave rise to images of [[Cupressus|cypresses]] and [[olive]] trees. But because of the shortage of subject matter due to his limited access to the outside world, he painted interpretations of Millet's paintings, as well as his own earlier work. In September of 1889, he painted two new versions of the ''[[Bedroom in Arles]]'', and in February of 1890, he painted four portraits of ''[[L'Arlésienne (painting)|L'Arlésienne]] (Madame Ginoux)'', based directly on a charcoal sketch Gauguin had produced when Madame Ginoux had sat for both artists at the beginning of November 1888.<ref> One of these four portraits sold at auction in May 2006 for more than $40 million.</ref> |
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⚫ | In January of 1890, his work was praised by [[Albert Aurier]] in the ''[[Mercure de France]]'', and he was called a genius. In February, invited by [[Les XX]], a society of avant-garde painters in Brussels, he participated in their [[Vincent van Gogh's display at Les XX, 1890|annual exhibition]]. When, at the opening dinner, Henry de Groux, a member of Les XX, insulted Van Gogh's works, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec demanded satisfaction, and Signac declared, he would continue to fight for Van Gogh's honour, if Toulouse-Lautrec should be surrendered. Later, when Van Gogh's exhibit was on display with the Artistes Indépendants in Paris, Monet said that his work was the best in the show.<ref>John Rewald, ''Post-Impressionism'', revised edition: Secker & Warburg, London England. 1978, p. 346-347 and 348-350</ref> |
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⚫ | In December the two artists visited [[Montpellier]] and viewed works by [[Gustave Courbet|Courbet]] and [[Eugene Delacroix|Delacroix]] in the Museé Fabre. However, their relationship was deteriorating badly. They quarrelled fiercely about art. Van Gogh felt an increasing fear that Gauguin was going to desert him, and what he described as a situation of "excessive tension" reached a crisis point on [[23 December]] [[1888]], when Van Gogh stalked Gauguin with a razor and then cut off the lower part of his own left ear, which he wrapped in newspaper and gave to a prostitute named Rachel in the local brothel, asking her to "keep this object carefully."<ref>According to Doiteau & Leroy, the diagonal cut removed the lobe and probably a little more.</ref> Gauguin left Arles and did not see Van Gogh again. Van Gogh was hospitalised and in a critical state for a few days. He was immediately visited by Theo (whom Gauguin had notified), as well as Madame Ginoux and frequently by Roulin. |
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In January 1889 Van Gogh returned to the "Yellow House", but spent the following month between hospital and home, suffering from hallucinations and paranoia that he was being poisoned. In March the police closed his house, after a petition by thirty townspeople, who called him ''fou roux'' ("the redheaded madman"). Signac visited him in hospital and Van Gogh was allowed home in his company. In April he moved into rooms owned by Dr. Rey, after floods damaged paintings in his own home. On [[17 April]] Theo married Johanna Bonger in Amsterdam. |
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⚫ | On [[8 May]] [[1889]] Van Gogh, accompanied by a |
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⚫ | In January 1890, his work was praised by [[Albert Aurier]] in the ''[[Mercure de France]]'', and he was called a genius. In February, invited by [[Les XX]], a society of avant-garde painters in Brussels, he participated in their [[Vincent van Gogh's display at Les XX, 1890|annual exhibition]]. When, at the opening dinner, Henry de Groux, a member of Les XX, insulted Van Gogh's works, Toulouse-Lautrec demanded satisfaction, and Signac declared, he would continue to fight for Van Gogh's honour, if Lautrec should be surrendered. Later, when Van Gogh's exhibit was on display with the Artistes Indépendants in Paris, Monet said that his work was the best in the show.<ref>John Rewald, ''Post-Impressionism'', revised edition: Secker & Warburg, London England. 1978, p. 346-347 and 348-350</ref> |
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[[Image:Auberge ravoux auvers-sur-oise.jpg|150px|thumb|right|L’''Auberge Ravoux'', in Auvers-sur-Oise, where Vincent Van Gogh spent his final months and where he died. It is now a restaurant.]] |
[[Image:Auberge ravoux auvers-sur-oise.jpg|150px|thumb|right|L’''Auberge Ravoux'', in Auvers-sur-Oise, where Vincent Van Gogh spent his final months and where he died. It is now a restaurant.]] |
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[[Image:Van Goghs Final View - Window by Attic Room Deathbed.jpg|150px|thumb|right| |
[[Image:Van Goghs Final View - Window by Attic Room Deathbed.jpg|150px|thumb|right| This is believed to have been Van Gogh's final view of the outside world, looking through a window at the Auberge Ravoux.]] |
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In May 1890, Van Gogh left the clinic and went to the physician Dr. [[Paul Gachet]], in Auvers-sur-Oise near Paris, where he was closer to his brother Theo. Dr. Gachet had been recommended to him by Pissarro, as he had previously treated several artists and was an amateur artist himself. Van Gogh's first impression was that Gachet was "sicker than I am, I think, or shall we say just as much."<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/21/648.htm 648]</ref> Later Van Gogh did two portraits of Gachet in oils, as well as a third—his only etching, and in all three emphasis is on Gachet's melancholic disposition. |
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In his last weeks at Saint-Rémy Van Gogh's thoughts had been returning to his "memories of the North",<ref>[http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/20/629.htm Letter 629] 30 April 1890</ref> and several of the approximately 70 oils he painted during his 70 days in Auvers-sur-Oise |
In May of 1890, Van Gogh left the clinic and went to the physician Dr. [[Paul Gachet]], in Auvers-sur-Oise near Paris, where he was closer to his brother Theo. Dr. Gachet had been recommended to him by Pissarro, as he had previously treated several artists, and was an amateur artist himself. Van Gogh's first impression was that Gachet was "sicker than I am, I think, or shall we say just as much."<ref>Letter [http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/21/648.htm 648]</ref> Later Van Gogh did two portraits of Gachet in oils, as well as a third; this last was his only known etching. In all three portraits, emphasis is on Gachet's melancholic disposition. In his last weeks at Saint-Rémy, Van Gogh's thoughts had been returning to his "memories of the North",<ref>[http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/20/629.htm Letter 629] 30 April 1890</ref> and several of the approximately 70 oils he painted during his 70 days in Auvers-sur-Oise--such as ''[[The Church at Auvers]]''--are reminiscent of northern scenes. |
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''[[Wheat Field with Crows]]'' |
''[[Wheat Field with Crows]]''--an example of the unusual [[Double-squares and Squares|double square]] canvas-size he used in the last weeks of his life--with its turbulent intensity, is often, but mistakenly, thought to be Van Gogh's last work; Jan Hulsker lists seven paintings after it. ''[[:commons:Image:Vincent Willem van Gogh 021.jpg|Daubigny's Garden]]'' is a more likely candidate. There are also seemingly unfinished paintings, such as ''[[Thatched Cottages by a Hill]].'' |
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Van Gogh's |
Van Gogh's depression deepened, and on [[27 July]], [[1890]], at the age of 37, he walked into the fields with his art supplies. He was carrying a revolver. Whatever else may be thought about his motives, what he did next is usually recognised as a deliberate choice on his part. He shot himself in the chest with the gun. Without fully realizing that he was fatally wounded, he returned to the [[Portrait of Adeline Ravoux|Ravoux]] Inn. There, he died in his bed two days later, on [[29 July]], [[1890]]. Theo hastened to be at his side and reported his last words as, "''La tristesse durera toujours,''" which is French for "The sadness will last forever." Vincent was buried at the cemetery of [[Auvers-sur-Oise]].<ref>{{cite web |
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| title =Vincent van Gogh study guide |
| title =Vincent van Gogh study guide |
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Theo had contracted syphilis (though this was not admitted by the family for many years) and, not long after Vincent's death, was himself admitted to hospital. He |
Theo had contracted syphilis (though this was not admitted by the family for many years) and, not long after Vincent's death, was himself admitted to hospital. He never succeeded in coming to terms with the grief of his brother's absence, and died six months later, on [[25 January]], at [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]]. In 1914 Theo's body was exhumed and re-buried beside Vincent. |
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==Medical records== |
==Medical records== |
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[[Image:Grave of Vincent van Gogh.jpg|thumb|right|Vincent and Theo van Gogh's graves at the cemetery of [[Auvers-sur-Oise]].]] |
[[Image:Grave of Vincent van Gogh.jpg|thumb|right|Vincent and Theo van Gogh's graves at the cemetery of [[Auvers-sur-Oise]].]] |
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{{main|Vincent van Gogh's medical condition}} |
{{main|Vincent van Gogh's medical condition}} |
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| accessdate =2007-03-25 }}</ref> Mental problems afflicted him, particularly in the last few years of his life. During some of these periods he did not |
| accessdate =2007-03-25 }}</ref> Mental problems afflicted him, particularly in the last few years of his life. During some of these periods, he either did not, or was not allowed to, paint. There has been much debate over the years as to the source of Van Gogh's mental illness and its effect on his work. Over 150 psychiatrists have attempted to label his illness, and some 30 different diagnoses have been suggested.<ref name="Blumer">Blumer, Dietrich (2002)[http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/159/4/519 "The Illness of Vincent van Gogh"] ''American Journal of Psychiatry''</ref> |
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[[Image:Van Gogh - Still Life with Absinthe.jpg|thumb|left|150px|''Still Life with Absinthe'' (1887)]] |
[[Image:Van Gogh - Still Life with Absinthe.jpg|thumb|left|150px|''Still Life with Absinthe'' (1887)]] |
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Diagnoses which have been |
Diagnoses which have been advanced include [[schizophrenia]], [[bipolar disorder]], [[syphilis]], poisoning from swallowed paints, [[temporal lobe epilepsy]] and [[acute intermittent porphyria]]. Any of these could have been the culprit, and might have been aggravated by [[malnutrition]], overwork, [[insomnia]], and Van Gogh's fondness for alcohol, and [[absinthe]] in particular. |
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Medical theories have even been proposed to explain Van Gogh's use of the colour yellow. One theory holds that Van Gogh's colour vision might have been affected by his love of [[absinthe]], a liquor that contains a neurotoxin called [[thujone]]. High doses of thujone can cause [[xanthopsia]]: seeing objects in yellow. However, a 1991 study indicated that an absinthe drinker would become unconscious from the alcohol content long before consuming enough [[thujone]] to develop yellow vision. Another theory suggests that Dr. Gachet might have prescribed [[digitalis]] to Van Gogh as a treatment for epilepsy. There is no direct evidence that he ever took digitalis, but he did paint Gachet with some cut flower stalks of [[Common Foxglove]], the plant from which the drug is derived. Those who take large doses of digitalis often report yellow-tinted vision or yellow spots surrounded by coronas (like those in the ''The Starry Night'') and changes in overall colour perception.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Wolf | first = Paul | title = Creativity and chronic disease Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) | journal = Western Journal of Medicine | volume = 175 | issue = 5 | pages = 348 | date = November 2001 | url = http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1071623 | accessdate = 2006-10-07}}</ref> |
Medical theories have even been proposed to explain Van Gogh's use of the colour yellow. One theory holds that Van Gogh's colour vision might have been affected by his love of [[absinthe]], a liquor that contains a neurotoxin called [[thujone]]. High doses of thujone can cause [[xanthopsia]]: seeing objects in yellow. However, a 1991 study indicated that an absinthe drinker would become unconscious from the alcohol content long before consuming enough [[thujone]] to develop yellow vision. Another theory suggests that Dr. Gachet might have prescribed [[digitalis]] to Van Gogh as a treatment for epilepsy. There is no direct evidence that he ever took digitalis, but he did paint Gachet with some cut flower stalks of [[Common Foxglove]], the plant from which the drug is derived. Those who take large doses of digitalis often report yellow-tinted vision or yellow spots surrounded by coronas (like those in the ''The Starry Night'') and changes in overall colour perception.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Wolf | first = Paul | title = Creativity and chronic disease Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) | journal = Western Journal of Medicine | volume = 175 | issue = 5 | pages = 348 | date = November 2001 | url = http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1071623 | accessdate = 2006-10-07}}</ref> |
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It has also been suggested that Van Gogh suffered from the brain disorder, [[Hypergraphia]]. The disorder causes a near constant overwhelming urge to write and is associated with epilepsy or mania.<ref name="Hypermania">{{cite web |url=http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/01.29/01-creativity.html |author=William J. Cromie |title=The brains behind writer's block |publisher= Harvard Gazette |date=2004-01-29}}</ref> |
It has also been suggested that Van Gogh suffered from the brain disorder, [[Hypergraphia]]. The disorder causes a near constant overwhelming urge to write and is associated with epilepsy or mania.<ref name="Hypermania">{{cite web |url=http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/01.29/01-creativity.html |author=William J. Cromie |title=The brains behind writer's block |publisher= Harvard Gazette |date=2004-01-29}}</ref> |
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==Works== |
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Van Gogh drew and painted water-colours while he went to school, though very few of these works survive, and his authorship is challenged for many claimed to be from this period. |
Van Gogh drew and painted water-colours while he went to school, though very few of these works survive, and his authorship is challenged for many claimed to be from this period. When he committed himself to art as an adult in 1880, he started at the elementary level by copying the "Cours de dessin," edited by [[Charles Bargue]] and published by [[Goupil & Cie]]. Within his first two years, he began to seek commissions, and in spring 1882, his uncle, Cornelis Marinus, owner of a renowned gallery of contemporary art in Amsterdam, asked him to provide drawings of the Hague; Van Gogh's work did not prove up to his uncle's expectations. Despite this, Uncle Cor (or "C.M. " as he was referred to by his nephews) offered a second commission, specifying the subject matter in detail, but he was once again disappointed with the result. |
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⚫ | Nevertheless, Van Gogh persevered with his work. He improved the lighting of his atelier (studio) by installing variable shutters, and experimented with a variety of drawing materials. For more than a year he worked hard on single figures--highly elaborated studies in "black and white," which at the time gained him only criticism. Nowadays they are appreciated as his first masterpieces. In the spring of 1883, he embarked on multi-figure compositions, based on the drawings. He had some of them photographed, but when his brother commented that they lacked liveliness and freshness, Vincent destroyed them and turned to oil painting. |
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When Van Gogh committed himself to art as an adult (1880), he started at the elementary level by copying the "Cours de dessin," edited by [[Charles Bargue]] and published by [[Goupil & Cie]]. Within his first two years he began to seek commissions, and in spring 1882, his uncle, Cornelis Marinus (owner of a renowned gallery of contemporary art in Amsterdam) asked him to provide drawings of the Hague; Van Gogh's work did not prove up to his uncle's expectations. Despite this, Uncle Cor (or "C.M. " as he was referred to by his nephews) offered a second commission, specifying the subject matter in detail, but he was once again disappointed with the result. |
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⚫ | Already in the autumn of 1882, Theo had enabled him to do his first paintings, but the amount Theo could supply was soon spent. Then, in the spring of 1883, Vincent turned to renowned [[Hague School]] artists like [[Johan Hendrik Weissenbruch|Weissenbruch]] and [[Bernard Blommers|Blommers]], and received technical support from them, as well as from painters like [[Théophile de Bock|De Bock]] and [[Herman Johannes van der Weele|Van der Weele]], both Hague School artists of the second generation. When he moved to Nuenen, after the intermezzo in Drenthe, he started various large size paintings, but he destroyed most of them himself. ''[[The Potato Eaters]]'' and its companion pieces, ''The Old Tower'' on the Nuenen cemetery and ''The Cottage,'' are the only ones that have survived. A visit to the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, made Vincent aware that many faults of his paintings were due to a lack of technical experience. So he went to Antwerp, and later to Paris, to improve his technical skill. |
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⚫ | Nevertheless, Van Gogh persevered with his work. He improved the lighting of his atelier (studio) by installing variable shutters, and experimented with a variety of drawing materials. For more than a year he worked hard on single figures |
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⚫ | Already in autumn 1882, Theo had enabled him to do his first paintings, but the amount Theo could supply was soon spent. Then, in spring 1883, Vincent turned to renowned [[Hague School]] artists like [[Johan Hendrik Weissenbruch|Weissenbruch]] and [[Bernard Blommers|Blommers]], and received technical support from them, as well as from painters like [[Théophile de Bock|De Bock]] and [[Herman Johannes van der Weele|Van der Weele]], both Hague School artists of the second generation. When he moved to Nuenen, after the intermezzo in Drenthe, he started various large size paintings, but he destroyed most of them himself. ''[[The Potato Eaters]]'' and its companion pieces, ''The Old Tower'' on the Nuenen cemetery and ''The Cottage,'' are the only ones that have survived. |
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[[Image:Whitehousenight.jpg|thumb|This piece from the [[Hermitage Museum]] was painted six weeks before the artist's death, at around eight o'clock on 16 June 1890, as astronomers determined by [[Venus]]'s position in the painting.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/world/europe/1209192.stm Star dates Van Gogh canvas] 8 March, 2001</ref>]] |
[[Image:Whitehousenight.jpg|thumb|This piece from the [[Hermitage Museum]] was painted six weeks before the artist's death, at around eight o'clock on 16 June 1890, as astronomers determined by [[Venus]]'s position in the painting.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/world/europe/1209192.stm Star dates Van Gogh canvas] 8 March, 2001</ref>]] |
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More or less acquainted with impressionist and neo-impressionist techniques and theories, Van Gogh went to Arles to develop these new possibilities. But within a short time, older ideas on art and work reappeared: ideas like doing series on related or contrasting subject matter, which would reflect the purpose of art. Already in 1884 in Nuenen he had worked on a series that was to decorate the dining room of a friend in Eindhoven. Similarly in Arles, in spring 1888 he arranged his ''[[Flowering Orchards]]'' into triptychs, began a ''series of figures'' which found its end in ''[[The Roulin Family]]'', and finally, when Gauguin had consented to work and live in Arles side by side with Vincent, he started to work on the ''[[The Décoration for the Yellow House]]'', probably the most ambitious effort he ever undertook. Most of his later work is elaborating or revising its fundamental settings. |
More or less acquainted with impressionist and neo-impressionist techniques and theories, Van Gogh went to Arles to develop these new possibilities. But within a short time, older ideas on art and work reappeared: ideas like doing series on related or contrasting subject matter, which would reflect the purpose of art. Already in 1884 in Nuenen he had worked on a series that was to decorate the dining room of a friend in Eindhoven. Similarly in Arles, in spring 1888 he arranged his ''[[Flowering Orchards]]'' into triptychs, began a ''series of figures'' which found its end in ''[[The Roulin Family]]'', and finally, when Gauguin had consented to work and live in Arles side by side with Vincent, he started to work on the ''[[The Décoration for the Yellow House]]'', probably the most ambitious effort he ever undertook. Most of his later work is elaborating or revising its fundamental settings. |
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The paintings from the Saint-Rémy period are often characterized by swirls and spirals. The patterns of luminosity in these images have been shown<ref>[http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0606246 'Kolmogorov scaling in impassioned van Gogh paintings'] by J. L. Aragón, Gerardo G. Naumis, M. Bai, M. Torres, P.K. Maini; 28 June 2006</ref> to conform to [[Andrey Kolmogorov|Kolmogorov's]] statistical model of [[turbulence]]. |
The paintings from the Saint-Rémy period are often characterized by swirls and spirals. The patterns of luminosity in these images have been shown<ref>[http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0606246 'Kolmogorov scaling in impassioned van Gogh paintings'] by J. L. Aragón, Gerardo G. Naumis, M. Bai, M. Torres, P.K. Maini; 28 June 2006</ref> to conform to [[Andrey Kolmogorov|Kolmogorov's]] statistical model of [[turbulence]]. At various times in his life Van Gogh painted the view from his window; this culminated in the great series of paintings of [[The Wheat Field|the wheat field]] he could see from his adjoining cells in the asylum at Saint-Rémy. |
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At various times in his life Van Gogh painted the view from his window; this culminated in the great series of paintings of [[The Wheat Field|the wheat field]] he could see from his adjoining cells in the asylum at Saint-Rémy. |
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==Legacy== |
==Legacy== |
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{{main|Posthumous fame of Vincent van Gogh|Cultural depictions of Vincent van Gogh}} |
{{main|Posthumous fame of Vincent van Gogh|Cultural depictions of Vincent van Gogh}} |
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Since his first exhibits in the late 1880s, Van Gogh's fame grew steadily, among his colleagues and among art critics, dealers and collectors. After his death, memorial exhibitions were mounted in Brussels, Paris, The Hague and Antwerp. |
Since his first exhibits in the late 1880s, Van Gogh's fame grew steadily, among his colleagues and among art critics, dealers and collectors. After his death, memorial exhibitions were mounted in Brussels, Paris, The Hague and Antwerp. In the early [[20th century]], the exhibitions were followed by vast retrospectives in Paris (1901 and 1905), Amsterdam (1905), [[Cologne]] (1912), [[New York City]] (1913) and [[Berlin]] (1914). These prompted a noticeable impact over a new generation of artists. |
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⚫ | The French [[Fauvism|Fauves]], including [[Henri Matisse]], extended both his use of colour and freedom in applying it, as did German Expressionists in the [[Die Brücke]] group. The 1950s' [[Abstract Expressionism]] is seen as benefiting from the exploration Van Gogh started with gestural marks. In 1957, Anglo-Irish artist [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]] based several paintings on reproductions of Van Gogh's ''The Painter on his Way to Work'', which had been destroyed during [[World War II]]. |
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In the early [[20th century]], the exhibitions were followed by vast retrospectives in Paris (1901 and 1905), Amsterdam (1905), [[Cologne]] (1912), [[New York City]] (1913) and [[Berlin]] (1914). These prompted a noticeable impact over a new generation of artists. |
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⚫ | The French [[Fauvism|Fauves]], including [[Henri Matisse]], extended both his use of colour and freedom in applying it, as did German Expressionists in the [[Die Brücke]] group. The 1950s' [[Abstract Expressionism]] is seen as benefiting from the exploration Van Gogh started with gestural marks. In 1957, Anglo-Irish artist [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]] based several paintings on reproductions of Van Gogh's ''The Painter on his Way to Work'' |
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[[Don McLean]]'s 1971 song "[[Vincent (song)|Vincent]]" is a tribute to the artist, making many references to key themes and observations, including the opening reference to ''[[Starry Night]]''. |
[[Don McLean]]'s 1971 song "[[Vincent (song)|Vincent]]" is a tribute to the artist, making many references to key themes and observations, including the opening reference to ''[[Starry Night]]''. |
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*[[Self portrait]] |
*[[Self portrait]] |
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==Notes== |
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===Notes=== |
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{{reflist|2}} |
{{reflist|2}} |
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==Sources== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
<div class="references-small"> |
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* Beaujean, Dieter. ''Vincent van Gogh: Life and Work'', Könemann 1999, ISBN 3-8290-2938-1 |
* Beaujean, Dieter. ''Vincent van Gogh: Life and Work'', Könemann 1999, ISBN 3-8290-2938-1 |
Revision as of 17:31, 6 August 2007
Vincent van Gogh | |
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Born | Vincent Willem van Gogh |
Nationality | Dutch |
Known for | Painter |
Movement | Post-Impressionism |
Vincent Willem van Gogh (sometimes erroneously pronounced [ˈvɪnsənt væn ˈɡɒf] or [ˈvɪnsənt vɑn ˈɡɔx] in British English and [ˈvɪnsənt væn ˈɡoʊ] in US English; the correct Dutch pronunciation is ) (30 March 1853 – 29 July 1890) was a Dutch Post-Impressionist artist. His paintings and drawings include some of the world's best known, most popular and most expensive pieces.
Van Gogh spent his early life working for a firm of art dealers. After a brief spell as a teacher, he became a missionary worker in a very poor mining region. He did not embark upon a career as an artist until 1880. Initially, he worked with sombre colours, until he encountered Impressionism and Neo-Impressionism in Paris. He incorporated their brighter colours and style of painting into a uniquely recognizable style, which was fully developed during the time he spent at Arles, France. Van Gogh produced more than 2,000 works, including around 900 paintings and 1,100 drawings and sketches, during the last ten years of his life. Most of his best-known works were produced in the final two years of his life, during which time he cut off part of his left ear following a breakdown in his friendship with Paul Gauguin. After this he suffered recurrent bouts of mental illness, which led to his suicide.
The central figure in Vincent van Gogh's life was his brother Theo, who continually and selflessly provided financial support. Their lifelong friendship is documented in numerous letters they exchanged from August 1872 onwards. Van Gogh is a pioneer of what came to be known as Expressionism. He had an enormous influence on 20th century art, especially on the Fauves and German Expressionists.
Life
- For a timeline, see Vincent van Gogh chronology.
Early life, 1853 to 1869
Vincent Willem van Gogh was born in Groot-Zundert, a village close to Breda in the Province of North Brabant in the southern Netherlands.[1] Vincent was the son of Anna Cornelia Carbentus and Theodorus van Gogh, a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church. He was given the same name as his grandfather--and as a first brother who had been stillborn exactly one year before. It has been suggested[2] that having been given the same name as his dead elder brother might have had a deep psychological impact on the young Vincent, and that elements of his art, such as the portrayal of pairs of male figures, can be traced back to this. The practice of reusing a name in this way was not an uncommon one. The name "Vincent" was often used in the Van Gogh family: the baby's grandfather was called Vincent van Gogh (1789-1874); he had received his degree of theology at the University of Leiden in 1811. Grandfather Vincent had six sons, three of whom became art dealers, including another Vincent, referred to in Van Gogh's letters as "Uncle Cent." Grandfather Vincent had perhaps been named after his own father's uncle, the successful sculptor Vincent van Gogh (1729-1802).[3] Art and religion were the two occupations to which the Van Gogh family gravitated.
Four years after Van Gogh was born, his brother Theodorus, or Theo, was born on 1 May 1857. There was also another brother named Cor and three sisters, Elizabeth, Anna and Wil. As a child, Vincent was serious, silent and thoughtful. In 1860 he attended the Zundert village school, where the only teacher was Catholic and there were around 200 pupils. From 1861 he and his sister Anna were taught at home by a governess, until 1 October, 1864, when he went away to the elementary boarding school of Jan Provily in Zevenbergen, the Netherlands, about 20 miles away. He was distressed to leave his family home, and recalled this even in adulthood. On 15 September 1866, he went to the new middle school, Willem II College in Tilburg, the Netherlands. Constantijn C. Huysmans, who had achieved a certain success himself in Paris, taught Van Gogh to draw at the school and advocated a systematic approach to the subject. In March 1868 Van Gogh abruptly left school and returned home. His comment on his early years was: "My youth was gloomy and cold and sterile...."[4]
Art dealer and preacher, 1869 to 1878
In July 1869, at the age of fifteen, Vincent obtained a position with the art dealer Goupil & Cie in The Hague through his Uncle Vincent ("Cent"), who had built up a good business which became a branch of the firm. After his training, Goupil transferred him to London in June 1873, where he lodged at 87 Hackford Road, Brixton[5] and worked at Messrs. Goupil & Co., 17 Southampton Street.[6] This was a happy time for Vincent, and one of the few in his life: he was successful at work, and was already, at the age of 20, earning more than his father.[7] He fell in love with his landlady's daughter, Eugénie Loyer,[8]but when he finally confessed his feeling to her, she rejected him, saying that she was already secretly engaged to a previous lodger. Vincent became increasingly isolated and fervent about religion. His father and uncle sent him to Paris, where he became resentful at how art was treated as a commodity, and he manifested this to the customers. On 1 April 1876, it was agreed that his employment should be terminated.
His religious emotion grew to the point where he felt he had found his true vocation in life, and he returned to England to do unpaid work, first as a supply teacher in a small boarding school overlooking the harbour in Ramsgate; he made some sketches of the view. The proprietor of the school relocated to Isleworth, Middlesex. Vincent decided to walk to the new location. But this new position did not work out, and Vincent became a nearby Methodist minister's assistant in wanting to "preach the gospel everywhere."
At Christmas that year he returned home, and then worked in a bookshop in Dordrecht for six months. But he was not happy in this new position, and he spent most of his time in the back of the shop either doodling, or translating passages from the Bible into English, French, and German.[9] His roommate from this time, a young teacher called Görlitz, later recalled that Vincent ate frugally, preferring to eat no meat.[10][11] In an effort to support his wish to become a pastor, his family sent him to Amsterdam in May 1877 where he lived with his uncle Jan van Gogh, a rear admiral in the navy.[12] Vincent prepared for university, studying for the theology entrance exam with his uncle Johannes Stricker, a respected theologian who published the first "Life of Jesus" available in the Netherlands. Vincent failed at his studies and had to abandon them. He left uncle Jan's house in July 1878. He then studied, but failed, a three-month course at the Protestant missionary school (Vlaamsche Opleidingsschool) in Laeken, near Brussels.
Borinage and Brussels, 1879 to 1880
In January 1879 Van Gogh got a temporary post as a missionary in the village of Petit Wasmes[13] in the coal-mining district of Borinage in Belgium, bringing his father's profession to people felt to be the most wretched and hopeless in Europe. Taking Christianity to what he saw as its logical conclusion, Vincent opted to live like those he preached to, sharing their hardships to the extent of sleeping on straw in a small hut at the back of the baker's house where he was billeted;[14] the baker's wife used to hear Vincent sobbing all night in the little hut.[15] His choice of squalid living conditions did not endear him to the appalled church authorities, who dismissed him for "undermining the dignity of the priesthood." After this he walked to Brussels,[16] returned briefly to the Borinage, to the village of Cuesmes, but acquiesced to pressure from his parents to come "home" to Etten. He stayed there until around March the following year,[17] to the increasing concern and frustration of his parents. There was considerable conflict between Vincent and his father, and his father made enquiries about having his son committed to a lunatic asylum[18] at Geel.[19] This series of enquiries on his father's part marked the first known claim that Vincent-Willem Van Gogh might not have been sane.
Vincent fled back to Cuesmes where he lodged with a miner named Charles Decrucq,[20] with whom he stayed until October. He became increasingly interested in the everyday people and scenes around him, which he recorded in drawings. In 1880, Vincent followed the suggestion of his brother Theo and took up art in earnest. In autumn 1880, he went to Brussels, intending to follow Theo's recommendation to study with the prominent Dutch artist Willem Roelofs, who persuaded Van Gogh (despite his aversion to formal schools of art) to attend the Royal Academy of Art. There he not only studied anatomy, but the standard rules of modelling and perspective, all of which, he said, "you have to know just to be able to draw the least thing." Vincent wished to become an artist while in God's service as he stated, "to try to understand the real significance of what the great artists, the serious masters, tell us in their masterpieces, that leads to God; one man wrote or told it in a book; another in a picture."[21]
Etten, 1881
In April 1881, Van Gogh went to live in the countryside with his parents in Etten and continued drawing, using neighbours as subjects. Through the summer he spent much time walking and talking with his recently widowed cousin, Kee Vos-Stricker, the daughter of his mother's older sister and Johannes Stricker, who had shown real warmth towards his nephew.[22] Kee was seven years older than Vincent, and had an eight-year-old son. Vincent proposed marriage, but she flatly refused with the words: "No, never, never!" (The Dutch original is "Niet, nooit, nimmer!").[23] At the end of November he wrote a strong letter to Uncle Stricker,[24] and then, very soon after, hurried to Amsterdam where he talked with Stricker again on several occasions,[25] but Kee refused to see him at all. Her parents told him, "Your persistence is disgusting!"[26] In desperation he held his left hand in the flame of a lamp, saying, "Let me see her for as long as I can keep my hand in the flame."[26] He did not clearly recall what happened next, but assumed that his uncle blew out the flame. Her father, "Uncle Stricker," as Vincent refers to him in letters to Theo, made it clear that there was no question of Vincent and Kee marrying, given Vincent's inability to support himself financially.[27] What he saw as the hypocrisy of his uncle and former tutor affected Vincent deeply. At Christmas he quarreled violently with his father, even refusing a gift of money, and immediately left for The Hague.[28]
Drenthe and The Hague, 1881 to 1883
In January 1882 he settled in The Hague, where he called on his cousin-in-law, the painter Anton Mauve, who encouraged him towards painting. He soon fell out with Mauve, however, perhaps over the issue of drawing from plaster casts; but Mauve appeared to go suddenly cold towards van Gogh, refusing to return a couple of his letters. Van Gogh guessed that Mauve had learned of his new domestic relationship with an alcoholic prostitute by the name of Clasina Maria Hoornik (born February 1850, The Hague;[29] she was known as Sien) and her young daughter.[30] Van Gogh had met Sien towards the end of January.[31] Sien had a five year-old daughter, and was pregnant. She had already had two other children who had died, although van Gogh was unaware of this.[32] On 2 July, Sien gave birth to a baby boy, Willem.[33] When his father discovered the details of this relationship, considerable pressure was put on van Gogh[34] to abandon Sien and her children. van Gogh was at first defiant in the face of his family's opposition.
His uncle Cornelis, an art dealer, commissioned 20 ink drawings of the city from him; they were completed by the end of May.[35] In June, van Gogh spent three weeks in hospital suffering gonorrhoea, a venereal disease that was much feared at the time.[36] In the summer, he began to paint in oil. In autumn 1883, after a year with Sien, he abandoned her and the two children. Van Gogh had thought of moving the family away from the city, but in the end he made the break.[37] It is possible that lack of money had pushed Sien back to prostitution; the home had become a less happy one, and van Gogh may have felt family life was irreconcilable with his artistic development. When van Gogh left, Sien gave her daughter to her mother, and baby Willem to her brother, and moved to Delft and then Antwerp.[38] Willem remembered being taken to visit his mother in Rotterdam at around the age of 12, where his uncle tried to persuade Sien to marry in order to legitimize the child. Willem remembered his mother saying: "But I know who the father is. He was an artist I lived with nearly 20 years ago in The Hague. His name was Van Gogh." She then turned to Willem and said, "You are called after him."[39] Willem believed himself to be Van Gogh's son, but the timing of the birth makes this unlikely.[40] In 1904 Sien drowned herself in the river Scheldt.[38]
Van Gogh moved to the Dutch province of Drenthe in the north of the Netherlands, and in December, driven by loneliness, to stay with his parents who were by then living in Nuenen, North Brabant, also in the Netherlands.
Nuenen, 1883 to 1885
In Nuenen, he devoted himself to drawing, paying boys to bring him birds' nests[41] and rapidly[42] sketching the weavers in their cottages. In autumn 1884, a neighbour's daughter, Margot Begemann, ten years older than Vincent, accompanied him constantly on his painting forays and fell in love, which he reciprocated (though less enthusiastically). They agreed to marry, but were opposed by both families. Margot tried to kill herself with strychnine and Vincent rushed her to the hospital.[43]
On 26 March 1885, Van Gogh's father died of a stroke. Van Gogh grieved deeply. For the first time in his life, there was interest from Paris in some of his work. In spring he painted what is now considered his first major work, The Potato Eaters, which in Dutch is De Aardappeleters. In August his work was exhibited for the first time, in the windows of a paint dealer, Leurs, in The Hague. In September he was accused of making one of his young peasant sitters pregnant,[44] and the Catholic village priest forbade villagers from modelling for him.
During his time in Nuenen, Van Gogh's palette was one of sombre earth tones, particularly dark brown, and he showed no sign of developing the vivid colouration that distinguishes his later, best known work. (When Vincent complained that Theo was not making enough effort to sell his paintings in Paris, Theo replied that they were too dark and not in line with the current style of bright Impressionist paintings.) During his two-year stay in Nuenen, he completed numerous drawings and watercolours, and nearly 200 oil paintings.
Antwerpen, 1885 and 1886
In November of 1885, Van Gogh moved to Antwerpen and rented a small room above a paint dealer's shop in the Rue des Images.[45] He had little money and ate poorly, preferring to spend what money his brother Theo sent to him on painting materials and models. Bread, coffee, and tobacco were his staple intake. In February of 1886, he wrote to Theo saying that he could only remember eating six hot meals since May of the previous year. His teeth loosened and caused him much pain.[46] While in Antwerpen, he applied himself to the study of colour theory and spent time looking at work in museums, particularly the work of Peter Paul Rubens, gaining encouragement to broaden his palette to carmine, cobalt and emerald green. He also bought some Japanese Ukiyo-e woodcuts in the docklands, which he imitated and incorporated into the background of some of his paintings.[47] It was while he was living in Antwerpen that Vincent began to drink absinthe heavily.[48] He was treated by Dr Cavenaile whose surgery was near the docklands,[49] possibly for syphilis;[50] the treatment of alum irrigations and sitz baths was jotted down by Vincent in one of his notebooks.[51]
In January of 1886, he matriculated at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Antwerpen, studying painting and drawing. Despite disagreements over his rejection of academic teaching, he nevertheless took the higher-level admission exams. For most of the month of February Van Gogh was ill, run down by overwork, a poor diet, and his excessive smoking.
Paris, 1886 to 1888
In March of 1886, Van Gogh moved to Paris to study at Fernand Cormon's studio, and in May of 1886 his mother and sister Wil moved to Breda.[52] The brothers first shared Theo's Rue Laval apartment on Montmartre. In June, they took a larger flat at 54 Rue Lepic, further uphill. As there was no longer the need to communicate by letters, less is known about Van Gogh's time in Paris than earlier or later periods of his life. For some months he worked at Cormon's studio where he frequented the circle of the British-Australian artist John Peter Russell, and met fellow students like Émile Bernard and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, who used to meet at the paint store run by Julien "Père" Tanguy, which was at that time the only place to view works by Paul Cézanne.
It was not difficult to see and study Impressionist works in Paris at this time. In 1886, for example, two large vanguard exhibitions were staged, the 8th and final exhibition of the Impressionists and an exhibition of the Artistes Indépendants. In these shows Neo-Impressionism made its first appearance; works of Georges Seurat, the master of the pointillist style, and Paul Signac were the talk of the town. Though Theo, too, kept a stock of Impressionist paintings in his gallery on Boulevard Montmarte, by artists including Claude Monet, Alfred Sisley, Edgar Degas and Camille Pissarro, Vincent evidently had problems acknowledging these recent ways to see and paint. Conflicts arose, and at the turn of 1886 to 1887 Theo found shared life with Vincent "almost unbearable," but in the spring of 1887 they made peace. Then Vincent set out for a campaign in Asnières, where he became personally acquainted with Paul Signac. Vincent and his friend Emile Bernard, who lived with parents in Asnières, adopted elements of the "pointillé", or pointillism, style, where many small dots are applied to the canvas, resulting in an optical blend of hues, when seen from a distance. The theory behind this also stresses the value of complementary colours in proximity—for example, blue and orange—as such pairings enhance the brilliance of each colour by a physical effect (known as optical mixing) on the receptors in the eye.
In November of 1887, Theo and Vincent met and befriended Paul Gauguin, who was newly arrived in Paris.[53] Towards the end of the year, Vincent arranged an exhibition of paintings by himself, Bernard, Anquetin and (probably) Toulouse-Lautrec in the Restaurant du Chalet, on Montmartre. There, Bernard and Anquetin sold their first painting, and Vincent exchanged work with Gauguin, who soon departed to Pont-Aven. But the discussions on art, artists and their social situation started during this exhibition continued, and expanded to visitors of the show like Pissarro and his son, Signac and Seurat. Finally in February of 1888, when Van Gogh felt worn out from life in Paris, he left the city, having painted over 200 paintings during his two years there. Only hours before his departure, accompanied by Theo, he paid his first and only visit to Seurat in his atelier.[54]
Arles, February 1888 to May 1889
Van Gogh arrived on 21 February, 1888, at the railroad station in Arles, crossed Place Lamartine, entered the city through the Porte de la Cavalerie, and took quarters a few steps further, at the Hôtel-Restaurant Carrel, 30 Rue Cavalerie. He had ideas of founding a Utopian art colony. His companion for two months was the Danish artist, Christian Mourier-Petersen. In March, he painted local landscapes, using a gridded "perspective frame." Three of his pictures were shown at the annual exhibition of the Société des Artistes Indépendants. In April, he was visited by the American painter, Dodge MacKnight, who was then resident in Fontvieille nearby.
On 1 May, Van Gogh signed a lease, for 15 francs a month, to rent the four rooms in the right hand side of the "Yellow House," so called because its outside walls were yellow in colour, at No. 2 Place Lamartine. The house was unfurnished, and it had been uninhabited for some time, so Van Gogh was not able to move in immediately. He had been staying at the Hôtel Restaurant Carrel in the Rue de la Cavalerie, just inside the medieval gate to the city, with the old Roman Arena in view. The rate charged by the hotel was 5 francs a week, which Van Gogh regarded as excessive. He disputed the price, and took the case to the local arbitrator, who awarded him a twelve franc reduction on his total bill.[55] On 7 May, Van Gogh moved out of the Hôtel Carrel, and moved into the Café de la Gare.[56] He became friends with the proprietors, Joseph and Marie Ginoux. Although the Yellow House had to be furnished before he could fully move in, Van Gogh was able to use it as a studio.[57] His major project at this time was a series of paintings intended to form the "Décoration For The Yellow House."
In June, he visited Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer. He gave drawing lessons to a Zouave second lieutenant, Paul-Eugène Milliet, who also became a companion. MacKnight introduced him to Eugène Boch, a Belgian painter, who stayed at times in Fontvieille (they exchanged visits in July). Gauguin agreed to join him in Arles. In August he painted sunflowers; Boch visited again. On 8 September, upon advice from his friend the station's postal supervisor Joseph Roulin, he bought two beds,[58] and he finally spent the first night in the still sparsely furnished Yellow House on 17 September.[59]
On 23 October, Gauguin eventually arrived in Arles, after repeated requests from Van Gogh. During November they painted together. Uncharacteristically, Van Gogh painted some pictures from memory, deferring to Gauguin's ideas in this. Their first joint outdoor painting exercise was conducted at the picturesque Alyscamps.[60] It was in November that Van Gogh painted The Red Vineyard, the only painting he is known to have sold during his lifetime.
In December the two artists visited Montpellier and viewed works by Courbet and Delacroix in the Museé Fabre. However, their relationship was deteriorating badly. They quarrelled fiercely about art. Van Gogh felt an increasing fear that Gauguin was going to desert him, and what he described as a situation of "excessive tension" reached a crisis point on 23 December, 1888, when Van Gogh allegedly stalked Gauguin with a razor and then instead cut off the lower part of his own left ear, which he wrapped in newspaper and gave to a prostitute named Rachel in the local brothel, asking her to "keep this object carefully."[61] Gauguin left Arles and did not see Van Gogh again. Van Gogh was hospitalised and in a critical state for a few days. He was immediately visited by Theo (whom Gauguin had notified), as well as Madame Ginoux and frequently by Roulin. In January of 1889, Van Gogh returned to the "Yellow House", but spent the following month between hospital and home, diagnosed as suffering from hallucinations and paranoia that he was being poisoned. In March the police closed his house, after a petition by thirty townspeople, who called him fou roux ("the redheaded madman"). Signac visited him in hospital, and Van Gogh was allowed home in his company. In April he moved into rooms owned by Dr. Rey, after floods damaged paintings in his own home. On 17 April Theo married Johanna Bonger in Amsterdam.
Saint-Rémy, May 1889 to May 1890
On 8 May, 1889, Van Gogh, accompanied by a caretaker, the Reverend Salles, committed himself to the mental hospital of Saint-Paul-de-Mausole in a former monastery in Saint Rémy de Provence, a little less than 20 miles from Arles. The monastery was a mile and a half out of the town and was in an area of cornfields, vineyards, and olive trees. The hospital was run by a former naval doctor, Dr. Théophile Peyron, who had no specialist qualifications. Theo van Gogh arranged for his brother to have two small rooms, one for use as a studio, although in reality they were simply adjoining cells with barred windows.[62] During his stay there, the clinic and its garden became his main subject. At this time some of his work was characterised by swirls, as in one of his best-known paintings The Starry Night. He took some short supervised walks, which gave rise to images of cypresses and olive trees. But because of the shortage of subject matter due to his limited access to the outside world, he painted interpretations of Millet's paintings, as well as his own earlier work. In September of 1889, he painted two new versions of the Bedroom in Arles, and in February of 1890, he painted four portraits of L'Arlésienne (Madame Ginoux), based directly on a charcoal sketch Gauguin had produced when Madame Ginoux had sat for both artists at the beginning of November 1888.[63]
In January of 1890, his work was praised by Albert Aurier in the Mercure de France, and he was called a genius. In February, invited by Les XX, a society of avant-garde painters in Brussels, he participated in their annual exhibition. When, at the opening dinner, Henry de Groux, a member of Les XX, insulted Van Gogh's works, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec demanded satisfaction, and Signac declared, he would continue to fight for Van Gogh's honour, if Toulouse-Lautrec should be surrendered. Later, when Van Gogh's exhibit was on display with the Artistes Indépendants in Paris, Monet said that his work was the best in the show.[64]
Final months: Auvers-sur-Oise, May to July 1890
In May of 1890, Van Gogh left the clinic and went to the physician Dr. Paul Gachet, in Auvers-sur-Oise near Paris, where he was closer to his brother Theo. Dr. Gachet had been recommended to him by Pissarro, as he had previously treated several artists, and was an amateur artist himself. Van Gogh's first impression was that Gachet was "sicker than I am, I think, or shall we say just as much."[65] Later Van Gogh did two portraits of Gachet in oils, as well as a third; this last was his only known etching. In all three portraits, emphasis is on Gachet's melancholic disposition. In his last weeks at Saint-Rémy, Van Gogh's thoughts had been returning to his "memories of the North",[66] and several of the approximately 70 oils he painted during his 70 days in Auvers-sur-Oise--such as The Church at Auvers--are reminiscent of northern scenes.
Wheat Field with Crows--an example of the unusual double square canvas-size he used in the last weeks of his life--with its turbulent intensity, is often, but mistakenly, thought to be Van Gogh's last work; Jan Hulsker lists seven paintings after it. Daubigny's Garden is a more likely candidate. There are also seemingly unfinished paintings, such as Thatched Cottages by a Hill.
Van Gogh's depression deepened, and on 27 July, 1890, at the age of 37, he walked into the fields with his art supplies. He was carrying a revolver. Whatever else may be thought about his motives, what he did next is usually recognised as a deliberate choice on his part. He shot himself in the chest with the gun. Without fully realizing that he was fatally wounded, he returned to the Ravoux Inn. There, he died in his bed two days later, on 29 July, 1890. Theo hastened to be at his side and reported his last words as, "La tristesse durera toujours," which is French for "The sadness will last forever." Vincent was buried at the cemetery of Auvers-sur-Oise.[67]
Theo had contracted syphilis (though this was not admitted by the family for many years) and, not long after Vincent's death, was himself admitted to hospital. He never succeeded in coming to terms with the grief of his brother's absence, and died six months later, on 25 January, at Utrecht. In 1914 Theo's body was exhumed and re-buried beside Vincent.
Medical records
Van Gogh cut off the lobe of his left ear during some sort of seizure on 24 December, 1888.[68] Mental problems afflicted him, particularly in the last few years of his life. During some of these periods, he either did not, or was not allowed to, paint. There has been much debate over the years as to the source of Van Gogh's mental illness and its effect on his work. Over 150 psychiatrists have attempted to label his illness, and some 30 different diagnoses have been suggested.[69]
Diagnoses which have been advanced include schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, syphilis, poisoning from swallowed paints, temporal lobe epilepsy and acute intermittent porphyria. Any of these could have been the culprit, and might have been aggravated by malnutrition, overwork, insomnia, and Van Gogh's fondness for alcohol, and absinthe in particular.
Medical theories have even been proposed to explain Van Gogh's use of the colour yellow. One theory holds that Van Gogh's colour vision might have been affected by his love of absinthe, a liquor that contains a neurotoxin called thujone. High doses of thujone can cause xanthopsia: seeing objects in yellow. However, a 1991 study indicated that an absinthe drinker would become unconscious from the alcohol content long before consuming enough thujone to develop yellow vision. Another theory suggests that Dr. Gachet might have prescribed digitalis to Van Gogh as a treatment for epilepsy. There is no direct evidence that he ever took digitalis, but he did paint Gachet with some cut flower stalks of Common Foxglove, the plant from which the drug is derived. Those who take large doses of digitalis often report yellow-tinted vision or yellow spots surrounded by coronas (like those in the The Starry Night) and changes in overall colour perception.[70]
Another recently proposed illness is lead poisoning. The paints used at the time were lead-based, and one of the symptoms of lead poisoning is a swelling of the retinas which could have caused the halo effect seen in many of Van Gogh's works.[71]
It has also been suggested that Van Gogh suffered from the brain disorder, Hypergraphia. The disorder causes a near constant overwhelming urge to write and is associated with epilepsy or mania.[72]
Works
Van Gogh drew and painted water-colours while he went to school, though very few of these works survive, and his authorship is challenged for many claimed to be from this period. When he committed himself to art as an adult in 1880, he started at the elementary level by copying the "Cours de dessin," edited by Charles Bargue and published by Goupil & Cie. Within his first two years, he began to seek commissions, and in spring 1882, his uncle, Cornelis Marinus, owner of a renowned gallery of contemporary art in Amsterdam, asked him to provide drawings of the Hague; Van Gogh's work did not prove up to his uncle's expectations. Despite this, Uncle Cor (or "C.M. " as he was referred to by his nephews) offered a second commission, specifying the subject matter in detail, but he was once again disappointed with the result.
Nevertheless, Van Gogh persevered with his work. He improved the lighting of his atelier (studio) by installing variable shutters, and experimented with a variety of drawing materials. For more than a year he worked hard on single figures--highly elaborated studies in "black and white," which at the time gained him only criticism. Nowadays they are appreciated as his first masterpieces. In the spring of 1883, he embarked on multi-figure compositions, based on the drawings. He had some of them photographed, but when his brother commented that they lacked liveliness and freshness, Vincent destroyed them and turned to oil painting.
Already in the autumn of 1882, Theo had enabled him to do his first paintings, but the amount Theo could supply was soon spent. Then, in the spring of 1883, Vincent turned to renowned Hague School artists like Weissenbruch and Blommers, and received technical support from them, as well as from painters like De Bock and Van der Weele, both Hague School artists of the second generation. When he moved to Nuenen, after the intermezzo in Drenthe, he started various large size paintings, but he destroyed most of them himself. The Potato Eaters and its companion pieces, The Old Tower on the Nuenen cemetery and The Cottage, are the only ones that have survived. A visit to the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, made Vincent aware that many faults of his paintings were due to a lack of technical experience. So he went to Antwerp, and later to Paris, to improve his technical skill.
More or less acquainted with impressionist and neo-impressionist techniques and theories, Van Gogh went to Arles to develop these new possibilities. But within a short time, older ideas on art and work reappeared: ideas like doing series on related or contrasting subject matter, which would reflect the purpose of art. Already in 1884 in Nuenen he had worked on a series that was to decorate the dining room of a friend in Eindhoven. Similarly in Arles, in spring 1888 he arranged his Flowering Orchards into triptychs, began a series of figures which found its end in The Roulin Family, and finally, when Gauguin had consented to work and live in Arles side by side with Vincent, he started to work on the The Décoration for the Yellow House, probably the most ambitious effort he ever undertook. Most of his later work is elaborating or revising its fundamental settings.
The paintings from the Saint-Rémy period are often characterized by swirls and spirals. The patterns of luminosity in these images have been shown[74] to conform to Kolmogorov's statistical model of turbulence. At various times in his life Van Gogh painted the view from his window; this culminated in the great series of paintings of the wheat field he could see from his adjoining cells in the asylum at Saint-Rémy.
Legacy
Since his first exhibits in the late 1880s, Van Gogh's fame grew steadily, among his colleagues and among art critics, dealers and collectors. After his death, memorial exhibitions were mounted in Brussels, Paris, The Hague and Antwerp. In the early 20th century, the exhibitions were followed by vast retrospectives in Paris (1901 and 1905), Amsterdam (1905), Cologne (1912), New York City (1913) and Berlin (1914). These prompted a noticeable impact over a new generation of artists.
The French Fauves, including Henri Matisse, extended both his use of colour and freedom in applying it, as did German Expressionists in the Die Brücke group. The 1950s' Abstract Expressionism is seen as benefiting from the exploration Van Gogh started with gestural marks. In 1957, Anglo-Irish artist Francis Bacon based several paintings on reproductions of Van Gogh's The Painter on his Way to Work, which had been destroyed during World War II.
Don McLean's 1971 song "Vincent" is a tribute to the artist, making many references to key themes and observations, including the opening reference to Starry Night.
See also
Notes
- ^ Vincent Van Gogh - Biography, Quotes & Paintings, retrieved June 14 2007.
- ^ Lubin, Albert J. Stranger on the earth: A psychological biography of Vincent van Gogh, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1972. ISBN 0-03-091352-7. pages 82–84
- ^ Erickson, page 9.
- ^ "Letter from Vincent van Gogh to Theo van Gogh - Nuenen, c. 18 December 1883".
- ^ "Hackford Road". vauxhallsociety.org. Retrieved 2007-03-24.
- ^ van Gogh, Vincent (1873-05-05). "Letter from Vincent to Theo". webexhibits.org. Retrieved 2007-03-24.
- ^ Theo's wife later remarked that this was the happiest year of Vincent's life. Wilkie, pages 34-36
- ^ Wilkie, pages 38 - 52
- ^ Callow, page 54
- ^ See the recollections gathered in Dordrecht by M. J. Brusse, Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant, May 26 and June 2, 1914.
- ^ "he would not eat meat, only a little morsel on Sundays, and then only after being urged by our landlady for a long time. Four potatoes with a suspicion of gravy and a mouthful of vegetables constituted his whole dinner"— from a letter to Frederik van Eeden, to help him with preparation for his article on Van Gogh in De Nieuwe Gids (issue 1 December, 1890), quoted in Van Gogh: A Self-Portrait; Letters Revealing His Life as a Painter, selected by W. H. Auden, New York Graphic Society, Greenwich, CT. 1961. See pages 37 – 39.
- ^ Erickson page 23
- ^ Letter 129, April 1879, and Letter 132. Van Gogh lodged in Wasmes, at 22 rue de Wilson, with Jean-Baptiste Denis, a breeder or grower ('cultivateur', in the French original) according to Letter 553b. In the recollections of his nephew Jean Richez, gathered by Wilkie (in the 1970s!), page 72-78, Denis and his wife Esther were running a bakery, and Richez admits that the only source of his knowledge is Aunt Esther.
- ^ Wilkie page 75
- ^ Wilkie, page 77
- ^ Letter from mother to Theo, 7 August 1879 and Callow, work cited, page 72
- ^ there are different views as to this period; Jan Hulsker in Vincent and Theo van Gogh, a dual biography, Fuller Publications, Ann Arbor, 1990. ISBN 0-940537-05-2 opts for a return to the Borinage and then back to Etten in this period; the forthcoming catalogue for the 2006 Budapest Van Gogh exhibition supports the line taken in this article
- ^ Letter 158
- ^ see Jan Hulsker's speech The Borinage Episode and the Misrepresentation of Vincent van Gogh, Van Gogh Symposium, 10-11 May 1990, referenced in Erickson, pages 67-68
- ^ Letter 134, dated 20 August 1880 from Cuesmes; also Wilkie, page 79
- ^ "Vincent Van Gogh biography". expo-vangogh.com. 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
- ^ Erickson, page 5.
- ^ Letter 153 to Theo dated 3 November 1881
- ^ Letter 161 to Theo 23 November 1881
- ^ Letter 164 from Etten c.21 December 1881, describing the visit in more detail
- ^ a b Letter 193 from Vincent to Theo, The Hague, 14 May 1882
- ^ Gayford, work cited, pages 130 – 131
- ^ Letter 166,
- ^ Callow, page 116, citing the work of Hulsker
- ^ Callow pages 123 - 124
- ^ Callow page 117
- ^ Callow, page 116, citing the research of Jan Hulsker; the two dead children were born in 1874 and 1879.
- ^ Wilkie, page 176. Forceps were used in the birth. Baby Willem was 3.42 kg and 53 cm at birth, suggesting conception occurred late August or early September 1881 ... see Wilkie page 201. Van Gogh had visited The Hague briefly 23 – 26 August where he visited Anton Mauve and viewed the Panorama Mesdag
- ^ Callow, page 132
- ^ Letter 203, 30 May 1882 (postcard written in English)
- ^ Letter 2068 or 9 June 1882
- ^ Arnold, page 38
- ^ a b Wilkie, page 183
- ^ Wilkie, page 185
- ^ Wilkie, page 201
- ^ Johannes de Looyer, Karel van Engeland, Hendricus Dekkers, and Piet van Hoorn all as old men recalled being paid 5, 10 or 50 cents per nest, depending on the type of bird. See Wilkie, pages 25-26, and Theo's son's note
- ^ Vincent's nephew noted some reminiscences of local residents in 1949, including the description of the speed of his drawing
- ^ Wilkie, page 82
- ^ the girl was Gordina de Groot, who died in 1927; she claimed the father was not Van Gogh, but a relative; see Wilkie page 26
- ^ Callow, page 181
- ^ Callow, page 184
- ^ Hammacher, page 84
- ^ Callow, page 253
- ^ Vincent's doctor was Hubertus Amadeus Cavenaile; Wilkie, pages 143-146
- ^ Arnold, page 77. The evidence for syphilis is thin, coming solely from interviews with the grandson of the doctor; see Tralbaut, M. E. Vincent van Gogh, New York, The Alpine Fine Arts Collection, 1981, pages 177-178, and Wilkie, pages 143-146
- ^ van der Wolk, J. The Seven Sketchbooks of Vincent van Gogh: a facsimile edition, Harry Abrams Inc, New York, 1987, pages 104-105
- ^ 70 of Van Gogh's abandoned paintings were bought by a junk dealer, who burned some of them and sold others at very low prices.
- ^ D. Druick & P. Zegers, Van Gogh and Gauguin: The Studio of the South, Thames & Hudson, 2001, page 81; Gayford, work cited, page 50
- ^ Letter 510, Letter 544a
- ^ Alfred Nemeczek, Van Gogh in Arles, Prestel Verlag, 1999, ISBN 3-7913-2230-3, pages 59 – 61.
- ^ Gayford, The Yellow House, page 16
- ^ Callow, p 219
- ^ Letter 534; Gayford, page 18
- ^ Letter 537; Nemeczek, page 61
- ^ Martin Gayford, The Yellow House: Van Gogh, Gauguin, and Nine Turbulent Weeks in Arles, Fig Tree, Penguin, 2006. ISBN 0-670-91497-5. See page 61
- ^ According to Doiteau & Leroy, the diagonal cut removed the lobe and probably a little more.
- ^ Callow, page 246
- ^ One of these four portraits sold at auction in May 2006 for more than $40 million.
- ^ John Rewald, Post-Impressionism, revised edition: Secker & Warburg, London England. 1978, p. 346-347 and 348-350
- ^ Letter 648
- ^ Letter 629 30 April 1890
- ^ "Vincent van Gogh study guide". sparknotes.com. 2006. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
- ^ DIEUMO, J.B. (2006). "Homage To Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890)". vangoghpromo.co. Studio-web. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
- ^ Blumer, Dietrich (2002)"The Illness of Vincent van Gogh" American Journal of Psychiatry
- ^ Wolf, Paul (November 2001). "Creativity and chronic disease Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890)". Western Journal of Medicine. 175 (5): 348. Retrieved 2006-10-07.
- ^ Ross King. The Judgment of Paris: The Revolutionary Decade that Gave the World Impressionism. New York: Waller & Company, 2006 ISBN 0-8027-1466-8. See page 61.
- ^ William J. Cromie (2004-01-29). "The brains behind writer's block". Harvard Gazette.
- ^ Star dates Van Gogh canvas 8 March, 2001
- ^ 'Kolmogorov scaling in impassioned van Gogh paintings' by J. L. Aragón, Gerardo G. Naumis, M. Bai, M. Torres, P.K. Maini; 28 June 2006
Sources
- Beaujean, Dieter. Vincent van Gogh: Life and Work, Könemann 1999, ISBN 3-8290-2938-1
- †Callow, Philip. Vincent Van Gogh: A Life, Ivan R. Dee, 1990, ISBN 1-56663-134-3
- Erickson, Kathleen Powers. At Eternity's Gate: The Spiritual Vision of Vincent van Gogh, 1998, ISBN 0-8028-4978-4
- †Gayford, Martin. The Yellow House: Van Gogh, Gauguin, and Nine Turbulent Weeks in Arles, Fig Tree, Penguin, 2006, ISBN 0-670-91497-5
- Hammacher, A.M. Vincent van Gogh: Genius and Disaster, Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, New York, 1985, ISBN 0-8109-8067-3
- van Heugten, Sjraar Van Gogh The Master Draughtsman, Thames and Hudson, 2005 ISBN-13: 978-0-500-23825-7 ISBN-10: 0-500-23825-1
- Hulsker, Jan. Vincent and Theo van Gogh, a dual biography, Fuller Publications, Ann Arbor, 1990, ISBN 0-940537-05-2
- Rewald, John. Post-Impressionism: From van Gogh to Gauguin, revised edition, Secker & Warburg 1978, ISBN 0-436-41151-2
- Walther, Ingo F., and Metzger, Rainer. Van Gogh: the Complete Paintings, Benedikt Taschen 1997, ISBN 3-8228-8265-8
- †Wilkie, Ken. The Van Gogh Assignment, Paddington Press, 1978; republished: The Van Gogh File. A Journey of Discovery, Souvenir Press, 1990, ISBN 0-285-62965-4
- †Wilkie, Ken. In Search of Van Gogh, 1991, ISBN 1-55958-101-8 (not valid?)
- Grossvogel, David I. "Behind the Van Gogh Forgeries: A Memoir by David I. Grossvogel" Authors Choice Press (March 2001), ISBN-10: 0595177174
- † Tertiary sources, with little or no reference to sources
External links
- Vincent van Gogh Gallery. The complete works and letters of Vincent van Gogh.
- Van Gogh's Letters, unabridged and annotated.
- Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Van Gogh at the National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., United States.
- Photographs of locations in Auvers-sur-Oise painted by Van Gogh.
- 'Drama at Arles new light on Van Gogh's self-mutilation' from Apollo, September 2005 by Martin Bailey.