Thomas Jefferson | |
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3rd President of the United States | |
In office March 4, 1801 – March 4, 1809 | |
Vice President | Aaron Burr George Clinton |
Preceded by | John Adams |
Succeeded by | James Madison |
2nd Vice President of the United States | |
In office March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801 | |
President | John Adams |
Preceded by | John Adams |
Succeeded by | Aaron Burr |
1st United States Secretary of State | |
In office March 22, 1790 – December 31, 1793 | |
President | George Washington |
Preceded by | John Jay (Acting) |
Succeeded by | Edmund Randolph |
United States Ambassador to France | |
In office May 17, 1785 – September 26, 1789 | |
Appointed by | Congress of the Confederation |
Preceded by | Benjamin Franklin |
Succeeded by | William Short |
Delegate from Virginia to the Congress of the Confederation | |
In office November 1, 1783 – May 7, 1784 | |
2nd Governor of Virginia | |
In office June 1, 1779 – June 3, 1781 | |
Preceded by | Patrick Henry |
Succeeded by | William Fleming |
Delegate from Virginia to the Second Continental Congress | |
In office June 20, 1775 – September 26, 1776 | |
Personal details | |
Born | Shadwell, Virginia | April 13, 1743
Died | July 4, 1826 Charlottesville, Virginia, United States | (aged 83)
Political party | Democratic-Republican Party |
Spouse | Martha Wayles |
Children | Martha Jane Mary Lucy I Lucy II |
Alma mater | College of William and Mary |
Profession | Planter Lawyer Teacher |
Signature | |
Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826)[1] was the third President of the United States (1801–1809) and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776). Jefferson was one of the most influential Founding Fathers, known for his promotion of the ideals of republicanism in the United States. Jefferson envisioned America as the force behind a great "Empire of Liberty"[2] that would promote republicanism and counter the imperialism of the British Empire by extending across the continent.
Jefferson served as the wartime Governor of Virginia (1779–1781), first United States Secretary of State (1789–1793), and second Vice President of the United States (1797–1801). Major accomplishments during his presidency include the Louisiana Purchase (1803), and the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806). Jefferson's tenure also saw escalating tensions with both Britain and France, which led to war with Britain in 1812 after he left office.
He idealized the independent yeoman farmer as exemplar of republican virtues, distrusted cities and financiers, and favored states' rights and a strictly limited federal government. Jefferson supported the separation of church and state[3] and was the author of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1779, 1786). He was the eponym of Jeffersonian democracy and the cofounder and leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, which dominated American politics for 25 years.
Jefferson, born into a prominent planter family, owned hundreds of slaves throughout his life; he held views on the racial inferiority of Africans common for his time and place.[4][5][6][7] Allegations that Jefferson fathered several children with his slave Sally Hemings have been made since Jefferson's time.[8] Based on late 20th century historical studies and a 1998 DNA analysis[9], a consensus supporting this claim has emerged among leading scholars.[10][11]
Early life and education
Childhood
Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743 [1] into a family closely related to some of the most prominent individuals in Virginia, the third of ten children. Two died in childhood.[12] His mother was Jane Randolph, daughter of Isham Randolph of Dungeness, a ship's captain and sometime planter, first cousin to Peyton Randolph, and granddaughter of wealthy English and Scottish gentry. Jefferson's father was Peter Jefferson, a planter and surveyor in Albemarle County (Shadwell, then Edge Hill, Virginia.) He was of possible Welsh descent, although this remains unclear.[13] When Colonel William Randolph, an old friend of Peter Jefferson, died in 1745, Peter assumed executorship and personal charge of William Randolph's estate in Tuckahoe as well as his infant son, Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr. That year the Jeffersons relocated to Tuckahoe where they would remain for the next seven years before returning to their home in Albemarle. Peter Jefferson was then appointed to the Colonelcy of the county, an important position at the time.[14]
Education
In 1752, Jefferson began attending a local school run by a local Scottish Presbyterian minister. At the age of nine, Jefferson began studying Latin, Greek, and French; he learned to ride, and began to appreciate the study of nature. In 1757, when he was 14 years old, his father died. Jefferson inherited about 5,000 acres (20 km²) of land and dozens of slaves. He built his home there, which eventually became known as Monticello. He studied under the minister James Maury from 1758 to 1760 near Gordonsville, Virginia; Jefferson boarded with Maury's family. There he studied history, science and the classics.[15]
At the age of 16 Jefferson entered the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, and for two years he studied mathematics, metaphysics, and philosophy under Professor William Small, who introduced the enthusiastic Jefferson to the writings of the British Empiricists, including John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton.[16] He also improved his French, Greek, and violin. A diligent student, Jefferson displayed an avid curiosity in all fields. He lodged and boarded at the College in the building known today as the Sir Christopher Wren Building, attending communal meals in the Great Hall, and morning and evening prayers in the Wren Chapel. Jefferson often attended the lavish parties of royal governor Francis Fauquier, where he played his violin and developed an early love for wines.[17] After graduating in 1762 with highest honors, he read law with William & Mary law professor George Wythe and was admitted to the Virginia bar in 1767.[18]
After college
On October 1, 1765, Jefferson's oldest sister Jane died at the age of 25.[19] Jefferson fell into a period of deep mourning, as he was already saddened by the absence of his sisters Mary, who had been married several years to Thomas Bolling, and Martha, who had wed earlier in July to Dabney Carr.[19] Both had moved to their husbands' residences, leaving younger siblings Elizabeth, Lucy, and the two toddlers as his companions. Jefferson was not comforted by the presence of Elizabeth or Lucy as they did not provide him with the same intellectual stimulation as his older siblings had.[19]
Jefferson would go on to handle many cases as a lawyer in colonial Virginia, and was very active from 1768 to 1773.[20] Jefferson's client list included members of the Virginia's elite families, including members of his mother's family, the Randolphs.[20]
Monticello
In 1768 Thomas Jefferson started the construction of Monticello, a neoclassical mansion. Starting in childhood, Jefferson had always wanted to build a beautiful mountaintop home within sight of Shadwell.[21][22] Jefferson went greatly in debt on Monticello by spending lavishly to create a neoclassical environment, based on his study of the architect Andrea Palladio and the classical orders. [23]
Toward revolution
Besides practicing law, Jefferson represented Albemarle County in the Virginia House of Burgesses beginning in 1769. Following the passage of the Coercive Acts by the British Parliament in 1774, he wrote a set of resolutions against the acts, which were expanded into A Summary View of the Rights of British America, his first published work. Previous criticism of the Coercive Acts had focused on legal and constitutional issues, but Jefferson offered the radical notion that the colonists had the natural right to govern themselves.[24] Jefferson also argued that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and had no legislative authority in the colonies.[24] The paper was intended to serve as instructions for the Virginia delegation of the First Continental Congress, but Jefferson's ideas proved to be too radical for that body.[24]
Political career from 1775 to 1800
Drafting a declaration
Jefferson served as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress beginning in June 1775, soon after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. When Congress began considering a resolution of independence in June 1776, Jefferson was appointed to a five-man committee to prepare a declaration to accompany the resolution. The committee selected Jefferson to write the first draft probably because of his reputation as a writer. The assignment was considered routine; no one at the time thought that it was a major responsibility.[25] Jefferson completed a draft in consultation with other committee members, drawing on his own proposed draft of the Virginia Constitution, George Mason's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, and other sources.[26]
Jefferson showed his draft to the committee, which made some final revisions, and then presented it to Congress on June 28, 1776. After voting in favor of the resolution of independence on July 2, Congress turned its attention to the declaration. Over several days of debate, Congress made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text, most notably a passage critical of the slave trade, changes that Jefferson resented.[27] On July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved. The Declaration would eventually become Jefferson's major claim to fame, and his eloquent preamble became an enduring statement of human rights.[27]
State legislator
In September 1776, Jefferson returned to Virginia and was elected to the new Virginia House of Delegates. During his term in the House, Jefferson set out to reform and update Virginia's system of laws to reflect its new status as a democratic state. He drafted 126 bills in three years, including laws to abolish primogeniture, establish freedom of religion, and streamline the judicial system. In 1778, Jefferson's "Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge" and subsequent efforts to reduce clerical control led to some small changes at William and Mary College.[28] While in the state legislature Jefferson proposed a bill to eliminate capital punishment for all crimes except murder and treason. His effort to end the death penalty law was defeated.[29]
Governor of Virginia
Jefferson served as governor of Virginia from 1779–1781. As governor, he oversaw the transfer of the state capital from Williamsburg to the more central location of Richmond in 1780. He continued to advocate educational reforms at the College of William and Mary, including the nation's first student-policed honor code. In 1779, at Jefferson's behest, William and Mary appointed George Wythe to be the first professor of law in an American university. Dissatisfied with the rate of changes he wanted to push through, he later became the founder of the University of Virginia, which was the first university in the United States at which higher education was completely separate from religious doctrine.
Virginia was invaded twice by the British led first by Benedict Arnold and then by Lord Cornwallis during Jefferson's term as governor. He, along with Patrick Henry and other leaders of Virginia, were but ten minutes away from being captured by Banastre Tarleton, a British colonel leading a cavalry column that was raiding the area in June 1781.[30] Public disapproval of his performance delayed his future political prospects, and he was never again elected to office in Virginia.[31] He was, however, appointed by the state legislature to Congress in 1783.
Member of Congress
The Virginia state legislature appointed Jefferson to the Congress of the Confederation on 6 June 1783, his term beginning on 1 November. He was a member of the committee formed to set foreign exchange rates, and in that capacity he recommended that the American currency be based on the decimal system.
Jefferson also recommended setting up the Committee of the States, to function as the executive arm of Congress when Congress was not in session.
He left Congress when he was elected a minister plenipotentiary on 7 May 1784. He became Minister to France in 1785.
Minister to France
Jefferson served as minister to France from 1785 to 1789, and did not attend the Philadelphia Convention, though he followed the proceedings by correspondence, and was supportive of it.
He enjoyed the architecture, arts, and the salon culture of Paris. He often dined with many of the city's most prominent people, but sided with the revolutionaries in 1789 French Revolution. He and his daughters brought some of their slaves, like James Hemings, who trained as a French chef. Sally Hemings, James' sister, went with Jefferson's younger daughter. It was likely Jefferson began his long-term relationship with Sally Hemings while in Paris.[32] Both the Hemings learned French during their time in the city.[33]
From 1784 to 1785, Jefferson was one of the architects of trade relations between the United States and Prussia.[34]
Secretary of State
Jefferson served as the first Secretary of State under George Washington (1790–1793). Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton began sparring over national fiscal policy, especially the funding of the debts of the war, with Hamilton believing that the debts should be equally shared, and Jefferson believing that each state should be responsible for its own debt. Jefferson later compared Hamilton and the Federalists with "Royalism", and stated the "Hamiltonians were panting after...crowns, coronets and mitres."[35] Jefferson and James Madison founded and led the Democratic-Republican Party. He worked with Madison and his campaign manager John J. Beckley to build a nationwide network of Republican allies.
In foreign policy Jefferson was repeatedly out-maneuvered by Hamilton. The French minister reported to Paris in 1793 that Jefferson told him, "Senator Morris and Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton...had the greatest influence over the President's mind, and that it was only with difficulty that he [Jefferson] counterbalanced their efforts."[36] Jefferson strongly supported France against Britain when war broke out between those nations in 1793.[37] The new French minister in 1793, Edmond-Charles Genêt, caused a crisis for the Secretary of State, as he watched Genêt try to violate American neutrality, influence public opinion in appealing to the people; projects that Jefferson helped to thwart. According to Schachner, Jefferson believed that political success at home depended on the success of the French army in Europe:[38] Jefferson still clung to his sympathies with France and hoped for the success of her arms abroad and a cordial compact with her at home.
Break from office
Jefferson at the end of 1793 retired to Monticello where he continued to orchestrate opposition to Hamilton and Washington. However, the Jay Treaty of 1794, orchestrated by Hamilton, brought peace and trade with Britain– while Madison, with strong support from Jefferson, wanted, Miller says, "to strangle the former mother country" without going to war. "It became an article of faith among Republicans that 'commercial weapons' would suffice to bring Great Britain to any terms the United States chose to dictate." Jefferson, in retirement, strongly encouraged Madison.[39]
Election of 1796 and Vice Presidency
As the Democratic-Republican candidate in 1796 he lost to John Adams, but had enough electoral votes to become Vice President (1797–1801). He wrote a manual of parliamentary procedure, but otherwise avoided the Senate.
With the Quasi-War, an undeclared naval war with France, underway, the Federalists under John Adams started a navy, built up the army, levied new taxes, readied for war, and enacted the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. Jefferson interpreted the Alien and Sedition Acts as an effort to suppress Democratic-Republicans rather than dangerous enemy aliens and, in fact, they were used to attack his party, with the most notable attacks coming from Matthew Lyon, a representative from Vermont. Jefferson and Madison rallied support by anonymously writing the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which declared that the federal government had no right to exercise powers not specifically delegated to it by the states. The Resolutions meant that, should the federal government assume such powers, its acts under them could be voided by a state. The Resolutions presented the first statements of the states' rights theory, that later led to the concepts of nullification and interposition.
Election of 1800
Working closely with Aaron Burr of New York, Jefferson rallied his party, attacking the new taxes especially, and ran for the Presidency in 1800. Consistent with the traditions of the times, he did not formally campaign for the position. Before the passage of the Twelfth Amendment, a problem with the new union's electoral system arose. He tied with Burr for first place in the electoral college, leaving the House of Representatives (where the Federalists still had some power) to decide the election.
After lengthy debate within the Federalist-controlled House, Hamilton convinced his party that Jefferson would be a lesser political evil than Burr and that such scandal within the electoral process would undermine the still-young regime. On February 17, 1801, after thirty-six ballots, the House elected Jefferson President and Burr Vice President. Jefferson later removed Burr from the ticket in 1804 after Burr killed Hamilton in a duel.
Jefferson owed part of his election to the South's inflated number of Electors of the electoral college, and the counting of slaves under the three-fifths compromise.[40][41] After his election in 1800, some called him the "Negro President", with critics like the Mercury and New-England Palladium of Boston writing on January 20, 1801, that Jefferson had the gall to celebrate his election as a victory for democracy when he won "the temple of Liberty on the shoulders of slaves."[41][42]
Presidency 1801–1809
Jefferson helped repeal many federal taxes in his bid to rely more on customs revenue. He pardoned people imprisoned under the Alien and Sedition Acts, passed in John Adams' term. He repealed the Judiciary Act of 1801 and removed many of Adams' "midnight judges" from office, which led to the Supreme Court deciding the important case of Marbury v. Madison. He began and won the First Barbary War (1801–1805), America's first significant overseas war, and established the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1802.
In 1803, despite his misgivings about Congress's authority to buy land, Jefferson bought the Louisiana Territory from France, doubling the size of the United States. The land thus acquired amounts to 23 percent of the United States today.[43]
In 1807, his former vice president, Aaron Burr, was tried for treason on Jefferson's order, but was acquitted. During the trial Chief Justice John Marshall subpoenaed Jefferson, who invoked executive privilege and claimed that as president he did not need to comply. When Marshall held that the Constitution did not provide the president with any exception to the duty to obey a court order, Jefferson backed down.
In 1803, President Jefferson signed into law a bill that excluded blacks from carrying the U.S. mail. Historian John Hope Franklin called the signing "a gratuitous expression of distrust of free Negroes who had done nothing to merit it." [44]
On March 3, 1807, Jefferson signed a bill making slave importation illegal in the United States.[45][46] Jefferson's reputation was damaged by the Embargo Act of 1807, which was ineffective and was repealed at the end of his second term. He did not veto any bills in office.
Administration, Cabinet and Supreme Court appointments 1801–1809
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States admitted to the Union:
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Father of a university
- Also see: History of the University of Virginia
After his political career, Jefferson focused on creating a university free of religious involvement, offering courses in many new areas not offered elsewhere. This would help create a more organised society, where some schools would be paid for by the general public, for the benefit of poorer Americans.[47]
The University of Virginia was founded opened in 1825, and was Jefferson's project. It was notable for being centered about a library rather than a church. Jefferson is widely recognized for his architectural planning of the University of Virginia grounds, a design that represents his goals education and agriculture. Jefferson liked Greek and Roman styles, which he believed to be appropriate representation of American democracy.[citation needed]
Slavery
Attitude towards slaves and blacks
According to historian Stephen Ambrose: "Jefferson, like all slaveholders and many other white members of American society, regarded Negroes as inferior, childlike, untrustworthy and, of course, as property."[48] In Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson wrote that blacks were inferior to whites "in the endowments both of body and mind."[49] He believed they were inferior to whites in reasoning, mathematical comprehension, and imagination. Jefferson claimed these "differences" were "fixed in nature" and was not dependent on their freedom or education.[50] One possibility Jefferson discussed was that blacks were a "separate species located beneath humans, but above orang-ootans." These alleged "differences" of the "innate inferiority of Blacks compared to Whites", was part of his rationalization for enslaving them, and Magnis says of his writings: "This is the essence of racial bias."[51]
Jefferson did not believe that African Americans could live in American society as free people, saying "Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate than that these people are to be free. [But] the two races...cannot live in the same government."[52] For a long-term solution, he thought that slaves should be freed after reaching maturity and they had repaid their owners investment; afterward, he thought they should be sent to African colonies in what he considered "repatriation", despite their being American-born. Otherwise, he thought the presence of free blacks would encourage a violent uprising by slaves' looking for freedom.[53] Jefferson expressed his fear of slave rebellion: "We have the wolf by the ears; and we can neither hold him, nor safely let him go. Justice is in one scale, and self-preservation in the other."[54]
In 1809, he wrote to Abbé Grégoire, whose book argued against Jefferson's claims of black inferiority in Notes on Virginia. Jefferson said blacks had "respectable intelligence", but did not alter his views.[55][56] In August 1814 Edward Coles and Jefferson corresponded about Coles' ideas on emancipation. Jefferson urged Coles not to free his slaves.[57][58]
Slavery
Jefferson inherited slaves as a child, and owned hundreds of black men, women and children all his life.[59] A few biographers take the position that Jefferson's debt prevented him freeing his slaves;[60] however, some academics, like Finkelman, dismiss this idea, and say that freeing slaves was "not even a mildly important goal". The historian notes Jefferson's lavish spending at Monticello and failure to take any steps when contemporaries were allowing slaves to hire themselves out and pay off their purchase price for freedom, something Jefferson could have done.[61] His claimed ambivalence was reflected in his treatment of those slaves who worked most closely with him and his family at Monticello and in other locations.[62]
While Jefferson was a member of the Virginia legislature during the 1770s, he authored legislation preventing freed blacks from living or moving into Virginia, and punishing interracial relations. Jefferson believed that freed blacks should be deported and replaced with white settlers. The forced deportation of blacks would prevent a race war between former slaves and whites, according to Jefferson. He proposed what he considered to be reasonable policies: education, emancipation, and repatriation of the former slaves.[65][66]
In his first draft of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson condemned the British crown for the slave trade, but not slavery, saying he (the King) "has waged cruel war against human nature itself...captivating & carrying them into slavery." He also condemned the King for "inciting American Negroes to rise in arms against their masters".[67][68] However, this language was dropped from the Declaration at the request of delegates from South Carolina and Georgia.
In 1778 the Virginia legislature passed a bill he introduced to ban further importation of slaves into the state; he said it "stopped the increase of the evil by importation, leaving to future efforts its final eradication." Many slave owners opposed the international slave trade, while supporting slavery. Ending the importation of slaves benefitted slaveholders beause it increased the value of slaves and decreased the chances of slave rebellion associated with new arrivals.[69][70]
In 1807, as President, Jefferson signed a bill abolishing the import or export of slaves, which was already outlawed by all states except South Carolina; he was not the main force behind the legislation, to which resistance was small.[71]
Marriage and family
Acknowledged wife and children
In 1772, at age 29 Jefferson married the 23-year-old widow Martha Wayles Skelton. They had six children: Martha Jefferson Randolph (1772–1836), Jane Randolph (1774–1775), a stillborn or unnamed son (1777), Mary Jefferson Eppes (1778–1804), Lucy Elizabeth (1780–1781), and another Lucy Elizabeth (1782–1785). Martha died on September 6, 1782, after the birth of her last child. Jefferson never remarried.
Sally Hemings and her children
As a widower, Jefferson had a long-term, intimate relationship with one of his slaves, Sally Hemings. Of mixed race, she was three-fourths white, described as pretty and agreeable, and a half-sister to Jefferson's late wife, as they both had John Wayles as father. Sally Hemings' six mixed-race children by Jefferson thus had seven-eighths European ancestry. Four survived to adulthood and three later entered white communities. Some of the children were said to strongly resemble Jefferson.[72][10]
Jefferson allowed Beverley (a male) and Harriet Hemings to escape Monticello in 1822 without attempts to capture them; they went on to live according to their appearances as whites and married white partners.[73] Jefferson gave special treatment to the Hemings family; he manumitted only two slaves during his lifetime, Robert Hemings in 1794 and James Hemings, Sally's brother whom he had trained as a French chef, in 1796.[74]
Jefferson freed five additional slaves by his will upon his death, including Sally's youngest sons Madison and Eston Hemings, who were the only two of her children left at Monticello. The academic consensus now is that these were both Jefferson's sons by Sally, and her other children were his. All the slaves he freed were males from the Hemings family.[75] Jefferson also freed Joe Fossett, but not his wife or their eight children; they were sold to different slave owners in the slave auction after Jefferson's death.[76] Six months after Jefferson's death, the estate auctioned off 130 enslaved men, women, and children from Monticello to help pay the outstanding debts.[77]
James T. Callender was a political pamphleteer whom Jefferson had secretly employed. After Jefferson became President, he denied Callender a patronage appointment. Angered, in 1802 Callender wrote newspaper articles alleging that Jefferson had fathered several children with Sally Hemings. Jefferson said: "I should have fancied myself half guilty had I condescended to put pen to paper in refutation of their falsehoods".[citation needed] As the contemporary historian Gordon-Reed has since pointed out, it made sense for the time for Jefferson to ignore Callender's allegations; already a private man, he had everything to gain by trying to keep his personal life private.
According to the 19th-century biographer Henry Randall, Jefferson's oldest grandson Thomas Jefferson Randolph and others told him that Sally Hemings had been the mistress of Jefferson's nephew Peter Carr, and that it was "notorious at Monticello." He also relied on Randolph's saying (based on a letter from Martha Randolph, his mother) that Jefferson had been gone for more than a year prior to the birth of one of Hemings' children. Randall concluded "there was not the shadow of suspicion" involving Jefferson.[78][79][80] The 1998 DNA study below disproved any connection between the Carr family and Sally Hemings' descendants, showing that Randall was mistaken.[10] Later historians failed to examine his assumptions and evidence closely, and apparently did not re-examine the family's statements.
The controversy continued to simmer; in the late 19th-century, Jefferson's putative son Madison Hemings gave a newspaper interview telling of his relationship to Jefferson, which was confirmed by the memoir of Isaac Jefferson, another former Monticello slave. Neighbors of Madison and Eston Hemings in Chillicothe, Ohio were well aware of their relationship to the former president. When Hemings' memoir was rediscovered in the 1950s, notable historians such as Merrill D. Peterson and Douglass Adair generally discounted his and Isaac Jefferson's accounts, believing their publication to be politically motivated by Jefferson's enemies. Their dismissal influenced historians who followed them and did not re-examine the evidence or re-evaluate the original testimonies and data.[81]
In the 20th-century historians and writers reviewed the issues again. In 1974 Fawn McKay Brodie published a biography of Jefferson that was the first to fully explore the possible relationship with Hemings. She identified critical material, using the biographer Dumas Malone's own timeline to establish that Jefferson was at Monticello nine months before Sally Hemings had each of her children (that is, at the time of conception), in contrast to nineteenth-century testimonies. But because of her psychological analysis of Jefferson, her work was largely discounted by notable Jefferson specialists, including Malone and Peterson. Malone rejected the idea of Jefferson's relationship with Hemings based on "character" - meaning that he held the man up as an icon and believed his denials about Hemings.[82][83] Academic historians continued to publish biographies discounting the Hemings story, such as Joseph Ellis in his 1993 award-winning book, American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson.
In 1997 the 20th-century legal historian Annette Gordon-Reed published a book that evaluated the historical evidence, and demonstrated how many historians had misinterpreted and discounted certain evidence as they assessed the controversy. She "drew on her legal training to apply context and reasonable interpretation to the sparse documentation".[84] For instance, she noted the historians' tendency to favor testimony by Jefferson's family, that is, slaveholders, over that of slaves, and of whites over blacks, leading to errors. In addition, she noted the significance of Jefferson's freeing only five male slaves in his will, all from the Hemings' extended family, including Sally Hemings' two sons Madison Hemings and Eston Hemings. His daughter Martha Randolph essentially provided Sally Hemings with freedom after Jefferson's death by "giving her time", and she lived free in Charlottesville with her sons Madison and Eston for the remainder of her life. The Hemings' were the only slave family at Monticello to have all its members gain freedom.[85][86]
In 1998, Eugene Foster led a group of scientists who collected and coded the DNA of the surviving male relatives of Jefferson's paternal uncle, Field Jefferson, and John Carr (father of Peter and Samuel), the father of two men some historians claimed were the most likely to have fathered some of Sally Heming's children. Their samples were compared against the male descendants of Thomas Woodson and Eston Hemings, two men whose families claimed Jefferson was the father through Sally Hemings. The coded DNA samples were analysed at Oxford University.[87] The results concluded that Thomas Woodson was not related to Jefferson, nor was the Carr line related to the Hemings descendants. They said "the simplest and most probable explanations for our molecular findings are that Thomas Jefferson, rather than one of the Carr brothers, was the father of Eston Hemings Jefferson." Whilst noting the possibility of one of Field Jefferson's male descendants as the father, Foster's group said there was an "absence of historical evidence" that made this or other "possibilities...unlikely".[88] Joseph Ellis, who was interviewed on the Newshour program discussing the findings in November 1998, said that he had revised his opinion due to this new evidence:
- It's not so much a change of heart, but this is really new evidence. And it—prior to this evidence, I think it was a very difficult case to know and circumstantial on both sides, and, in part, because I got it wrong, I think I want to step forward and say this new evidence constitutes, well, evidence beyond any reasonable doubt that Jefferson had a longstanding sexual relationship with Sally Hemings.[89]
The Monticello Foundation established a committee of researchers to evaluate the controversy. In 2000 its report concluded that the weight of historical evidence, combined with the DNA results, that Thomas Jefferson was the father of Eston Heming and likely had a long-term relationship with Sally and fathered her other children.[90] In 2001, the National Genealogical Society published an article that drew the same conclusion, as well as addressing the failings of a report by a group of scholars representing the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society, who argued against Jefferson as the father.[91]
In the last decade, scholars have generally recognized that the direction of work on Jefferson has changed as a result of these findings and the consensus is he did have the long-term relationship. In 2007 Gordon-Reed published The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family, that fully explored the slave family, including its interracial entanglements with Thomas Jefferson and his extended family. The book won the Pulitzer Prize for History and fifteen other major historical and literary awards.
In 2010 Gordon-Reed was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship for her books on Jefferson and the Hemings families, through which she examines race and slavery in American history. She was honored for her "persistent investigation into the life of an iconic American president [that] has dramatically changed the course of Jeffersonian scholarship." ..."In disentangling the complicated history of two distinct founding families’ interracial bloodlines, Gordon-Reed is shaping and enriching American history with an authentic portrayal of our colonial past."[84]
Ancestry
Death
Jefferson died on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. He died a few hours before John Adams, his compatriot in their quest for independence, then great political rival, and later friend and correspondent. Adams is often rumored to have referenced Jefferson in his last words, unaware of his passing.[93] Jefferson is considered to have died from a number of conditions in his old age: toxins in his blood and uremia from nephropathy, severe diarrhea, and pneumonia. Problems urinating from a urinary tract infection, while a symptom of kidney disease, have made some consider that Jefferson died from undiagnosed prostate cancer.[94][unreliable source?]
Although he was born into one of the wealthiest families in North America, Thomas Jefferson was deeply in debt when he died. Jefferson's trouble began when his father-in-law died, and he and his brothers-in-law quickly divided the estate before its debts were settled. It made each of them liable for the whole amount due– which turned out to be more than they expected.
Jefferson sold land before the American Revolution to pay off the debts, but by the time he received payment, the paper money was worthless amid the skyrocketing inflation of the war years. Cornwallis ravaged Jefferson's plantation during the war, and British creditors resumed their collection efforts when the conflict ended. Jefferson suffered another financial setback when he cosigned notes for a relative who reneged on debts in the financial Panic of 1819. Only Jefferson's public stature prevented creditors from seizing Monticello and selling it out from under him during his lifetime.
After his death, his possessions, including 130 slaves who had spent their lives at Monticello, were sold at auction. He freed five slaves in his will, all from the Hemings family. In 1831, Jefferson's 552 acres (223 hectares) were sold to James T. Barclay for $7,000, equivalent to $200,288 today.[95] Thomas Jefferson is buried on his Monticello estate in Charlottesville. In his will, he left Monticello to the United States to be used as a school for orphans of navy officers.
His epitaph, written by him with an insistence that only his words and "not a word more" be inscribed (notably omitting his service as Governor of Virginia, Vice-President and President), reads:
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Below the epitaph, on a separate panel, is written
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The initials O.S. are a notation for Old Style and that is a reference to the change of dating that occurred during Jefferson's lifetime from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar under the British Calendar (New Style) Act 1750.[96]
Appearance and temperament
Jefferson was a thin, tall man, who stood at 6'2" 1/2 but was not particularly imposing; his eyes were small, his skin tone was pale.[97] Over the years Jefferson suffered from numerous ailments, in addition to frequent bouts of anxiety and psychological depression. Some of his known maladies include episodic headaches, dysentery, urinary tract obstruction, malaria, and diabetes.[98]
"The Sage of Monticello" cultivated an image that earned him the other nickname, "Man of the People." He affected a popular air by greeting White House guests in homespun attire like a robe and bedroom slippers, which European diplomats assumed was a deliberate insult.[99] Dolley Madison, wife of James Madison (Jefferson's secretary of state), and Jefferson's daughters relaxed White House protocol and turned formal state dinners into more casual and entertaining social events.[100]
Jefferson's writings were utilitarian and evidenced great intellect, and he had an affinity with languages. He learned Gaelic to translate Ossian, and sent to James Macpherson for the originals.[101]
As President, he discontinued the practice of delivering the State of the Union address in person, instead sending the address to Congress in writing (the practice was eventually revived by Woodrow Wilson); he gave only two public speeches during his Presidency. Jefferson had a lisp[102] and preferred writing to public speaking partly because of this. He burned all of his letters between himself and his wife at her death, creating the portrait of a man who at times could be very private. Indeed, he preferred working in the privacy of his office rather than in the public eye.[103]
Interests and activities
Jefferson was an accomplished architect who helped popularize bringing the Neo-Palladian in the United States. Jefferson invented many small practical devices, such as a rotating book stand and (in collaboration with Charles Wilson Peale) a number of improvements to the polygraph.[104]
Jefferson was interested in birds and wine, and was a noted gourmet. He was an avid book collector as well, and his collection later formed the basis of the Library of Congress' website for federal legislative information is named THOMAS, in honor of Jefferson.[105] In 2007, Jefferson's two-volume 1764 edition of the Qur'an was used by Rep. Keith Ellison for his swearing in to the House of Representatives.[106]
Political philosophy and views
Jefferson was a leader in developing republicanism in the United States. He insisted that the British aristocratic system was inherently corrupt and that Americans' devotion to civic virtue required independence. In the 1790s he repeatedly warned that Hamilton and Adams were trying to impose a British-like monarchical system that threatened republicanism. He supported the War of 1812, hoping it would drive away the British military and ideological threat from Canada.
Jefferson's vision for American virtue was that of an agricultural nation of yeoman farmers minding their own affairs. His agrarianism stood in contrast to the vision of Alexander Hamilton of a nation of commerce and manufacturing, which Jefferson said offered too many temptations to corruption. Jefferson's deep belief in the uniqueness and the potential of America made him the father of American exceptionalism. In particular, he was confident that an underpopulated America could avoid what he considered the horrors of class-divided, industrialized Europe.[citation needed]
Jefferson's republican political principles were heavily influenced by the Country Party of 18th century British opposition writers. He was influenced by John Locke (particularly relating to the principle of inalienable rights). Historians find few traces of any influence by his French contemporary, Jean-Jacques Rousseau.[107]
Francophilia
Jefferson was notorious for his love of France and French culture.[108][109] Even during the excesses of the Reign of Terror, Jefferson refused to disavow the revolution because he was "convinced that the fates of the two republics were indissolubly linked. To back away from France would be to undermine the cause of republicanism in America." [110] Commenting on the continuing revolutions in Holland and France, the retired Secretary of State predicted: "this ball of liberty, I believe most piously, is now so well in motion that it will roll round the globe, at least the enlightened part of it, for light & liberty go together. it is our glory that we first put it into motion."[111]
The "staunchly Francophile"[112] Jefferson, and by extension his adherents or "Jeffersonians", were characterized by his political enemies, the Federalists, as "decadent, ungodly and immoral Francophiles"[113]
Jefferson would often sign his letters "Affectionately adieu", and commented late in life "France, freed from that monster, Bonaparte, must again become the most agreeable country on earth."[114]
The 1995 film Jefferson in Paris by James Ivory, recalls this connection.
Banks and bankers
Jefferson distrusted all forms of banking, which he identified with speculation and chicanery and because they were owned by foreign interests. He opposed borrowing from banks because it created long-term debt as well as monopolies, and inclined the people to dangerous speculation, as opposed to productive labor on the farm. He felt that each generation should pay back its debt within 19 years, and not impose a long-term debt on subsequent generations. Jefferson fought against Hamilton's proposed Bank of the United States in 1790, but lost. Jefferson also opposed the bank loans that financed the War of 1812.[115] His fellow tobacco planters, however, recognized the need for banks in order to finance the purchase of new land and new slaves, and support commerce, industry and internal improvements.[116]
Jefferson often attacked banks, paper money and borrowing as inimical to Republicanism;[117] in retirement in 1816, he wrote John Taylor:
- "The system of banking we have both equally and ever reprobated. I contemplate it as a blot left in all our constitutions, which, if not covered, will end in their destruction, which is already hit by the gamblers in corruption, and is sweeping away in its progress the fortunes and morals of our citizens."[118]
Individual rights
Jefferson believed that each individual has "certain inalienable rights". He defines the right of "liberty" by saying, "Rightful liberty is unobstructed action according to our will within limits drawn around us by the equal rights of others..."[119] Hence, for Jefferson, though government cannot create a right to liberty, it can indeed violate it. A proper government, for Jefferson, is one that not only prohibits individuals in society from infringing on the liberty of other individuals, but also restrains itself from diminishing individual liberty.
Jefferson's commitment to equality was expressed in his successful efforts to abolish primogeniture in Virginia, the rule by which the first born son inherited all the land.[120]
Jefferson believed that individuals have an innate sense of morality that prescribes right from wrong when dealing with other individuals—that whether they choose to restrain themselves or not, they have an innate sense of the natural rights of others. Jefferson is sometimes seen as a philosophical anarchist.[121] However, Jefferson believed anarchism to be "inconsistent with any great degree of population".[122]
Jefferson's dedication to "consent of the governed" was so thorough that he believed that individuals could not be morally bound by the actions of preceding generations. This included debts as well as law.[123] He also advocated that the national debt be eliminated. He did not believe that living individuals had a moral obligation to repay the debts of previous generations.[124]
States' rights
Jefferson's very strong defense of States' rights, especially in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798, set the tone for hostility to expansion of federal powers. However, some of his foreign policies did strengthen the government. Most important was the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, when he used the implied powers to annex a huge foreign territory and all its French and Indian inhabitants. The population was estimated to be 97,000 as of the 1810 census.[125] His enforcement of the Embargo Act of 1807, while it failed in terms of foreign policy, demonstrated that the federal government could intervene with great force at the local level in controlling trade that might lead to war.
Carrying of arms
Jefferson copied many excerpts from the various books he read into his "Legal Commonplace Book."[126] One passage he copied which touches on gun control was from Cesare Beccaria's Essay on Crimes and Punishments. The passage, which is written in Italian, discusses the "false idea of utility” (false idee di utilità) which Beccaria saw as underlying some laws. It can be translated, in part, as:
A principal source of errors and injustice are false ideas of utility. For example: that legislator has false ideas of utility ... who would deprive men of the use of fire for fear of their being burnt, and of water for fear of their being drowned; and who knows of no means of preventing evil but by destroying it.
The laws of this nature are those which forbid to wear arms, disarming those only who are not disposed to commit the crime which the laws mean to prevent. ... It certainly makes the situation of the assaulted worse, and of the assailants better, and rather encourages than prevents murder, as it requires less courage to attack unarmed than armed persons.[127]
Jefferson's only notation was, "False idee di utilità."[127] It isn't known whether Jefferson agreed with the example Beccaria used, or with the general idea, or if he had some other reason for copying the passage.
Judiciary
Trained as a lawyer, Jefferson was a gifted writer but never a good speaker or advocate and was never comfortable in court. He believed that judges should be technical specialists but should not set policy. He privately felt the 1803 Supreme Court ruling in Marbury v. Madison was a violation of democracy, for it made the Supreme Court the final decision-maker on the Constitution. He lacked enough support in Congress to propose a Constitutional amendment to overturn it.[128] Jefferson continued to oppose the doctrine of judicial review.
Rebellion to restrain government and retain individual rights
After the Revolutionary War, Jefferson advocated restraining government via rebellion and violence when necessary, in order to protect individual freedoms. In a letter to James Madison on January 30, 1787, Jefferson wrote, "A little rebellion, now and then, is a good thing, and as necessary in the political world as storms in the physical...It is a medicine necessary for the sound health of government."[129] Similarly, in a letter to Abigail Adams on February 22, 1787 he wrote, "The spirit of resistance to government is so valuable on certain occasions that I wish it to be always kept alive. It will often be exercised when wrong, but better so than not to be exercised at all."[129] Concerning Shays' Rebellion after he had heard of the bloodshed, on November 13, 1787 Jefferson wrote to William S. Smith, John Adams' son-in-law, "What signify a few lives lost in a century or two? The tree of liberty must from time to time be refreshed with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure."[130] In another letter to William S. Smith during 1787, Jefferson wrote: And what country can preserve its liberties, if the rulers are not warned from time to time, that this people preserve the spirit of resistance? Let them take arms.[129]
Women in politics
Jefferson disliked seeing women take political roles, Historian Richard Morris wrote, "Abigail Adams excepted, Jefferson detested intellectual women. Annoyed by the political chatter of women in Parisian salons, he wrote home expressing the hope that 'our good ladies ... are contented to soothe and calm the minds of their husbands returning ruffled from political debate.'" While President, Jefferson wrote that "The appointment of a woman to office is an innovation for which the public is not prepared, nor am I."[131]
Religion
The religious views of Thomas Jefferson diverged from the orthodox Christianity of his day. Throughout his life Jefferson was intensely interested in theology, biblical study, and morality. He is most closely connected with the Episcopal Church, Unitarianism, and the religious philosophy of Deism. He wrote to a nephew, "Question with boldness even the existence of a God; because, if there be one, he must more approve of the homage of reason, than that of blind-folded fear."[132][133] In private letters, Jefferson refers to himself as "Christian" (1803),[134][135] "a sect by myself" (1819),[136] an "Epicurean" (1819),[137] a "Materialist" (1820),[138] and a "Unitarian by myself" (1825).[139]
Jefferson believed in the moral teachings of Christ; writing a bible of Christ's teachings without the miracles.[140] Jefferson, however, was firmly anticlerical saying that in "every country and every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot...they have perverted the purest religion ever preached to man into mystery and jargon, unintelligible to all mankind, and therefore the safer for their purposes."[141] Jefferson himself privately expressed doubts on the existence of invisible beings such as God, angels, and the soul writing, "To talk of immaterial existences is to talk of nothings."[142] Jefferson believed that Immaculate Conception by the Virgin Mary would eventually be "classed with the fable of the generation of Minerva in the brain of Jupiter." [143] Jefferson also rejected the predestination doctrine of John Calvin and the Book of Revelation in the Bible.[144]
Native American policy
Jefferson was the first President to propose the idea of a formal Indian Removal plan.[145][146] Andrew Jackson is often erroneously credited with initiating Indian Removal, because Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830 during his presidency. He was in favor of this policy as well and gained legislative support for it. In addition he was involved in the extermination and forceful removal of many Eastern tribes.[145] Jefferson had laid out an approach to Indian removal in a series of private letters that began in 1803 (for example, see letter to William Henry Harrison below).[145]
Between 1776 and 1779, Jefferson recommended forcing the Cherokee and Shawnee tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River.[145] His first such act as president, was to make a deal with the state of Georgia: if Georgia were to release its legal claims to discovery in lands to its west, the U.S. military would help forcefully expel the Cherokee people from Georgia. At the time, the Cherokee had a treaty with the United States government which guaranteed them the right to their lands, which was violated by Jefferson's deal with Georgia.[145]
Acculturation and assimilation
Jefferson's original plan was for Natives to give up their own cultures, religions, and lifestyles in favor of western European culture, Christian religion, and a European-style agricultural lifestyle.[145][146]
Jefferson believed that their assimilation into the European-American economy would make them more dependent on trade with white Americans, and would eventually thereby be willing to give up land that they would otherwise not part with, in exchange for trade goods or to resolve unpaid debts.[147] In an 1803 letter to William Henry Harrison, Jefferson wrote:
- To promote this disposition to exchange lands, which they have to spare and we want, for necessaries, which we have to spare and they want, we shall push our trading uses, and be glad to see the good and influential individuals among them run in debt, because we observe that when these debts get beyond what the individuals can pay, they become willing to lop them off by a cession of lands.... In this way our settlements will gradually circumscribe and approach the Indians, and they will in time either incorporate with us a citizens or the United States, or remove beyond the Mississippi. The former is certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves; but, in the whole course of this, it is essential to cultivate their love. As to their fear, we presume that our strength and their weakness is now so visible that they must see we have only to shut our hand to crush them, and that all our liberalities to them proceed from motives of pure humanity only. Should any tribe be foolhardy enough to take up the hatchet at any time, the seizing the whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, as the only condition of peace, would be an example to others, and a furtherance of our final consolidation.[147]
Forced removal and extermination
In cases where Native tribes resisted assimilation, Jefferson believed that they should be forcefully removed from their land and sent west.[145] As Jefferson put it in a letter to Alexander von Humboldt in 1813:
- You know, my friend, the benevolent plan we were pursuing here for the happiness of the aboriginal inhabitants in our vicinities. We spared nothing to keep them at peace with one another. To teach them agriculture and the rudiments of the most necessary arts, and to encourage industry by establishing among them separate property. In this way they would have been enabled to subsist and multiply on a moderate scale of landed possession. They would have mixed their blood with ours, and been amalgamated and identified with us within no distant period of time. On the commencement of our present war, we pressed on them the observance of peace and neutrality, but the interested and unprincipled policy of England has defeated all our labors for the salvation of these unfortunate people. They have seduced the greater part of the tribes within our neighborhood, to take up the hatchet against us, and the cruel massacres they have committed on the women and children of our frontiers taken by surprise, will oblige us now to pursue them to extermination, or drive them to new seats beyond our reach.[148]
Jefferson believed assimilation was best for Native Americans; second best was removal to the west. The worst possible outcome would happen if Native Americans attacked the whites.[149] He told his Secretary of War, General Henry Dearborn (who was the primary government official responsible for Indian affairs): "if we are constrained to lift the hatchet against any tribe, we will never lay it down until that tribe is exterminated, or driven beyond the Mississipi."[150]
Jefferson on US postage
Since the middle 19th century when the United States Post Office first began using postage stamps Thomas Jefferson's portrait has been found engraved on the face of the various U.S. Postage issues that have honored him. The first U.S. postage stamp to portray Jefferson was issued in March of 1856, (displayed above) nine years after the Post Office issued its first two stamps of Washington and Franklin in 1847. Before this time ink and hand-stamps, usually made of cork or wood, (hence the term 'stamp') were used to mark and confirm payment of postage. Almost as popular and famous as George Washington, Jefferson has appeared comparatively less often on postage issues over the last 160+ years, and unlike Washington and Franklin, appears on just two commemorative issues. All other occurrences of Jefferson are found on regular issues.[151]
There are an above average number of postage stamps that honor Jefferson and are too numerous to include on this page. The additional examples can be viewed in another page.
Jefferson's role in US currency
Three years after the United States Constitution was enacted in 1789 the newly seated Congress once again took up discussion of the issue of coinage. Then on April 2, 1792, Congress approved an Act requiring coins to be minted bearing the words 'United States of America' and also "an impression emblematic of liberty, with an inscription of the word Liberty, and the year of the coinage...". This was the first major step in establishing the US coinage system.[152][153]
The US had its problems to deal with in order to get its currency into circulation, and established in the free market. Not only were there crude minting conditions to improve, there was little gold and silver bullion available at the time, as the US was in its infancy and still recovering from the costs of the revolution. Also the expected movement of new US coinage into the marketplace was greatly impaired by metals speculators who exported US gold and silver coins overseas. The metal imbalance situation got so out of hand that in 1804, President Thomas Jefferson ordered a suspension of gold $10.00 Eagle production. In 1806, Jefferson likewise halted silver dollar production. Not until 1836 did minting of silver dollars resume. For three decades, then, the basal United States coin was not even minted.[152]
In more modern times Jefferson's portrait appears on the U.S. $2 bill, nickel, and the $100 Series EE Savings Bond.
Thomas Jefferson was honored on a Presidential Dollar which released into circulation on August 16, 2007. The day before the coins were issued the U.S. Mint held an official release ceremony at the Jefferson Memorial in Washington, D.C.[154]
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Thomas Jefferson on Presidential Dollar
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Jefferson portrayed on the United States two-dollar bill
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The Jefferson Nickel 1938–2004
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Jefferson's face in close profile, US nickel, 2005Jefferson's face in close profile, US nickel, 2005
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Jefferson's face, US nickel, 2006–presentJefferson's face, US nickel, 2006–present
Reputation and memorials
Reputation
Jefferson's reputation has many dimensions. His ideals of republicanism are profoundly implanted in the system of American political values.[155][156] As the father of the Democratic-Republican Party, and the honorary father of the modern Democratic Party, he has been routinely hailed by politicians and partisans, for example at the annual Jefferson-Jackson Day celebration that Democrats hold. In the 1850s, the new Republican party held him in high esteem for the Declaration of Independence, but deplored his emphasis on states rights, which secessionists were employing to break up the Union. In the late 19th century, "Jeffersonian Democracy" was appropriated by the conservative Bourbon Democrats. During the Progressive Era of the early 20th century, Progressives pointed more often to the vigorous nation building of Hamilton, and derided Jefferson's opposition to a strong central government. During the New Deal era of the 1930s, Democrats especially honored him, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt took the lead in building his monument in Washington. Jefferson's reputation among the general public and in the school textbooks has generally been high.[157] When President John F. Kennedy welcomed 49 Nobel Prize winners to the White House in 1962 he said, "I think this is the most extraordinary collection of talent and of human knowledge that has ever been gathered together at the White House– with the possible exception of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone." [158]
Jefferson's reputation among scholars and historians has come in cycles, and in recent years has been at a low point. The primary reason is historians' dismay at his harsh treatment of Indians and, especially, his opposition to a biracial society and his low opinion of blacks while he had an enslaved mixed-race woman as his mistress for decades.[159][160] Those reactions reflect more of their holding him up as an icon than as seeing him as a man of his time.
While historians are not unanimous, Princeton scholar Sean Wilentz in 2010 identified a scholarly trend in Hamilton's favor:
- In recent years, Hamilton and his reputation have decidedly gained the initiative among scholars who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive. Jefferson and his allies, by contrast, have come across as naïve, dreamy idealists. At best according to many historians, the Jeffersonians were reactionary utopians who resisted the onrush of capitalist modernity in hopes of turning America into a yeoman farmers' arcadia. At worst, they were proslavery racists who wish to rid the West of Indians, expand the empire of slavery, and keep political power in local hands -- all the better to expand the institution of slavery and protect slaveholders' rights to own human property.[161]
Jefferson was a philosopher, a man of the Enlightenment, and a polymath. He was multilingual, a horticulturist, architect, archaeologist, paleontologist, musician, inventor, and founder of the University of Virginia, which he shaped according to his vision of an academic community.
Memorials
Jefferson has been memorialized in many ways, including buildings, sculptures, and currency. The Jefferson Memorial was dedicated in Washington, D.C. on April 13, 1943, the 200th anniversary of Jefferson's birth. The interior of the memorial includes a 19-foot (6 m) statue of Jefferson and engravings of passages from his writings. Most prominent are the words which are inscribed around the monument near the roof: "I have sworn upon the altar of god eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man".[162]
His original tombstone, now a cenotaph, is located on the campus in the University of Missouri's Quadrangle.
A life mask of Jefferson was created by John Henri Isaac Browere in the 1820s.[163]
Jefferson, together with George Washington, Theodore Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln, was chosen by sculptor Gutzon Borglum and approved by President Calvin Coolidge to be depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial.[164]
Recent memorials to Jefferson include the commissioning of the NOAA ship Thomas Jefferson in Norfolk, Virginia on July 8, 2003, in commemoration of his establishment of a Survey of the Coast, the predecessor to NOAA's National Ocean Service; and the placement of a bronze monument in Jefferson Park, Chicago at the entrance to the Jefferson Park Transit Center along Milwaukee Avenue in 2005.
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Jefferson on Mount Rushmore
Writings
- Memorandums taken on a journey from Paris into the southern parts of France and Northern Italy, in the year 1787
- A Summary View of the Rights of British America (1774)
- Autobiography (1821)
- Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (1775)
- Notes on the State of Virginia (1781)
- Jefferson Bible, or The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth
- Manual of Parliamentary Practice for the Use of the Senate of the United States (1801)
See also
Notes
- ^ a b The birth and death of Thomas Jefferson are given using the Gregorian calendar. However, he was born when Britain and her colonies still used the Julian calendar, so contemporary records (and his tombstone) record his birth as April 2, 1743. The provisions of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, implemented in 1752, altered the official British dating method to the Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January 1– see the article on Old Style and New Style dates for more details.
- ^ Robert W. Tucker, and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (1990)
- ^ Jefferson, Thomas (January 1, 1802). "Jefferson's Wall of Separation Letter". U.S. Constitution Online. Retrieved April 13, 2008.
- ^ Thomas Jefferson, David Waldstreicher, Notes on the State of Virginia, 2002 pg 214
- ^ Malone, Dumas. Jefferson and His Time Vol 1:114, 1948 pg 437-39
- ^ Jack McLoughlin, Jefferson and Monticello, 1988, pg 34
- ^ Stephen Ambrose, To America, 2003 pg 4
- ^ Brodie, Fawn M. (1974). Thomas Jefferson: An Intimate History. W.W. Norton & Co.
- ^ Foster, EA; Jobling, MA; Taylor, PG; Donnelly, P; De Knijff, P; Mieremet, R; Zerjal, T; Tyler-Smith, C; et al. (1998). "Jefferson fathered slave's last child" (PDF). Nature. 396 (6706): 27–28. doi:10.1038/23835. PMID 9817200.
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(help) - ^ a b c "Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: A Brief Account", Monticello Foundation, accessed 9 February 2011
- ^ "Annette Gordon-Reed", MacArthur Foundation, 2005-2011. Quote: Annette Gordon-Reed's "persistent investigation into the life of an iconic American president has dramatically changed the course of Jeffersonian scholarship."
- ^ "Facts on Thomas Jefferson". Revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com. 1943-04-13. Retrieved 2010-02-04.
- ^ Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia – Welsh Ancestry. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
- ^ Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson
- ^ Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (Oxford UP, 1975) pp 7-9
- ^ Merrill D. Peterson, ed. Thomas Jefferson: Writings, p. 1236
- ^ Thomas Jefferson on Wine by John Hailman, 2006
- ^ Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography pp 9-12
- ^ a b c Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson. p 41
- ^ a b Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson. p 47
- ^ Thomas Jefferson p.214
- ^ TJ to John Minor August 30, 1814 Lipscomb and Bergh, WTJ 2:420-21
- ^ ArchitectureWeek. "The Orders – 01". Retrieved 2009-07-20.
- ^ a b c Merrill D. Peterson, "Jefferson, Thomas"; American National Biography Online, February 2000.
- ^ Ellis, American Sphinx, 47–49.
- ^ Maier, American Scripture. Other standard works on Jefferson and the Declaration include Garry Wills, Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence (1978) and Carl L. Becker, The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas (1922).
- ^ a b Ellis, American Sphinx, 50.
- ^ Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography p 146-49
- ^ Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography pp 125-29
- ^ Bennett, William J. (2006). "The Greatest Revolution". America: The Last Best Hope (Volume I): From the Age of Discovery to a World at War. Nelson Current. p. 99. ISBN 1-59555-055-0.
- ^ Ferling 2004, p. 26
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed "Did Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson Love Each Other?," American Heritage, Fall 2008.
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008
- ^ The Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States of America. Books.google.com. 1833. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
- ^ Ferling 2004, p. 59
- ^ Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (1995), p 344.
- ^ "Foreign Affairs," in Peterson, ed. Thomas Jefferson: A Reference Encyclopedia (1986) p 325
- ^ Schachner 1951, p. 495
- ^ Miller (1960), 143–4, 148–9.
- ^ An American History Lesson For Pat Buchana, Kenneth C. Davis, Huffington Post, July 18, 2009.
- ^ a b Thomas Jefferson, the 'Negro President', Gary Willis on The Tavis Smiley Show, February 16, 2004.
- ^ Negro President: Jefferson and the Slave Power[dead link], Review of Garry Willis's book on WNYC, February 16, 2004.
- ^ "Table 1.1 Acquisition of the Public Domain 1781–1867" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-09-02.
- ^ John Hope Franklin, Race and History: Selected Essays 1938–1988 (Louisiana State University Press: 1989) p. 336 and John Hope Franklin, Racial Equality in America (Chicago: 1976), p. 24-26
- ^ Martin Kelly. "Thomas Jefferson Biography – Third President of the United States". Retrieved 2009-07-05.
- ^ Robert MacNamara. "Importation of Slaves Outlawed by 1807 Act of Congress". Retrieved 2009-07-05.
- ^ "Jefferson on Politics & Government: Publicly Supported Education". Etext.lib.virginia.edu. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
- ^ Stephen E. Ambrose, To America: Personal Reflections of an Historian (2003) p 4
- ^ Notes on the State of Virginia Query 14
- ^ Greg Warnusz (Summer, 1990). "This Execrable Commerce – Thomas Jefferson and Slavery". Retrieved 2009-08-18.
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(help) - ^ Nicholas Magnis. "Thomas Jefferson and Slavery: An Analysis of His Racist Thinking as Revealed by His Writings and Political Behavior", The Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, No. 4 (Mar., 1999) Sage Publications, pp. 500, 498
- ^ Randall, Thomas Jefferson: A Life, p. 303
- ^ Hitchens 2005, pp. 34–35 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFHitchens2005 (help)
- ^ Miller, John Chester (1977). The Wolf by the Ears: Thomas Jefferson and Slavery. New York: Free Press, p. 241. The letter, dated April 22, 1820, was written to former Senator John Holmes of Maine.
- ^ Letter of February 25, 1809 from Thomas Jefferson to French author Monsieur Gregoire, from The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (H. A. Worthington, ed.), Volume V, p. 429. Citation and quote from Morris Kominsky, The Hoaxers, pp. 110–111.
- ^ University of South Carolina, Digital Collections. An Enquiry Concerning the Intellectual and Moral Faculties, and Literature of Negroes; followed with an account of the life and works of fifteen negroes & mulattoes, distinguished in science, literature and the arts, Henri-Baptiste Grégoire. Commentary by Jeffrey Makala, 2004
- ^ Twilight at Monticello, Crawford, 2008, Ch 17, p.101
- ^ Thomas Jefferson and Antislavery, Paul Finkelman. The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol 102, No. 2 (Apr., 1994), pp. 205
- ^ William Cohen, "Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Slavery," Journal of American History 56, no. 3 (1969): 503-526, p. 510
- ^ Herbert E. Sloan, Principle and Interest: Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Debt (2001) pp. 14–26, 220–1.
- ^ Paul Finkelman, "Thomas Jefferson and Antislavery", The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol 102, No. 2 (Apr., 1994), pp. 220-1
- ^ Hitchens 2005, p. 48 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFHitchens2005 (help)
- ^ Isaac Jefferson,Memoirs of a Monticello Slave
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: an American controversy, 1997, p 142
- ^ John Ferling, Setting the World Ablaze (2000) p. 290,
- ^ Greg Warnusz (Summer, 1990). "This Execrable Commerce – Thomas Jefferson and Slavery". Retrieved 2009-08-18.
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: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ^ Was Thomas Jefferson an Authentic Enemy of Slavery? David Davies, Oxford, 1970, p. 6.
- ^ Benjamin Franklin, The Works of Benjamin Franklin, Jared Sparks, editor (Boston: Tappan, Whittemore, and Mason, 1839), Vol. VIII, p. 42, to the Rev. Dean Woodward on April 10, 1773.
- ^ [Ordinance of 1787] Lalor Cyclopædia of Political Science
- ^ Brogan (1985), The Penguin History of the United States, p. 205 -- Note: Prior to the national ban on slave trade, both Georgia and South Carolina in 1797 resisted banning the slave trade in their respected states on the grounds that Virginia and Pennsylvania were were bullying the states by coercion.
- ^ Stephen Goldfarb, "An Inquiry into the Politics of the Prohibition of the International Slave Trade", Agricultural History, Vol. 68, No. 2, Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin, 1793-1993: A Symposium (Spring, 1994), pp. 27, 31
- ^ "John Wayles Paternity". Wiki.monticello.org. 2009-05-19. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello (2008) pp 489-503, 581-583
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello (2008), pp 489-503, 581-583
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy, pp. 38-43 (Univ. of Virginia Press, 1997)
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings, 1997, pp. 41-2
- ^ Lucia Stanton, Free Some Day: The African American Families of Monticello, (Thomas Jefferson Foundation, 2000), p. 141.
- ^ The Real Thomas Jefferson by Allison, Andrew, K. DeLynn Cook, M. Richard Maxfield, W. Cleon Skousen pp. 232-233 National Center for Constitutional Studies, Washington, D.C.
- ^ Lander, ES (1998). "Founding father". Nature. 396 (6706): 13–14. doi:10.1038/23802. PMID 9817195.
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suggested) (help) - ^ Foster, DM; Jobling, M. A.; Taylor, P. G.; Donnelly, P.; De Knijff, P.; Mieremet, R.; Zerjal, T.; Tyler-Smith, C.; et al. (1999). "Letters to the editor: the Thomas Jefferson paternity case". Nature. 397 (6714): 32. doi:10.1038/16177. PMID 9892350.
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: Explicit use of et al. in:|last=
(help) - ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy, University of Virginia Press, 1998, p. 3, accessed 9 February 2011
- ^ Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings
- ^ Halliday (2001), Understanding Thomas Jefferson, pp. 162-167
- ^ a b "Annette Gordon-Reed", MacArthur Foundation, 2005-2011, accessed 9 February 2011
- ^ "Last Will and Testament". March 17, 1826. Retrieved 2010-11-15.
- ^ Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: an American controversy Annette Gordon-Reed, 1998, pp. 40, 41
- ^ DNA typing: biology, technology, and genetics of STR markers. John Marshall Butler, Elsevier Academic Press, 2005. pg 224-9
- ^ Foster, EA; Jobling, MA; Taylor, PG; Donnelly, P; De Knijff, P; Mieremet, R; Zerjal, T; Tyler-Smith, C; et al. (1998). "Jefferson fathered slave's last child" (PDF). Nature. 396 (6706): 27–28. doi:10.1038/23835. PMID 9817200.
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: Explicit use of et al. in:|first=
(help) - ^ "Online Newshour: Thomas Jefferson". pbs.org. 1998-11-02. Retrieved 2006-08-04.
- ^ Statement on the TJF Research Committee Report on Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings, Monticello.org.
- ^ National Genealogical Society Quarterly, Vol. 89, No. 3, September 2001, p. 207
- ^ Thomas Jefferson at Find a Grave
- ^ Jefferson Still Survives. Retrieved on 2006-12-26.
- ^ wiki.monticello.org Jefferson's Cause of Death. Retrieved 2010-06-12.
- ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
- ^ "Monticello Report: The Calendar and Old Style (O. S.)". Thomas Jefferson Foundation (Monticello.org). 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-08-15. Retrieved 2007-09-15.
- ^ Andrew Burstein and Nancy Isenberg, Madison and Jefferson (2010) p. xvi
- ^ Norman G. Schneeberg, "The Medical History of Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)," Journal of Medical Biography, May 2008, Vol. 16 Issue 2, pp 118-125
- ^ Burstein and Isenberg, Madison and Jefferson (2010) p. 401
- ^ "Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) at the University of Virginia". Americanpresident.org. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
- ^ Kevin J. Hayes, The road to Monticello: the life and mind of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford U.P., 2008) pp 135-6
- ^ "Thomas Jefferson: Silent Member". Retrieved 2007-07-23.
- ^ "American Sphinx by Joseph J. Ellis at". Futurecasts.com. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
- ^ "Jefferson's Inventions". Cti.itc.virginia.edu. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
- ^ Ellis, Joseph J. (1994). "American Sphinx: The Contradictions of Thomas Jefferson". Library of Congress.
- ^
"But It's Thomas Jefferson's Koran!". Washington Post. January 1, 2007. p. C03. Retrieved January 3, 2007.
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(help) - ^ J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (1975), 533; see also Richard K. Matthews, The Radical Politics of Thomas Jefferson, (1986), p. 17, 139n.16.
- ^ Lawrence S. Kaplan, "Jefferson and France: An Essay on Politics and Political Ideas", Yale University Press, 1980
- ^ Ronald R. Schuckel "The origins of Thomas Jefferson as a Francophile, 1784-1789", Butler University, 1965.
- ^ Thomas Jefferson, Jean M. Yarbrough, The essential Jefferson, Hackett Publishing, 2006. (p. xx)
- ^ Thomas Jefferson, Paul Leicester Ford, "The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: 1795-1801", G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1896. (p. 22)
- ^ Eugene Victor Rostow, "A breakfast for Bonaparte: U.S. national security interests from the Heights of Abraham to the nuclear age" DIANE Publishing, 1992. (p. 116)
- ^ W. M. Verhoeven, Beth Dolan Kautz, Revolutions and Watersheds: Transatlantic Dialogues, 1775-1815 (p. 80)
- ^ Thomas Jefferson, Henry Augustine Washington "The writings of Thomas Jefferson", Taylor & Maury, 1854. (p. 402)
- ^ Donald F. Swanson, "Bank-Notes Will Be But as Oak Leaves": Thomas Jefferson on Paper Money," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1993, Vol. 101 Issue 1, pp 37-52
- ^ A. Glenn Crothers, "Banks and economic development in post-revolutionary Northern Virginia, 1790-1812," Business History Review, Spring 1999, Vol. 73 Issue 1, pp 1-39
- ^ Merrill Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation (1975) pp 435-36; 700-701
- ^ Thomas Jefferson, Political writings (1999) ed. by Joyce Appleby and Terence Ball, p. 206-7
- ^ Letter to Isaac H. Tiffany, April 4, 1819 in Appleby and Ball (1999) p 224.
- ^ Brown 1954, pp. 51–52
- ^ Adler, Mortimer Jerome (2000). The Great Ideas. Open Court Publishing. p. 378.
- ^ Letter to James Madison, January 30, 1787
- ^ Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789
- ^ Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789; Daniel Scott Smith, "Population and Political Ethics: Thomas Jefferson's Demography of Generations," The William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., Vol. 56, No. 3 (Jul., 1999), pp. 591–612 in jstor
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ "The Thomas Jefferson Papers". Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-05-05.
- ^ a b "Laws that forbid the carrying of arms...(Quotation)". Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-05-05.
- ^ Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation p. 699
- ^ a b c Melton, The Quotable Founding Fathers, 277.
- ^ Letter to William Smith, November 13, 1787
- ^ Richard B. Morris, Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny (1973), p. 133
- ^ Jefferson to Peter Carr, Aug. 10, 1787
- ^ Charles Sanford, The Religious Life of Thomas Jefferson (1987).
- ^ Albert Ellery Bergh, ed. (1853). April 21, 1803 letter to Doctor Benjamin Rush. Vol. X. The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association. p. 379. Retrieved 2009-05-23.
... To the corruptions of Christianity I am, indeed, opposed; but not to the genuine precepts of Jesus himself. I am a Christian, in the only sense in which he wished any one to be; sincerely attached to his doctrines, in preference to all others; ascribing to himself every human excellence; and believing he never claimed any other.... And in confiding it [an enclosed syllabus] to you, I know it will not be exposed to the malignant perversions of those who make every word from me a text for new misrepresentations and calumnies. I am moreover averse to the communication of my religious tenets to the public; because it would countenance the presumption of those who have endeavored to draw them before that tribunal, and to seduce public opinion to erect itself into that inquisition over the rights of conscience, which the laws have so justly proscribed....
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ignored (help) - ^ "Syllabus of an estimate of the merit of the doctrines ofJesus, compared with those of others". Retrieved 2009-05-24.
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ignored (help) - ^ Albert Ellery Bergh, ed. (1853). June 25, 1819 letter to Ezra Stiles Ely. Vol. XV. The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association. p. 202. Retrieved 2009-05-23.
You say you are a Calvinist. I am not. I am of a sect by myself, as far as I know.
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:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ Albert Ellery Bergh, ed. (1853). October 31, 1819 letter to William Short. Vol. XV. The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association. p. 219. Retrieved 2009-05-23.
As you say of yourself, I too am an Epicurian. I consider the genuine (not the imputed) doctrines of Epicurus as containing everything rational in moral philosophy which Greece and Rome have left us.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ "Letter to William Short". April 13, 1820.
- ^ Thomas Jefferson (January 8, 1825). "letter to Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse". The copy of this 1825 Thomas Jefferson letter to Benjamin Waterhouse (1754-1846) is in an unknown hand.
- ^ "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth". 1820. Retrieved 12-08-2010.
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(help) - ^ Letter to Horatio Spafford (1814); Seldes (1983), The Great Quotations, p. 371.
- ^ Letter to John Adams (August 15, 1820)
- ^ Letter to John Adams (April 11, 1823)
- ^ Works of Thomas Jefferson, Vol. IV, p. 363; Jefferson, Thomas (1854). H. A. Washington (ed.). The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Being His Autobiography, Correspondence. WASHINGTON, D. C: Taylor & Matjry. p. 395. Retrieved 2010-12-08.
- ^ a b c d e f g Miller, Robert (July 1, 2008). Native America, Discovered and Conquered: : Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny. Bison Books. p. 90. ISBN 978-0803215986.
- ^ a b Drinnon, Richard (March 1997). Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-Hating and Empire-Building. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0806129280.
- ^ a b Jefferson, Thomas (1803). "President Thomas Jefferson to William Henry Harrison, Governor of the Indiana Territory,". Retrieved 2009-03-12.
- ^ "Letter From Thomas Jefferson to Alexander von Humboldt December 6, 1813". Retrieved 2009-03-12.
- ^ Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of extinction: Jeffersonian philanthropy and the American Indian (1974) pp 120–21
- ^ James P. Ronda, Thomas Jefferson and the changing West: from conquest to conservation (1997) p. 10; text in Moore, MariJo (2006). Eating Fire, Tasting Blood: An Anthology of the American Indian Holocaust. Running Press. ISBN 978-1560258384.
- ^ Scott Stamp Catalog, Index of Commemorative Stamps
- ^ a b "US Coin Values". Us-coin-values-advisor.com. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
- ^ The U.S. Mint and Coinage: An Illustrated History from 1776 to the Present, 1983 by Don. Taxay
- ^ "New York Times/ABOUT.COM". Coins.about.com. 2007-08-16. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
- ^ Joyce Appleby, Thomas Jefferson (2003) p. 134
- ^ Gary Hart, Restoration of the Republic: The Jeffersonian Ideal in 21st-Century America (2004) pp 13-17
- ^ Merrill D. Peterson, The Jefferson Image in the American Mind (1960), passim.
- ^ April 29, 1962 dinner honoring 49 Nobel Laureates (Simpson's Contemporary Quotations, 1988, from Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy, 1962, p. 347).
- ^ Appleby, Thomas Jefferson (2003) pp. 118, 134-43
- ^ Jeffrey L. Pasley, "Politics and the Misadventures of Thomas Jefferson's Modern Reputation: a Review Essay", Journal of Southern History 2006 72(4): 871–908
- ^ Sean Wilentz, "Book Reviews," Journal of American History Sept. 2010 v. 97# 2 p 476. Wilentz notes that Wood (2009) is quite favorable toward Jefferson. Jefferson has been consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest of U.S. presidents.
- ^ Office of the Historic American Buildings Survey/Historic American Engineering Record (HABS/HAER), of the National Park Service, Library of Congress (September 1994). "Documentation of the Jefferson Memorial". Retrieved 2009-09-04.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Charles Henry Hart. Browere's life masks of great Americans. Printed at the De Vinne Press for Doubleday and McClure Company, 1899. Google books
- ^ National Park Service. "Carving History". Mount Rushmore National Memorial. Retrieved 2009-09-04.
Bibliography
Biographies
- Appleby, Joyce. Thomas Jefferson (2003), short interpretive essay by leading scholar.
- Bernstein, R. B. Thomas Jefferson. (2003) Well-regarded short biography.
- Brodie, Fawn McKay. Thomas Jefferson: An Intimate History, W.W. Norton, 1974, the "first extensive investigation of the Sally Hemings story".
- Gordon-Reed, Annette. Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American controversy, Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press, 1997 (reprint 1998 to include discussion of DNA analysis), p. 4
- Burstein, Andrew. Jefferson's Secrets: Death and Desire at Monticello, New York: Basic Books (2005).
- Cunningham, Noble E. In Pursuit of Reason (1988) well-reviewed short biography.
- Crawford, Alan Pell, Twilight at Monticello, Random House, New York, (2008)
- Ellis, Joseph. "American Sphinx: The Contradictions of Thomas Jefferson".
- Ellis, Joseph. American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (1996). Prize-winning essays; assumes prior reading of his biography.
- Gordon-Reed, Annette. Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American controversy, Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press, 1997 (reprint 1998 to include discussion of DNA analysis)
- Hitchens, Christopher (2005). "Thomas Jefferson: Author of America".
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(help), short biography. - Malone, Dumas. Jefferson and His Time, 6 vols. (1948–82). Multi-volume biography of TJ by leading expert; A short version is online[dead link].
- Onuf, Peter. "The Scholars' Jefferson," William and Mary Quarterly 3d Series, L:4 (October 1993), 671–699. Historiographical review or scholarship about TJ; online through JSTOR at most academic libraries.
- Padover, Saul K. Jefferson: A Great American's Life and Ideas
- Peterson, Merrill D. (1975). Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation.
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(help) A standard scholarly biography. - Peterson, Merrill D. (ed.) Thomas Jefferson: A Reference Biography (1986), 24 essays by leading scholars on aspects of Jefferson's career.
- Randall, Henry Stephens (1858). The Life of Thomas Jefferson (volume 1 ed.).
- Schachner, Nathan (1951). Thomas Jefferson: A Biography.
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(help) 2 volumes. - Salgo, Sandor (1997). Thomas Jefferson: Musician and Violinist. Abook detailing Thomas Jefferson's love of music.
Politics and ideas
- Ackerman, Bruce. The Failure of the Founding Fathers: Jefferson, Marshall, and the Rise of Presidential Democracy. (2005)
- Adams, Henry. History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson (1889; Library of America edition 1986) famous 4-volume history
- Wills, Garry, Henry Adams and the Making of America (2005), detailed analysis of Adams' History
- Banning, Lance. The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology (1978)
- Brown, Stuart Gerry (1954). The First Republicans: Political Philosophy and Public Policy in the Party of Jefferson and Madison.
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(help) - Channing; Edward. The Jeffersonian System: 1801–1811 (1906), "American Nation" survey of political history
- Dunn, Susan. Jefferson's Second Revolution: The Election Crisis of 1800 and the Triumph of Republicanism (2004)
- Elkins, Stanley and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism (1995) in-depth coverage of politics of 1790s
- Fatovic, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." : American Journal of Political Science, 2004 48(3): 429–444. Issn: 0092-5853 Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta, Jstor, and Ebsco
- Ferling, John (2004). Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800.
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(help) - Finkelman, Paul. Slavery and the Founders: Race and Liberty in the Age of Jefferson (2001), esp ch 6–7
- Hatzenbuehler, Ronald L. "I Tremble for My Country": Thomas Jefferson and the Virginia Gentry, (University Press of Florida; 206 pages; 2007). Argues that the TJ's critique of his fellow gentry in Virginia masked his own reluctance to change
- Hitchens, Christopher (2005). Author of America: Thomas Jefferson. HarperCollins.
- Horn, James P. P. Jan Ellen Lewis, and Peter S. Onuf, eds. The Revolution of 1800: Democracy, Race, and the New Republic (2002) 17 essays by scholars
- Jayne, Allen. Jefferson's Declaration of Independence: Origins, Philosophy and Theology (2000); traces TJ's sources and emphasizes his incorporation of Deist theology into the Declaration.
- Roger G. Kennedy. Mr. Jefferson's Lost Cause: Land, Farmers, Slavery, and the Louisiana Purchase (2003).
- Knudson, Jerry W. Jefferson and the Press: Crucible of Liberty. (2006)
- Lewis, Jan Ellen, and Onuf, Peter S., eds. Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson: History, Memory, Civic Culture. (1999)
- McDonald, Forrest. The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson (1987) intellectual history approach to Jefferson's Presidency
- Matthews, Richard K. "The Radical Political Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson: An Essay in Retrieval," Midwest Studies in Philosophy, XXVIII (2004)
- Mayer, David N. The Constitutional Thought of Thomas Jefferson (2000)
- Miller, Robert (2006). Native America, Discovered and Conquered: : Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780275990114.
- Onuf, Peter S. Jefferson's Empire: The Languages of American Nationhood. (2000). Online review
- Onuf, Peter. "Thomas Jefferson, Federalist" (1993) online journal essay
- Rahe, Paul A. "Thomas Jefferson's Machiavellian Political Science". Review of Politics 1995 57(3): 449–481. ISSN 0034–6705 Fulltext online at Jstor and Ebsco.
- Sears, Louis Martin. Jefferson and the Embargo (1927), state by state impact
- Sloan, Herbert J. Principle and Interest: Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Debt (1995). Shows the burden of debt in Jefferson's personal finances and political thought.
- Smelser, Marshall. The Democratic Republic: 1801–1815 (1968). "New American Nation" survey of political and diplomatic history
- Staloff, Darren. Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding. (2005)
- Tucker, Robert W. and David C. Hendrickson. Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (1992), foreign policy
- Urofsky, Melvin I. "Thomas Jefferson and John Marshall: What Kind of Constitution Shall We Have?" Journal of Supreme Court History 2006 31(2): 109–125. Issn: 1059-4329 Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
- Valsania, Maurizio. "'Our Original Barbarism': Man Vs. Nature in Thomas Jefferson's Moral Experience." Journal of the History of Ideas 2004 65(4): 627–645. Issn: 0022-5037 Fulltext: in Project Muse and Swetswise
- Wagoner, Jennings L., Jr. Jefferson and Education. (2004).
Religion
- Gaustad, Edwin S. Sworn on the Altar of God: A Religious Biography of Thomas Jefferson (2001) Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 0-8028-0156-0
- Sanford, Charles B. The Religious Life of Thomas Jefferson (1987) University of Virginia Press, ISBN 0-8139-1131-1
- Sheridan, Eugene R. Jefferson and Religion, preface by Martin Marty, (2001) University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 1-882886-08-9
- Edited by Jackson, Henry E., President, College for Social Engineers, Washington, D. C. "The Thomas Jefferson Bible" (1923) Copyright Boni and Liveright, Inc. Printed in the United States of America. Arranged by Thomas Jefferson. Translated by R. F. Weymouth. Located in the National Museum, Washington, D. C.
Legacy and historiography
- Cogliano, Francis D. Thomas Jefferson: Reputation and Legacy (Edinburgh University Press, 2006) online edition
- Onuf, Peter S., ed. Jeffersonian Legacies. (1993)
- Perry, Barbara A. "Jefferson's Legacy to the Supreme Court: Freedom of Religion." Journal of Supreme Court History 2006 31(2): 181–198. Issn: 1059-4329 Fulltext in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
- Pasley, Jeffrey L. "Politics and the Misadventures of Thomas Jefferson's Modern Reputation: a Review Essay." Journal of Southern History 2006 72(4): 871–908. Issn: 0022-4642 Fulltext in Ebsco.
- Peterson, Merrill D. The Jefferson Image in the American Mind (1960), how Americans interpreted and remembered Jefferson
- Taylor, Jeff. Where Did the Party Go?: William Jennings Bryan, Hubert Humphrey, and the Jeffersonian Legacy (2006), on Jefferson's role in Democratic history and ideology.
- Wiltse, Charles Maurice. The Jeffersonian Tradition in American Democracy (1935), analysis of Jefferson's political philosophy
- PBS interviews with 24 historians
Primary sources
- Thomas Jefferson: Writings: Autobiography / Notes on the State of Virginia / Public and Private Papers / Addresses / Letters (1984, ISBN 978-0-940450-16-5) Library of America edition. There are numerous one-volume collections; this is perhaps the best place to start.
- Thomas Jefferson, Political Writings ed by Joyce Appleby and Terence Ball. Cambridge University Press. 1999 online
- Lipscomb, Andrew A. and Albert Ellery Bergh, eds. The Writings Of Thomas Jefferson 19 vol. (1907) not as complete nor as accurate as Boyd edition, but covers TJ from birth to death. It is out of copyright, and so is online free.
- Edwin Morris Betts (editor), Thomas Jefferson's Farm Book, (Thomas Jefferson Memorial: December 1, 1953) ISBN 1-882886-10-0. Letters, notes, and drawings—a journal of plantation management recording his contributions to scientific agriculture, including an experimental farm implementing innovations such as horizontal plowing and crop-rotation, and Jefferson's own moldboard plow. It is a window to slave life, with data on food rations, daily work tasks, and slaves' clothing. The book portrays the industries pursued by enslaved and free workmen, including in the blacksmith's shop and spinning and weaving house.
- Boyd, Julian P. et al., eds. The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. The definitive multivolume edition; available at major academic libraries. 31 volumes covers TJ to 1800, with 1801 due out in 2006.
- The Jefferson Cyclopedia (1900) large collection of TJ quotations arranged by 9000 topics; searchable; copyright has expired and it is online free.
- The Thomas Jefferson Papers, 1606–1827, 27,000 original manuscript documents at the Library of Congress online collection
- Jefferson, Thomas. Notes on the State of Virginia (1787), London: Stockdale. This was Jefferson's only book
- Shuffelton, Frank, ed., (1998) Penguin Classics paperback: ISBN 0-14-043667-7
- Waldstreicher, David, ed., (2002) Palgrave Macmillan hardcover: ISBN 0-312-29428-X
- online edition
- Cappon, Lester J., ed. The Adams-Jefferson Letters (1959)
- Howell, Wilbur Samuel, ed. Jefferson's Parliamentary Writings (1988). Jefferson's Manual of Parliamentary Practice, written when he was vice-President, with other relevant papers
- Melton, Buckner F.: The Quotable Founding Fathers, Potomac Books, Washington D.C. (2004).
- Smith, James Morton, ed. The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776–1826, 3 vols. (1995)
- public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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External links
- The Papers of Thomas Jefferson – Digital Edition
- Biography on White House website
- A collection of photographs of Thomas Jefferson's architecture
- Library of Congress
- Library of Congress: Jefferson exhibition
- Library of Congress: Jefferson timeline
- Thomas Jefferson: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
- Massachusetts Historical Society
- Thomas Jefferson Papers: An Electronic Archive This digital collection of Thomas Jefferson manuscripts held by the Massachusetts Historical Society includes the page images and transcriptions of Jefferson's Farm Book and Garden Book, also page images of Jefferson's library catalogs and architectural drawings.
- National Park Service
- Monticello – Home of Thomas Jefferson
- Poplar Forest-Thomas Jefferson's second home
- "Frontline: Jefferson's blood: Chronology: The Sally Hemings story (1977), PBS
- The Papers of Thomas Jefferson at the Avalon Project
- United States Congress. "Thomas Jefferson (id: J000069)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
- Notes on the State of Virginia from American Studies at the University of Virginia.
- Works by Thomas Jefferson at Project Gutenberg
- Online catalog of Thomas Jefferson's personal library, based on the catalog of books he sold to the Library of Congress in 1815
- Template:Worldcat id
- The Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia, for information on TJ's life and times, written and referenced by historians at Monticello
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