Gwillhickers Stop making unilateral edits to remove Hemings from the Lead - you have no concensus & this is well sourced; it's a notable controversy WP:LEAD guidelines |
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|publisher=U.S. Constitution Online}}</ref> and was the author of the [[Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom]] (1779, 1786). Jefferson's revolutionary view on individual religious freedom and protection from government authority have generated much interest with modern scholars. <ref>{{cite web |last=Menzo |first=Jessica |title=Thomas Jefferson - Introduction |date=December, 2001, 2006|url=http://www.enotes.com/nineteenth-century-criticism/jefferson-thomas |accessdate=02-13-2011}}</ref> He was the [[eponym]] of [[Jeffersonian democracy]] and the co-founder and leader of the [[Democratic-Republican Party]], which dominated [[Politics of the United States|American politics]] for 25 years. |
|publisher=U.S. Constitution Online}}</ref> and was the author of the [[Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom]] (1779, 1786). Jefferson's revolutionary view on individual religious freedom and protection from government authority have generated much interest with modern scholars. <ref>{{cite web |last=Menzo |first=Jessica |title=Thomas Jefferson - Introduction |date=December, 2001, 2006|url=http://www.enotes.com/nineteenth-century-criticism/jefferson-thomas |accessdate=02-13-2011}}</ref> He was the [[eponym]] of [[Jeffersonian democracy]] and the co-founder and leader of the [[Democratic-Republican Party]], which dominated [[Politics of the United States|American politics]] for 25 years. |
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Born into a prominent [[planter]] family, Jefferson owned hundreds of slaves throughout his life; he held views on the racial inferiority of Africans common for his time and place.<ref>Thomas Jefferson, David Waldstreicher,'' Notes on the State of Virginia'', 2002 pg 214 |
Born into a prominent [[planter]] family, Jefferson owned hundreds of slaves throughout his life; he held views on the racial inferiority of Africans common for his time and place.<ref>Thomas Jefferson, David Waldstreicher,'' Notes on the State of Virginia'', 2002 pg 214</ref> Jefferson was reported to have fathered several children with his slave [[Sally Hemings]] and had a long relationship with her.<ref>{{cite book|last=Brodie|first=Fawn M.|title=Thomas Jefferson: An Intimate History|year=1974|publisher=W.W. Norton & Co}}</ref> |
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==Early life and education== |
==Early life and education== |
Revision as of 00:23, 4 March 2011
Thomas Jefferson | |
---|---|
3rd President of the United States | |
In office March 4, 1801 – March 4, 1809 | |
Vice President | Aaron Burr George Clinton |
Preceded by | John Adams |
Succeeded by | James Madison |
2nd Vice President of the United States | |
In office March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801 | |
President | John Adams |
Preceded by | John Adams |
Succeeded by | Aaron Burr |
1st United States Secretary of State | |
In office March 22, 1790 – December 31, 1793 | |
President | George Washington |
Preceded by | John Jay (Acting) |
Succeeded by | Edmund Randolph |
United States Ambassador to France | |
In office May 17, 1785 – September 26, 1789 | |
Appointed by | Congress of the Confederation |
Preceded by | Benjamin Franklin |
Succeeded by | William Short |
Delegate from Virginia to the Congress of the Confederation | |
In office November 1, 1783 – May 7, 1784 | |
Preceded by | James Madison |
Succeeded by | Richard Henry Lee |
2nd Governor of Virginia | |
In office June 1, 1779 – June 3, 1781 | |
Preceded by | Patrick Henry |
Succeeded by | William Fleming |
Delegate from Virginia to the Second Continental Congress | |
In office June 20, 1775 – September 26, 1776 | |
Preceded by | George Washington |
Succeeded by | John Harvie |
Personal details | |
Born | Shadwell, Colony of Virginia | April 13, 1743
Died | July 4, 1826 Albemarle County, Virginia | (aged 83)
Political party | Democratic-Republican Party |
Spouse | Martha Wayles |
Children | Martha Jane Mary Lucy I Lucy II |
Alma mater | College of William and Mary |
Profession | Planter Lawyer Teacher |
Signature | |
Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826)[1] was the third President of the United States (1801–1809) and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776). An influential Founding Father, Jefferson envisioned America as a great "Empire of Liberty" that would promote republicanism.[2]
Jefferson served as the wartime Governor of Virginia (1779–1781), barely escaping capture by the British in 1781. [3] Many people disliked his tenure, and he not win office again in Virginia.[4] He was the first United States Secretary of State (1789–1793) under George Washington and advised him against a national bank and the Jay Treaty. He was the second Vice President (1797–1801) under John Adams. Winning on an anti-federalist platform Jefferson took the oath of office and became President of the United States in 1801. As president he negotitated the Louisiana Purchase (1803), and sent the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806) which opened up much of the west for further exploraion and settlement. [5] Tensions escalated with Britain and France, leading to war with Britain in 1812 shortly after he left office.
He idealized the independent yeoman farmer as exemplar of republican virtues, distrusted cities and financiers, and favored states' rights and a limited federal government. Jefferson supported the separation of church and state[6] and was the author of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1779, 1786). Jefferson's revolutionary view on individual religious freedom and protection from government authority have generated much interest with modern scholars. [7] He was the eponym of Jeffersonian democracy and the co-founder and leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, which dominated American politics for 25 years.
Born into a prominent planter family, Jefferson owned hundreds of slaves throughout his life; he held views on the racial inferiority of Africans common for his time and place.[8] Jefferson was reported to have fathered several children with his slave Sally Hemings and had a long relationship with her.[9]
Early life and education
Childhood
Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743 [1] into a family closely related to some of the most prominent individuals in Virginia, the third of ten children. Two died in childhood.[10] His mother was Jane Randolph, daughter of Isham Randolph of Dungeness, a ship's captain and sometime planter, first cousin to Peyton Randolph, and granddaughter of wealthy English and Scottish gentry. Jefferson's father was Peter Jefferson, a planter and surveyor in Albemarle County (Shadwell, then Edge Hill, Virginia.) He was of possible Welsh descent, although this remains unclear.[11] When Colonel William Randolph, an old friend of Peter Jefferson, died in 1745, Peter assumed executorship and personal charge of William Randolph's estate in Tuckahoe as well as his infant son, Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr. That year the Jeffersons relocated to Tuckahoe where they would remain for the next seven years before returning to their home in Albemarle. Peter Jefferson was then appointed to the colonelcy of the county, an important position at the time.[12]
Education
In 1752, Jefferson began attending a local school run by a Scottish Presbyterian minister. At the age of nine, Jefferson began studying Latin, Greek, and French; he learned to ride horses, and began to appreciate the study of nature. In 1757, when he was 14 years old, his father died. Jefferson inherited about 5,000 acres (20 km²) of land and dozens of slaves. He studied under the Reverend James Maury from 1758 to 1760 near Gordonsville, Virginia. While boarding with Maury's family, he studied history, science and the classics.[13]
At age 16, Jefferson entered the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, and for two years he studied mathematics, metaphysics, and philosophy under Professor William Small, who introduced the enthusiastic Jefferson to the writings of the British Empiricists, including John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton.[14] He also improved his French, Greek, and violin. A diligent student, Jefferson displayed an avid curiosity in all fields.[15] After graduating in 1762 with highest honors, he read law with William & Mary law professor George Wythe and was admitted to the Virginia bar in 1767.[16]
After college
On October 1, 1765, Jefferson's oldest sister Jane died at the age of 25.[17] Jefferson fell into a period of deep mourning, as he was already saddened by the absence of his sisters Mary, who had been married several years to Thomas Bolling, and Martha, who had wed earlier in July to Dabney Carr.[17] Both had moved to their husbands' residences, leaving younger siblings Elizabeth, Lucy, and the two toddlers as his companions. Jefferson was not comforted by the presence of Elizabeth or Lucy as they did not provide him with the same intellectual stimulation as his older siblings had.[17]
Jefferson would go on to handle many cases as a lawyer in colonial Virginia, and was very active from 1768 to 1773.[18] Jefferson's client list included members of the Virginia's elite families, including members of his mother's family, the Randolphs.[18]
In 1768 Thomas Jefferson started the construction of Monticello, a neoclassical mansion. Since childhood, Jefferson had always wanted to build a beautiful mountaintop home within sight of Shadwell.[19][20] Jefferson fell greatly in debt by spending lavishly on Monticello to create a neoclassical environment, based on his study of the architect Andrea Palladio and the classical orders. [21]
Besides practicing law, Jefferson represented Albemarle County in the Virginia House of Burgesses beginning in 1769. Following the passage of the Coercive Acts by the British Parliament in 1774, he wrote a set of resolutions against the acts, which were expanded into A Summary View of the Rights of British America, his first published work. Previous criticism of the Coercive Acts had focused on legal and constitutional issues, but Jefferson offered the radical notion that the colonists had the natural right to govern themselves.[22] Jefferson also argued that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and had no legislative authority in the colonies.[22] The paper was intended to serve as instructions for the Virginia delegation of the First Continental Congress, but Jefferson's ideas proved to be too radical for that body.[22]
Political career from 1775 to 1800
Drafting a declaration
Jefferson served as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress beginning in June 1775, soon after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. When Congress began considering a resolution of independence in June 1776, Jefferson was appointed to a five-man committee to prepare a declaration to accompany the resolution. The committee selected Jefferson to write the first draft probably because of his reputation as a writer. The assignment was considered routine; no one at the time thought that it was a major responsibility.[23] Jefferson completed a draft in consultation with other committee members, drawing on his own proposed draft of the Virginia Constitution, George Mason's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, and other sources.[24]
Jefferson showed his draft to the committee, which made some final revisions, and then presented it to Congress on June 28, 1776. After voting in favor of the resolution of independence on July 2, Congress turned its attention to the declaration. Over several days of debate, Congress made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text, most notably a passage critical of the slave trade, changes that Jefferson resented.[25] On July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was ratified. The Declaration would eventually become Jefferson's major claim to fame, and his eloquent preamble became an enduring statement of human rights.[25]
State legislator
In September 1776, Jefferson returned to Virginia and was elected to the new Virginia House of Delegates. During his term in the House, Jefferson set out to reform and update Virginia's system of laws to reflect its new status as a democratic state. He drafted 126 bills in three years, including laws to abolish primogeniture, establish freedom of religion, and streamline the judicial system. In 1778, Jefferson's "Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge" and subsequent efforts to reduce clerical control led to some small changes at William and Mary College.[26] While in the state legislature Jefferson proposed a bill to eliminate capital punishment for all crimes except murder and treason. His effort to end the death penalty law was defeated.[27]
Governor of Virginia
Jefferson served as governor of Virginia from 1779–1781. As governor in 1780, he transferred the state capital from Williamsburg to Richmond. He continued to advocate educational reforms at the College of William and Mary, including the nation's first student-policed honor code. In 1779, at Jefferson's behest, William and Mary appointed George Wythe to be the first professor of law in an American university.
The British invaded Virginia under Benedict Arnold and then by Lord Cornwallis. He and other rebel leaders in Virginia barely escaped capture by the British in June 1781.[28] Many people disliked his tenure, and he not win office again in Virginia.[29] However, in 1783 he was appointed to Congress by the state legislature.
Member of Congress
The Virginia state legislature appointed Jefferson to the Congress of the Confederation on 6 June 1783, his term beginning on 1 November. He was a member of the committee formed to set foreign exchange rates, and in that capacity he recommended that the American currency be based on the decimal system. Jefferson also recommended setting up the Committee of the States, to function as the executive arm of Congress when Congress was not in session. He left Congress when he was elected a minister plenipotentiary on 7 May 1784.
Minister to France
Jefferson served as minister to France from 1785 to 1789, and did not attend the Philadelphia Convention, though he followed the proceedings by correspondence, and was supportive of it.
Beginning in early September 1785, Jefferson collaborated by mail with John Adams in London to outline an anti-piracy treaty with Morocco. [30][31] Their work culminated in a treaty that was ratified by Congress on 18 July 1787 and is still in force today, making it the longest unbroken treaty relationship in U.S. history. [32]
He enjoyed the architecture, arts, and the salon culture of Paris. He often dined with many of the city's most prominent people, but sided with the revolutionaries in 1789 French Revolution.[33][34]
While in Paris, Jefferson corresponded with a number of individuals who had important roles in events leading up to the French Revolution. These included marquis de Lafayette and comte de Mirabeau, a popular pamphleteer who echoed ideals that had been the basis for the American Revolution. [35][36][37]
He and his daughters brought some of their slaves, like James Hemings, who trained as a French chef. Sally Hemings, James' sister, went with Jefferson's younger daughter. It was likely Jefferson began his long-term relationship with Sally Hemings while in Paris.[38][39]
Secretary of State
As George Washington's (1790–1793) Secretary of State, Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton argued over national fiscal policy, especially the funding of the debts of the war. Jefferson later compared Hamilton and the Federalists with "Royalism", and stated the "Hamiltonians were panting after...crowns, coronets and mitres."[40] Jefferson and James Madison founded and led the Democratic-Republican Party. He worked with Madison and his campaign manager John J. Beckley to build a nationwide network of Republican allies.
The French minister said in 1793: "Senator Morris and Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton...had the greatest influence over the President's mind, and that it was only with difficulty that he [Jefferson] counterbalanced their efforts."[41] Jefferson supported France against Britain when they fought in 1793.[42] Jefferson believed that political success at home depended on the success of the French army in Europe.[43]The French minister in 1793, Edmond-Charles Genêt, caused a crisis when he tried to influence public opinion in appealing to the people, something Jefferson tried to stop.
Break from office
Jefferson retired to Monticello in late 1793 where he continued to oppose the policies of Hamilton and Washington. However, the Jay Treaty of 1794, led by Hamilton, brought peace and trade with Britain– while Madison, with strong support from Jefferson, wanted, "to strangle the former mother country" without going to war. "It became an article of faith among Republicans that 'commercial weapons' would suffice to bring Great Britain to any terms the United States chose to dictate."[44]
Even during the violence of the Reign of Terror, Jefferson refused to disavow the revolution because "To back away from France would be to undermine the cause of republicanism in America." [45]
Election of 1796 and Vice Presidency
As the Democratic-Republican candidate in 1796 he lost to John Adams, but had enough electoral votes to become Vice President (1797–1801). He wrote a manual of parliamentary procedure, but otherwise avoided the Senate.[citation needed]
With the Quasi-War underway, the Federalists under John Adams started rebuilding the military, levied new taxes, and enacted the Alien and Sedition Acts. Jefferson interpreted the Alien and Sedition Acts as an effort to suppress Democratic-Republicans rather than dangerous enemy aliens, and were used to attack his party. Jefferson and Madison rallied support by anonymously writing the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which declared that the federal government had no right to exercise powers not specifically delegated to it by the states.[citation needed]
Election of 1800
Working closely with Aaron Burr of New York, Jefferson rallied his party, attacking the new taxes especially, and ran for the Presidency in 1800. Before the passage of the Twelfth Amendment, a problem with the new union's electoral system arose. He tied with Burr for first place in the electoral college, leaving the House of Representatives (where the Federalists still had some power) to decide the election.[citation needed]
Hamilton convinced his party that Jefferson would be a lesser political evil than Burr and that such scandal within the electoral process would undermine the new constitution. On February 17, 1801, after thirty-six ballots, the House elected Jefferson President and Burr Vice President. Jefferson later removed Burr from the ticket in 1804 after Burr killed Hamilton in a duel.[citation needed]
Jefferson owed his election victory to the South's inflated number of Electors, which counted slaves under the three-fifths compromise.[46][47] After his election in 1800, some called him the "Negro President", with critics like the Mercury and New-England Palladium of Boston that Jefferson had the gall to celebrate his election as a victory for democracy when he won "the temple of Liberty on the shoulders of slaves."[47][48]
Presidency 1801–1809
Jefferson helped repeal many federal taxes in his bid to rely more on customs revenue. He pardoned people imprisoned under the Alien and Sedition Acts, passed in John Adams' term. He repealed the Judiciary Act of 1801 and removed many of Adams' "midnight judges" from office, which led to the Supreme Court deciding the important case of Marbury v. Madison. He began and won the First Barbary War (1801–1805), America's first significant overseas war, and established the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1802.
In 1803 Jefferson bought the Louisiana Territory from France, doubling the size of the United States.[49] He also signed into law a bill that officially segregated the U.S. postal system by not allowing blacks to carry mail.[50] In 1807, Jefferson ordered Aaron Burr tried for treason, but he was acquitted. During the trial Chief Justice John Marshall subpoenaed Jefferson, who invoked executive privilege and claimed that as president he did not need to comply. When Marshall held that the Constitution did not provide the president with any exception, Jefferson backed down. In March that year, Jefferson signed a bill making slave importation illegal in the United States.[51][52] However, by this time only South Carolina imported slaves, and Jefferson was not the main person pushing for the ban.[53][54]
Jefferson's reputation was damaged by the Embargo Act of 1807, which was ineffective and was repealed at the end of his second term.
Administration, Cabinet and Supreme Court appointments 1801–1809
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States admitted to the Union:
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Father of a university
- Also see: History of the University of Virginia
After his political career, Jefferson focused on creating a university free of religious involvement, offering courses in many new areas not offered elsewhere. This would help create a more organised society, where some schools would be paid for by the general public, for the benefit of poorer Americans.[55]
The University of Virginia was founded opened in 1825, and was Jefferson's project. It was notable for being centered about a library rather than a church. Jefferson is widely recognized for his architectural planning of the University of Virginia grounds, a design that represents his goals education and agriculture. Jefferson liked Greek and Roman styles, which he believed to be appropriate representation of American democracy.[citation needed]
Slavery
Attitude towards slaves and blacks
According to historian Stephen Ambrose: "Jefferson, like all slaveholders and many other white members of American society, regarded Negroes as inferior, childlike, untrustworthy and, of course, as property."[56] He believed they were inferior to whites in reasoning, mathematical comprehension, and imagination. Jefferson thought these "differences" were "fixed in nature" and was not dependent on their freedom or education.[57] He thought there were differences that created the "innate inferiority of Blacks compared to Whites", which was part of why he thought slavery was justified. The historian Nicholas Magnis says of his writings: "This is the essence of racial bias."[58]
Jefferson did not believe that African Americans could live in American society as free people, saying "Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate than that these people are to be free. [But] the two races...cannot live in the same government."[59] For a long-term solution, he thought that slaves should be freed after reaching maturity and they had repaid their owners investment; afterward, he thought they should be sent to African colonies in what he considered "repatriation", despite their being American-born. Otherwise, he thought the presence of free blacks would encourage a violent uprising by slaves' looking for freedom.[60] Jefferson expressed his fear of slave rebellion: "We have the wolf by the ears; and we can neither hold him, nor safely let him go. Justice is in one scale, and self-preservation in the other."[61]
In 1809, he wrote to Abbé Grégoire, whose book argued against Jefferson's claims of black inferiority in Notes on Virginia. Jefferson said blacks had "respectable intelligence", but did not alter his views.[62][63] In August 1814 Edward Coles and Jefferson corresponded about Coles' ideas on emancipation. Jefferson urged Coles not to free his slaves.[64][65]
Slavery
Jefferson inherited slaves as a child, and throughout his life owned hundreds of black men, women and children.[66] Some biographers take the position that Jefferson's debt prevented him freeing his slaves;[67] however, other scholars, such as Paul Finkelman, say that freeing slaves was "not even a mildly important goal". The historian notes Jefferson's lavish spending at Monticello and failure to take any steps when contemporaries were allowing slaves to hire themselves out and pay off their purchase price for freedom, something Jefferson could have done.[68] His claimed ambivalence was reflected in his treatment of those slaves who worked most closely with him and his family at Monticello and in other locations.[69]
In the first two decades after the Revolution, the legislatures of Virginia, Maryland and Delaware made it easier for slaveholders to manumit their slaves.[70] In Virginia the number of free blacks climbed: from less than one percent in 1782, to 4.2 percent in 1790, and 13.5 percent in 1810.[71] In Delaware, three-quarters of blacks were free by 1810.[72] In the two decades following the Revolution, some slaveholders were moved by its ideals to free their slaves, either during their lives or by deed of will. In the Upper South, the percentage of free blacks went from less than 1 percent in 1780 to more than 10 percent in 1810.[73]
While Jefferson was a member of the Virginia legislature during the 1770s, he authored legislation preventing freed blacks from living or moving into Virginia, and punishing interracial relations. Jefferson believed that freed blacks should be deported and replaced with white settlers. The forced deportation of blacks would prevent a race war between former slaves and whites, according to Jefferson. He proposed what he considered to be reasonable policies: education, emancipation, and repatriation of the former slaves.[76][77]
In his first draft of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson condemned the British crown for the slave trade, but not slavery, saying he (the King) "has waged cruel war against human nature itself...captivating & carrying them into slavery." He also condemned the King for "inciting American Negroes to rise in arms against their masters".[78][79] However, this language was dropped from the Declaration at the request of delegates from South Carolina and Georgia.
In 1778 the Virginia legislature passed a bill he introduced to ban further importation of slaves into the state. Many slave owners opposed the international slave trade, while supporting slavery. Ending the importation of slaves benefitted slaveholders because it increased the value of slaves and decreased the chances of slave rebellion associated with new arrivals.[80][81]
In 1807, as President, Jefferson signed a bill abolishing the import or export of slaves, which was already outlawed by all states except South Carolina; he was not the main force behind the legislation, to which resistance was small.[82]
Marriage and family
Wife and children
In 1772, at age 29 Jefferson married the 23-year-old widow Martha Wayles Skelton. They had six children, only two of whom survived to adulthood:
- Martha Washington Jefferson (1772–1836), who married Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr., future governor of Virginia. They had twelve children, eleven of whom survived to adulthood.
- Jane Jefferson (1774–1775)
- stillborn or unnamed son (1777)
- Mary Wayles Jefferson (1778–1804), married her cousin John Wayles Eppes, son of Martha's sister, Elizabeth Wayles Eppes. Mary died at age 25 after the birth of her third child; only their son Francis W. Eppes survived to adulthood. Jefferson made his grandson the designated heir of Poplar Forest, originally intended for Mary. In 1829 Francis Eppes moved to Florida, where he had a cotton plantation until the Civil War.
- Lucy Elizabeth (1780–1781)
- Lucy Elizabeth (1782–1785) (it was the tradition to name next children after one who had died, particularly when the family was also trying to pass down family names). Lucy died while Jefferson was in Paris, prompting him to have his youngest daughter Polly (Mary) sent to him, who was then age nine.
Martha Jefferson died on September 6, 1782, after the birth of her last child. Jefferson never remarried. Jefferson was at his wife's bedside when she died and was deeply upset for a month after her death, often riding on secluded roads to mourn for his wife.[83]
Sally Hemings and her children
It is now generally accepted by scholars that as a widower, Jefferson had an intimate relationship with his slave Sally Hemings, which lasted nearly four decades, and six children by her. She was three-fourths white, and likely a half-sister to Jefferson's late wife, as they both had John Wayles as father. Described as pretty and agreeable, Hemings had six children by Jefferson who were seven-eighths European in ancestry. (They were legally white according to Virginia law of the time, as revised under Jefferson's leadership.) Of the four who survived to adulthood: William Beverley, Harriet, Madison and Eston Hemings, all but Madison identified as white and lived in white communities as adults. Eston particularly was said to resemble Jefferson.[84] Three sons were named after people important to Jefferson.[85]
Jefferson allowed Beverley (a male) and Harriet Hemings to escape Monticello in 1822, providing Harriet money for her trip through his overseer; they lived in Washington, DC according to their appearances as whites and married white partners.[86] Jefferson gave special treatment to the larger Hemings family as well; he allowed Sally's brother Robert Hemings to be purchased and freed in 1794; and in 1796, he personally freed James Hemings, another brother of Sally's.[87]
Jefferson freed five additional slaves by his will, all males from the Hemings family, including his youngest sons by Sally, Madison and Eston Hemings, the only two of their children left at Monticello.[88] Jefferson also freed Joe Fossett, a Hemings descendant, but not his wife or their eight children; they were sold after his death.[89]
Controversy
In 1802 the journalist James T. Callender reported that Jefferson had fathered several children with Sally Hemings. Jefferson never responded publicly, but his family tried to protect him. For instance, his grandson Thomas Jefferson Randolph told a biographer that Hemings had been the mistress of Jefferson's nephew Peter Carr.[90]
In 1873 Madison Hemings claimed his descent from Jefferson in an Ohio newspaper interview. His memoir was rediscovered and publicized in 1951, but at both times, historians generally discounted his testimony. They thought the publication was politically motivated, and favored accounts by Jefferson-Wayles descendants. Historians after them did not re-examine the evidence.[38]
In 1974 Fawn McKay Brodie's biography of Jefferson used Dumas Malone's documented timeline to establish that Jefferson was at Monticello nine months before Hemings had each of her children. Family testimonies of the 19th-century had argued against this.[91][92] Historians continued to publish biographies discounting the Hemings story, such as Joseph Ellis in his award-winning American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (1993).
In 1997 Annette Gordon-Reed demonstrated that many historians had failed to assess certain evidence by various parties to the controversy. She noted their errors in fact because of failing to cross check data, as well as the significance of the Sally Hemings' family being the only one to leave Monticello as free people.[93]
In 1998, Eugene Foster led a DNA study of descendants of the Jefferson male line, John Carr (father of Peter and Samuel, proposed as fathers of Hemings' children), and Thomas Woodson and Eston Hemings, two men whose families claimed Jefferson as an ancestor through Sally Hemings. [94] The team found there was a match between the Jefferson male line and the Eston Hemings descendant. They concluded that, with historical evidence, "the most probable explanations for our molecular findings are that Thomas Jefferson, rather than one of the Carr brothers, was the father of Eston Hemings Jefferson." The team found that the Carr line was not related to the Hemings descendants; nor was the Jefferson line related to Thomas Woodson's descendants.[84] Biographers such as Joseph Ellis and Andrew Burstein publicly stated their being convinced of Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children. [95]
The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation (TJMF), which operates Monticello, called a Research Committee to evaluate the evidence. In 2000 its report concluded that Thomas Jefferson was the father of Eston Heming, and that he likely had a long-term relationship with Sally and fathered her other children.[96]
Not all historians were convinced, and some continue to disagree with these conclusions. The newly formed Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society (TJHS) commissioned its own report, which concluded in 2001 that there was insufficient evidence to support Jefferson's being the father of Hemings's children. In 1999 the Monticello Association, a private lineage society of Thomas Jefferson descendants, commissioned its own report. Based on it, in 2002 most of the members voted not to admit the Hemings descendants, nor to change its documentation requirements, while they acknowledged these could be hard for slave descendants to satisfy.[97]
Later that year, the National Genealogical Society Quarterly had a special issue, concluding that the weight of historical evidence plus the DNA results, demonstrated that Jefferson was the father of Hemings' children and had a long-term relationship with her. They criticized the TJHS report for violating good historical and genealogical practices, and ignoring the body of evidence.[98]
Since 2001, scholarship has changed; it is widely accepted that Jefferson had a long relationship with Hemings and fathered her children. Gordon-Reed's The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (2007) explored the slave family's history, based on Thomas Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children. In his 2008 review of the book, the historian Eric Foner dealt with the Jefferson-Hemings relationship as a given, referring to "their children" and noting that Hemings' sons bore names important to Jefferson: Thomas Eston Hemings (after a cousin), James Madison, and William Beverly (after important Virginians.)[99] The book won the Pulitzer Prize for History and fifteen other major historical and literary awards from leading organizations in recognition of its quality and significance.
Death
Jefferson' health began to deteriorate by July 1825, and by June 1826 he was confined to bed. He likely died from uremia, severe diarrhea, and pneumonia.[101][unreliable source?]Jefferson died on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, and a few hours before John Adams.[102]
Though born into a wealthy slave-owning family, Jefferson had many financial problems, and was deeply in debt. After his death, his possessions, and slaves, were sold, including Monticello in 1831. Thomas Jefferson is buried at his longtime home in Albemarle County.
His epitaph, written by him, reads:
- "HERE WAS BURIED THOMAS JEFFERSON
- AUTHOR OF THE DECLARATION OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE
- OF THE STATUTE OF VIRGINIA FOR RELIGIOUS FREEDOM
- AND FATHER OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA." And below it:
- BORN APRIL 2. 1743. O.S.
- DIED JULY 4. 1826.[103][104]
Interests, activities, inventions, and improvements
Jefferson was a farmer, with a lifelong interest in mechanical innovations, new crops, soil conditions, and scientific agricultural techniques. He took special interest in his gardens. He main cash crop was tobacco, but its price was usually low and it was rarely profitable. He tried to achieve self-sufficiency with wheat, vegetables, flax, corn, hogs, sheep, poultry and cattle to feed and clothe his family, slaves and white employees, but he had cash flow problems and was always in debt. [105][106]
Jefferson had a love for reading and collecting thousands of books in his personal library and kept several collections. Jefferson stated that he could not "live without books" and that he had a "canine appetite for reading." His library collection he sold to the Library of Congress in 1815, contained 6,700 books. In honor of Jefferson's contribution the library's website for federal legislative information was named THOMAS.[107] In 2007, Jefferson's two-volume 1764 edition of the Qur'an was used by Rep. Keith Ellison for his swearing in to the House of Representatives.[108] In February, 2011 the New York Times reported that a part of Jefferson's retirement library containing 74 volumes with 28 book titles was discovered at Washington University in St. Louis. [109]
Jefferson was an accomplished architect who helped popularize bringing the Neo-Palladian in the United States.[110] It is frequently claimed that Jefferson was an advocate for growing and smoking hemp. Modern scholarship indicates that hemp was in fact a secondary crop at Monticello, but that there exists no evidence of Jefferson using the plant for euphoriant purposes.[111] Jefferson was interested in birds and wine, and was a noted gourmet. Jefferson was a prolific writer. He learned Gaelic to translate Ossian, and sent to James Macpherson for the originals.[112]
Jefferson invented many small practical devices and number of improvements to contemporary inventions. Thomas Jefferson invented the design for a revolving stand that could hold five books at once to be viewed by the reader. Jefferson invented the Great Clock that was powered by the earth's gravitational pull on Revolutionary War cannonballs. The gong chime for the clock, mounted on top of Monticello's roof, could be heard as far as the University of Virginia. Louis Leschot, a machinist, aided Jefferson with this clock invention. Jefferson invented a 15 cm long coded wooden cypher wheel mounted on a metal spindel used to keep secure State Department messages while he was Secretary of State. The messages were scrambled and unscrambled by 26 alphabet letters on each individual circular segments of the wheel. Jefferson improved the moldboard plow and the polygraph, in collaboration with Charles Wilson Peale.[113]
Political philosophy and views
Jefferson was a leader in developing republicanism in the United States. He insisted that the British aristocratic system was inherently corrupt and that Americans' devotion to civic virtue required independence. Jefferson's vision was that of an agricultural nation of yeoman farmers minding their own affairs.[citation needed]
Jefferson's republican political principles were heavily influenced by the Country Party of 18th century British opposition writers. He was influenced by John Locke (particularly relating to the principle of inalienable rights).[114]
Jefferson opposed borrowing from banks because he believed it created long-term debt as well as monopolies, and inclined the people to dangerous speculation, as opposed to productive labor on the farm.[115]
Jefferson believed that each man has "certain inalienable rights". He defines the right of "liberty" by saying, "Rightful liberty is unobstructed action according to our will within limits drawn around us by the equal rights of others..."[116] A proper government, for Jefferson, is one that not only prohibits individuals in society from infringing on the liberty of other individuals, but also restrains itself from diminishing individual liberty.
Abigail Adams excepted, Jefferson did not support gender equality, and opposed female involvement in politics, saying that "our good ladies ... are contented to soothe and calm the minds of their husbands returning ruffled from political debate."[117]
Rebellion to restrain government and retain individual rights
After the Revolutionary War, Jefferson advocated restraining government via rebellion and violence when necessary, in order to protect individual freedoms. In a letter to James Madison on January 30, 1787, Jefferson wrote, "A little rebellion, now and then, is a good thing, and as necessary in the political world as storms in the physical...It is a medicine necessary for the sound health of government."[118] Similarly, in a letter to Abigail Adams on February 22, 1787 he wrote, "The spirit of resistance to government is so valuable on certain occasions that I wish it to be always kept alive. It will often be exercised when wrong, but better so than not to be exercised at all."[118] Concerning Shays' Rebellion after he had heard of the bloodshed, on November 13, 1787 Jefferson wrote to William S. Smith, John Adams' son-in-law, "What signify a few lives lost in a century or two? The tree of liberty must from time to time be refreshed with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure."[119] In another letter to William S. Smith during 1787, Jefferson wrote: And what country can preserve its liberties, if the rulers are not warned from time to time, that this people preserve the spirit of resistance? Let them take arms.[118]
Religion
Jefferson rejected the orthodox Christianity of his day and was especially hostile to the Catholic Church as he saw it operate in France. Throughout his life Jefferson was intensely interested in theology, biblical study, and morality. As a landowner he played a role in governing his local Episcopal Church; in terms of belief he was inclined toward Unitarianism and the religious philosophy of Deism. Under the influence of several of his college professors, he converted to the deist philosophy.[120] Dulles concludes:
"Jefferson was a deist because he believed in one God, in divine providence, in the divine moral law, and in rewards and punishments after death, but did not believe in supernatural revelation. He was a Christian deist because he saw Christianity as the highest expression of natural religion and Jesus as an incomparably great moral teacher. He was not an orthodox Christian because he rejected, among other things, the doctrines that Jesus was the promised Messiah and the incarnate Son of God."
In private letters, Jefferson refers to himself as "Christian" (1803): "To the corruptions of Christianity I am, indeed, opposed; but not to the genuine precepts of Jesus himself. I am a Christian, in the only sense in which he wished any one to be; sincerely attached to his doctrines, in preference to all others; ascribing to himself every human excellence....[121]
Jefferson believed in the moral teachings of Christ and edited a compilation of Christ's teachings leaving out the miracles.[122] Jefferson was firmly anticlerical saying that in "every country and every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot...they have perverted the purest religion ever preached to man into mystery and jargon, unintelligible to all mankind, and therefore the safer for their purposes."[123] Jefferson told Adams he had doubts on the existence of invisible beings such as God, angels, and the soul writing, "To talk of immaterial existences is to talk of nothings."[124]
Native American policy
Jefferson was the first President to propose the idea of a formal Indian Removal plan.[125][126] Andrew Jackson is often erroneously credited with initiating Indian Removal, because Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830 during his presidency. He was in favor of this policy as well and gained legislative support for it. In addition he was involved in the extermination and forceful removal of many Eastern tribes.[125] Jefferson had laid out an approach to Indian removal in a series of private letters that began in 1803 (for example, see letter to William Henry Harrison below).[125]
Between 1776 and 1779, Jefferson recommended forcing the Cherokee and Shawnee tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River.[125] His first such act as president, was to make a deal with the state of Georgia: if Georgia were to release its legal claims to discovery in lands to its west, the U.S. military would help forcefully expel the Cherokee people from Georgia. At the time, the Cherokee had a treaty with the United States government which guaranteed them the right to their lands, which was violated by Jefferson's deal with Georgia.[125]
Acculturation and assimilation
Jefferson's original plan was for Natives to give up their own cultures, religions, and lifestyles in favor of western European culture, Christian religion, and a European-style agricultural lifestyle.[125][126]
Jefferson believed that their assimilation into the European-American economy would make them more dependent on trade with white Americans, and would eventually thereby be willing to give up land that they would otherwise not part with, in exchange for trade goods or to resolve unpaid debts.[127] In an 1803 letter to William Henry Harrison, Jefferson wrote:
- To promote this disposition to exchange lands, which they have to spare and we want, for necessaries, which we have to spare and they want, we shall push our trading uses, and be glad to see the good and influential individuals among them run in debt, because we observe that when these debts get beyond what the individuals can pay, they become willing to lop them off by a cession of lands.... In this way our settlements will gradually circumscribe and approach the Indians, and they will in time either incorporate with us a citizens or the United States, or remove beyond the Mississippi. The former is certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves; but, in the whole course of this, it is essential to cultivate their love. As to their fear, we presume that our strength and their weakness is now so visible that they must see we have only to shut our hand to crush them, and that all our liberalities to them proceed from motives of pure humanity only. Should any tribe be foolhardy enough to take up the hatchet at any time, the seizing the whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, as the only condition of peace, would be an example to others, and a furtherance of our final consolidation.[127]
Forced removal and extermination
In cases where Native tribes resisted assimilation, Jefferson believed that they should be forcefully removed from their land and sent west.[125] As Jefferson put it in a letter to Alexander von Humboldt in 1813:
- You know, my friend, the benevolent plan we were pursuing here for the happiness of the aboriginal inhabitants in our vicinities. We spared nothing to keep them at peace with one another. To teach them agriculture and the rudiments of the most necessary arts, and to encourage industry by establishing among them separate property. In this way they would have been enabled to subsist and multiply on a moderate scale of landed possession. They would have mixed their blood with ours, and been amalgamated and identified with us within no distant period of time. On the commencement of our present war, we pressed on them the observance of peace and neutrality, but the interested and unprincipled policy of England has defeated all our labors for the salvation of these unfortunate people. They have seduced the greater part of the tribes within our neighborhood, to take up the hatchet against us, and the cruel massacres they have committed on the women and children of our frontiers taken by surprise, will oblige us now to pursue them to extermination, or drive them to new seats beyond our reach.[128]
Jefferson believed assimilation was best for Native Americans; second best was removal to the west. The worst possible outcome would happen if Native Americans attacked the whites.[129] He told his Secretary of War, General Henry Dearborn (who was the primary government official responsible for Indian affairs): "if we are constrained to lift the hatchet against any tribe, we will never lay it down until that tribe is exterminated, or driven beyond the Mississipi."[130] [131]
Reputation and memorials
Reputation
During the New Deal era of the 1930s, Democrats especially honored him, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt took the lead in building his monument in Washington. Jefferson's reputation among the general public and in the school textbooks has generally been high.[132]
Historians express dismay at his harsh treatment of Native Americans, and opposition to a biracial society and his low opinion of blacks, and devote much to his relationship with Sally Hemings.[133][134]
Sean Wilentz in 2010 identified a scholarly trend in Hamilton's favor:
- In recent years, Hamilton and his reputation have decidedly gained the initiative among scholars who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive. Jefferson and his allies, by contrast, have come across as naïve, dreamy idealists. At best according to many historians, the Jeffersonians were reactionary utopians who resisted the onrush of capitalist modernity in hopes of turning America into a yeoman farmers' arcadia. At worst, they were proslavery racists who wish to rid the West of Indians, expand the empire of slavery, and keep political power in local hands -- all the better to expand the institution of slavery and protect slaveholders' rights to own human property.[135]
Modern Jeffersonian critics have debated the inconsistancy of Jefferson's rhetoric promoting individual liberty and equality while sustaining a lifestyle as a Virginia slaveowner.[136]
Memorials
Jefferson has been memorialized in many ways, including buildings, sculptures, and currency. The Jefferson Memorial was dedicated in Washington, D.C. on April 13, 1943, the 200th anniversary of Jefferson's birth. The interior of the memorial includes a 19-foot (6 m) statue of Jefferson and engravings of passages from his writings. Most prominent are the words which are inscribed around the monument near the roof: "I have sworn upon the altar of god eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man".[137]
Thomas Jefferson's portrait has been found engraved on the face of the various U.S. Postage issues that have honored him.[138] His portrait appears on the U.S. $2 bill, nickel, and the $100 Series EE Savings Bond, and a Presidential Dollar which released into circulation on August 16, 2007.[139]
His original tombstone, now a cenotaph, is located on the campus in the University of Missouri's Quadrangle.
A life mask of Jefferson was created by John Henri Isaac Browere in the 1820s.[140]
Jefferson, together with George Washington, Theodore Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln, was chosen by sculptor Gutzon Borglum and approved by President Calvin Coolidge to be depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial.[141] Other memorials to Jefferson include the commissioning of the NOAA ship Thomas Jefferson in Norfolk, Virginia on July 8, 2003, in commemoration of his establishment of a Survey of the Coast, the predecessor to NOAA's National Ocean Service; and the placement of a bronze monument in Jefferson Park, Chicago at the entrance to the Jefferson Park Transit Center along Milwaukee Avenue in 2005.
Writings
- Memorandums taken on a journey from Paris into the southern parts of France and Northern Italy, in the year 1787
- A Summary View of the Rights of British America (1774)
- Autobiography (1821)
- Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (1775)
- Notes on the State of Virginia (1781)
- Jefferson Bible, or The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth
- Manual of Parliamentary Practice for the Use of the Senate of the United States (1801)
See also
- Jeffersonian Democracy
- Maria Cosway
- Monticello Association
- US Presidents on US postage stamps
- List of Presidents of the United States
Notes
- ^ a b The birth and death of Thomas Jefferson are given using the Gregorian calendar. However, he was born when Britain and her colonies still used the Julian calendar, so contemporary records (and his tombstone) record his birth as April 2, 1743. The provisions of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, implemented in 1752, altered the official British dating method to the Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January 1– see the article on Old Style and New Style dates for more details.
- ^ Robert W. Tucker, and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (1990)
- ^ Bennett, William J. (2006). "The Greatest Revolution". America: The Last Best Hope (Volume I): From the Age of Discovery to a World at War. Nelson Current. p. 99. ISBN 1-59555-055-0.
- ^ Ferling 2004, p. 26
- ^ "Table 1.1 Acquisition of the Public Domain 1781–1867" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-09-02.
- ^ Jefferson, Thomas (January 1, 1802). "Jefferson's Wall of Separation Letter". U.S. Constitution Online. Retrieved April 13, 2008.
- ^ Menzo, Jessica (December, 2001, 2006). "Thomas Jefferson - Introduction". Retrieved 02-13-2011.
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(help) - ^ Thomas Jefferson, David Waldstreicher, Notes on the State of Virginia, 2002 pg 214
- ^ Brodie, Fawn M. (1974). Thomas Jefferson: An Intimate History. W.W. Norton & Co.
- ^ "Facts on Thomas Jefferson". Revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com. 1943-04-13. Retrieved 2010-02-04.
- ^ Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia – Welsh Ancestry. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
- ^ Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson
- ^ Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (Oxford UP, 1975) pp 7-9
- ^ Merrill D. Peterson, ed. Thomas Jefferson: Writings, p. 1236
- ^ Thomas Jefferson on Wine by John Hailman, 2006
- ^ Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography pp 9-12
- ^ a b c Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson. p 41
- ^ a b Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson. p 47
- ^ Thomas Jefferson p.214
- ^ TJ to John Minor August 30, 1814 Lipscomb and Bergh, WTJ 2:420-21
- ^ ArchitectureWeek. "The Orders – 01". Retrieved 2009-07-20.
- ^ a b c Merrill D. Peterson, "Jefferson, Thomas"; American National Biography Online, February 2000.
- ^ Ellis, American Sphinx, 47–49.
- ^ Maier, American Scripture. Other standard works on Jefferson and the Declaration include Garry Wills, Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence (1978) and Carl L. Becker, The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas (1922).
- ^ a b Ellis, American Sphinx, 50.
- ^ Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography p 146-49
- ^ Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography pp 125-29
- ^ Bennett, William J. (2006). "The Greatest Revolution". America: The Last Best Hope (Volume I): From the Age of Discovery to a World at War. Nelson Current. p. 99. ISBN 1-59555-055-0.
- ^ Ferling 2004, p. 26
- ^ Julian P Boyd, "The Papers of Thomas Jefferson", Vol. 8, Princeton University Press, 1953, pp. 610-624.
- ^ http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/bar1786t.asp Retrieved February 15, 2011.
- ^ http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5431.htm Retrieved February 15, 2011.
- ^ Lawrence S. Kaplan, "Jefferson and France: An Essay on Politics and Political Ideas", Yale University Press, 1980
- ^ Ronald R. Schuckel "The origins of Thomas Jefferson as a Francophile, 1784-1789", Butler University, 1965.
- ^ http://www.archive.org/stream/essaisurledespo01miragoog#page/n5/mode/2up Retrieved February 16, 2011.
- ^ Antonina Vallentin, "Mirabeau", trans. E.W. Dickes, The Viking Press, 1948, p. 86.
- ^ Julian P Boyd, "The Papers of Thomas Jefferson", Vol. 10, Princeton University Press, 1953, p. 283.
- ^ a b Annette Gordon-Reed "Did Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson Love Each Other?," American Heritage, Fall 2008. Cite error: The named reference "Gordon-Reed" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008
- ^ Ferling 2004, p. 59
- ^ Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (1995), p 344.
- ^ "Foreign Affairs," in Peterson, ed. Thomas Jefferson: A Reference Encyclopedia (1986) p 325
- ^ Schachner 1951, p. 495
- ^ Miller (1960), 143–4, 148–9.
- ^ Thomas Jefferson, Jean M. Yarbrough, The essential Jefferson, Hackett Publishing, 2006. (p. xx)
- ^ An American History Lesson For Pat Buchana, Kenneth C. Davis, Huffington Post, July 18, 2009.
- ^ a b Thomas Jefferson, the 'Negro President', Gary Willis on The Tavis Smiley Show, February 16, 2004.
- ^ Negro President: Jefferson and the Slave Power[dead link], Review of Garry Willis's book on WNYC, February 16, 2004.
- ^ "Table 1.1 Acquisition of the Public Domain 1781–1867" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-09-02.
- ^ John Hope Franklin, Race and History: Selected Essays 1938–1988 (Louisiana State University Press: 1989) p. 336 and John Hope Franklin, Racial Equality in America (Chicago: 1976), p. 24-26
- ^ Martin Kelly. "Thomas Jefferson Biography – Third President of the United States". Retrieved 2009-07-05.
- ^ Robert MacNamara. "Importation of Slaves Outlawed by 1807 Act of Congress". Retrieved 2009-07-05.
- ^ |An Inquiry into the Politics of the Prohibition of the International Slave Trade An Inquiry into the Politics of the Prohibition of the International Slave Trade|Stephen Goldfarb| Agricultural History, Vol. 68, No. 2, Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin, 1793-1993: A Symposium (Spring, 1994), pp. 27, 31
- ^ Brogan (1985), The Penguin History of the United States, p. 205
- ^ "Jefferson on Politics & Government: Publicly Supported Education". Etext.lib.virginia.edu. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
- ^ Stephen E. Ambrose, To America: Personal Reflections of an Historian (2003) p 4
- ^ Greg Warnusz (Summer, 1990). "This Execrable Commerce – Thomas Jefferson and Slavery". Retrieved 2009-08-18.
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(help) - ^ Nicholas Magnis. "Thomas Jefferson and Slavery: An Analysis of His Racist Thinking as Revealed by His Writings and Political Behavior", The Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, No. 4 (Mar., 1999) Sage Publications, pp. 500, 498
- ^ Randall, Thomas Jefferson: A Life, p. 303
- ^ Hitchens 2005, pp. 34–35 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFHitchens2005 (help)
- ^ Miller, John Chester (1977). The Wolf by the Ears: Thomas Jefferson and Slavery. New York: Free Press, p. 241. The letter, dated April 22, 1820, was written to former Senator John Holmes of Maine.
- ^ Letter of February 25, 1809 from Thomas Jefferson to French author Monsieur Gregoire, from The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (H. A. Worthington, ed.), Volume V, p. 429. Citation and quote from Morris Kominsky, The Hoaxers, pp. 110–111.
- ^ University of South Carolina, Digital Collections. An Enquiry Concerning the Intellectual and Moral Faculties, and Literature of Negroes; followed with an account of the life and works of fifteen negroes & mulattoes, distinguished in science, literature and the arts, Henri-Baptiste Grégoire. Commentary by Jeffrey Makala, 2004
- ^ Twilight at Monticello, Crawford, 2008, Ch 17, p.101
- ^ Thomas Jefferson and Antislavery, Paul Finkelman. The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol 102, No. 2 (Apr., 1994), pp. 205
- ^ William Cohen, "Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Slavery," Journal of American History 56, no. 3 (1969): 503-526, p. 510
- ^ Herbert E. Sloan, Principle and Interest: Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Debt (2001) pp. 14–26, 220–1.
- ^ Paul Finkelman, "Thomas Jefferson and Antislavery", The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol 102, No. 2 (Apr., 1994), pp. 220-1
- ^ Hitchens 2005, p. 48 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFHitchens2005 (help)
- ^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619-1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, p. 77
- ^ Kolchin, American Slavery, p. 81
- ^ Kolchin, American Slavery, p. 78
- ^ Kolchin, American Slavery, p. 81
- ^ Isaac Jefferson,Memoirs of a Monticello Slave
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: an American controversy, 1997, p 142
- ^ John Ferling, Setting the World Ablaze (2000) p. 290,
- ^ Greg Warnusz (Summer, 1990). "This Execrable Commerce – Thomas Jefferson and Slavery". Retrieved 2009-08-18.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - ^ Was Thomas Jefferson an Authentic Enemy of Slavery? David Davies, Oxford, 1970, p. 6.
- ^ Benjamin Franklin, The Works of Benjamin Franklin, Jared Sparks, editor (Boston: Tappan, Whittemore, and Mason, 1839), Vol. VIII, p. 42, to the Rev. Dean Woodward on April 10, 1773.
- ^ [Ordinance of 1787] Lalor Cyclopædia of Political Science
- ^ Brogan (1985), The Penguin History of the United States, p. 205 -- Note: Prior to the national ban on slave trade, both Georgia and South Carolina in 1797 resisted banning the slave trade in their respected states on the grounds that Virginia and Pennsylvania were were bullying the states by coercion.
- ^ Stephen Goldfarb, "An Inquiry into the Politics of the Prohibition of the International Slave Trade", Agricultural History, Vol. 68, No. 2, Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin, 1793-1993: A Symposium (Spring, 1994), pp. 27, 31
- ^ Halliday (2001), Understanding Thomas Jefferson, pp. 48-52
- ^ a b Foster, EA; Jobling, MA; Taylor, PG; Donnelly, P; De Knijff, P; Mieremet, R; Zerjal, T; Tyler-Smith, C; et al. (1998). "Jefferson fathered slave's last child" (PDF). Nature. 396 (6706): 27–28. doi:10.1038/23835. PMID 9817200.
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: Explicit use of et al. in:|first=
(help) - ^ "Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: A Brief Account", Monticello Foundation, accessed 9 February 2011
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello (2008) pp 489-503, 581-583
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello (2008), pp 489-503, 581-583
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy, pp. 38-43 (Univ. of Virginia Press, 1997)
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings, 1997, pp. 41-42
- ^ The Real Thomas Jefferson by Allison, Andrew, K. DeLynn Cook, M. Richard Maxfield, W. Cleon Skousen pp. 232-233 National Center for Constitutional Studies, Washington, D.C.
- ^ Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings
- ^ Halliday (2001), Understanding Thomas Jefferson, pp. 162-167
- ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American controversy, 1998, pp. 40-41]
- ^ DNA typing: biology, technology, and genetics of STR markers. John Marshall Butler, Elsevier Academic Press, 2005. pg 224-9
- ^ "Online Newshour: Thomas Jefferson". pbs.org. 1998-11-02. Retrieved 2006-08-04. Quote: Joseph Ellis "...[T]his is really new evidence. And it—prior to this evidence, I think it was a very difficult case to know and circumstantial on both sides, and, in part, because I got it wrong, I think I want to step forward and say this new evidence constitutes, well, evidence beyond any reasonable doubt that Jefferson had a longstanding sexual relationship with Sally Hemings."
- ^ Statement on the TJF Research Committee Report on Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings, Monticello.org. Quote: "# Dr. Foster's DNA study was conducted in a manner that meets the standards of the scientific community, and its scientific results are valid.
- The DNA study, combined with multiple strands of currently available documentary and statistical evidence, indicates a high probability that Thomas Jefferson fathered Eston Hemings, and that he most likely was the father of all six of Sally Hemings's children appearing in Jefferson's records. Those children are Harriet, who died in infancy; Beverly; an unnamed daughter who died in infancy; Harriet; Madison; and Eston."
- ^ Chris Kahn, "Reunion bridges Jefferson family rift: Snubbed descendants of black slave hold their own event", Genealogy, MSNBC, 13 July 2003, accessed 1 March 2011
- ^ Helen F.M. Lear, National Genealogical Society Quarterly, Vol. 89, No. 3, September 2001, p. 207
- ^ Eric Foner, "The Master and the Mistress", Sunday Book Review, New York Times, 3 October 2008. Quote: "... Jefferson certainly took a special interest in their children. Gordon-Reed notes that while other Hemings offspring were named after relatives, Sally Hemings’s sons bore names significant for Jefferson — Thomas Eston Hemings (after his cousin) and James Madison and William Beverley Hemings (after important Virginians).
In the end, Jefferson fulfilled the “treaty” he had agreed to in Paris and freed Sally Hemings’s surviving children. He allowed their daughter Harriet and son Beverley (ages 21 and 24) to leave Monticello in 1822. Very light-skinned, they chose to live out their lives as white people. Jefferson’s will freed Madison and Eston Hemings as well as three of their relatives.", accessed 28 February 2011 - ^ Thomas Jefferson at Find a Grave
- ^ wiki.monticello.org Jefferson's Cause of Death. Retrieved 2010-06-12.
- ^ Jefferson Still Survives. Retrieved on 2006-12-26.
- ^ "Monticello Report: The Calendar and Old Style (O. S.)". Thomas Jefferson Foundation (Monticello.org). 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-08-15. Retrieved 2007-09-15.
- ^ The initials O.S. are a notation for Old Style and that is a reference to the change of dating that occurred during Jefferson's lifetime from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar under the British Calendar (New Style) Act 1750.
- ^ Robert Shalhope, "Agriculture," in Merrill D. Peterson, ed., Thomas Jefferson: A Reference Biography (1986) pp 384-98
- ^ Barbara McEwan, Thomas Jefferson, farmer (1991) pp 20-39
- ^ Ellis, Joseph J. (1994). "American Sphinx: The Contradictions of Thomas Jefferson". Library of Congress.Roberts, Sam (February 21, 2011). "A Founding Father's Books Turn Up". Retrieved 02-23-2011.
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(help) - ^
"But It's Thomas Jefferson's Koran!". Washington Post. January 1, 2007. p. C03. Retrieved January 3, 2007.
{{cite news}}
: Cite uses deprecated parameter|authors=
(help) - ^ Roberts, Sam (February 21, 2011). "A Founding Father's Books Turn Up". Retrieved 02-23-2011.
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(help) - ^ "Jefferson's Inventions". Cti.itc.virginia.edu. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
- ^ http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/whiteb1.htm
- ^ Kevin J. Hayes, The road to Monticello: the life and mind of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford U.P., 2008) pp 135-6
- ^ "Inventions of Thomas Jefferson". Retrieved 02-25-2011.
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(help)Murk (September 6, 2004). "Jefferson Wheel Cipher". Retrieved 02-25-2011.{{cite web}}
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(help)"Jefferson's Inventions". Cti.itc.virginia.edu. Retrieved 2009-09-02. - ^ J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (1975), 533; see also Richard K. Matthews, The Radical Politics of Thomas Jefferson, (1986), p. 17, 139n.16.
- ^ Donald F. Swanson, "Bank-Notes Will Be But as Oak Leaves": Thomas Jefferson on Paper Money," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1993, Vol. 101 Issue 1, pp 37-52
- ^ Letter to Isaac H. Tiffany, April 4, 1819 in Appleby and Ball (1999) p 224.
- ^ Richard B. Morris, Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny (1973), p. 133
- ^ a b c Melton, The Quotable Founding Fathers, 277.
- ^ Letter to William Smith, November 13, 1787
- ^ Avery Dulles, "The Deist Minimum", First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life Issue: 149. (January 2005), pp 25+
- ^ April 21, 1803 letter to Benjamin Rush in Bergh, ed., Writings of Thomas Jefferson 10:379
- ^ "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth". 1820. Retrieved 12-08-2010.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - ^ Letter to Horatio Spafford (1814) in J. Jefferson Looney, ed., The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Retirement Series (2011) Volume 7 Page 248
- ^ Letter to John Adams (August 15, 1820)
- ^ a b c d e f g Miller, Robert (July 1, 2008). Native America, Discovered and Conquered: : Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny. Bison Books. p. 90. ISBN 978-0803215986.
- ^ a b Drinnon, Richard (March 1997). Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-Hating and Empire-Building. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0806129280.
- ^ a b Jefferson, Thomas (1803). "President Thomas Jefferson to William Henry Harrison, Governor of the Indiana Territory,". Retrieved 2009-03-12.
- ^ "Letter From Thomas Jefferson to Alexander von Humboldt December 6, 1813". Retrieved 2009-03-12.
- ^ Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of extinction: Jeffersonian philanthropy and the American Indian (1974) pp 120–21
- ^ James P. Ronda, Thomas Jefferson and the changing West: from conquest to conservation (1997) p. 10; text in Moore, MariJo (2006). Eating Fire, Tasting Blood: An Anthology of the American Indian Holocaust. Running Press. ISBN 978-1560258384.
- ^ Scott Stamp Catalog, Index of Commemorative Stamps
- ^ Merrill D. Peterson, The Jefferson Image in the American Mind (1960), passim.
- ^ Appleby, Thomas Jefferson (2003) pp. 118, 134-43
- ^ Jeffrey L. Pasley, "Politics and the Misadventures of Thomas Jefferson's Modern Reputation: a Review Essay", Journal of Southern History 2006 72(4): 871–908
- ^ Sean Wilentz, "Book Reviews," Journal of American History Sept. 2010 v. 97# 2 p 476. Wilentz notes that Wood (2009) is quite favorable toward Jefferson. Jefferson has been consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest of U.S. presidents.
- ^ Menzo, Jessica (December, 2001, 2006). "Thomas Jefferson - Introduction". Retrieved 02-13-2011.
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(help) - ^ Office of the Historic American Buildings Survey/Historic American Engineering Record (HABS/HAER), of the National Park Service, Library of Congress (September 1994). "Documentation of the Jefferson Memorial". Retrieved 2009-09-04.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Scott Stamp Catalog, Index of Commemorative Stamps
- ^ "New York Times/ABOUT.COM". Coins.about.com. 2007-08-16. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
- ^ Charles Henry Hart. Browere's life masks of great Americans. Printed at the De Vinne Press for Doubleday and McClure Company, 1899. Google books
- ^ National Park Service. "Carving History". Mount Rushmore National Memorial. Retrieved 2009-09-04.
Bibliography
Biographical
- Appleby, Joyce. Thomas Jefferson (2003), short interpretive essay by leading scholar.
- Bernstein, R. B. Thomas Jefferson. (2003) Well-regarded short biography.
- Brodie, Fawn McKay. Thomas Jefferson: An Intimate History, W.W. Norton, 1974, the "first extensive investigation of the Sally Hemings story".
- Gordon-Reed, Annette. Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American controversy, Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press, 1997 (reprint 1998 to include discussion of DNA analysis), p. 4
- Burstein, Andrew. Jefferson's Secrets: Death and Desire at Monticello, New York: Basic Books (2005).
- Cunningham, Noble E. In Pursuit of Reason (1988) well-reviewed short biography.
- Crawford, Alan Pell, Twilight at Monticello, Random House, New York, (2008)
- Ellis, Joseph. "American Sphinx: The Contradictions of Thomas Jefferson".
- Ellis, Joseph. American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (1996). Prize-winning essays; assumes prior reading of his biography.
- Gordon-Reed, Annette. Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American controversy, Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press, 1997 (reprint 1998 to include discussion of DNA analysis)
- Halliday, E. M. (2001, 2002). Understanding Thomas Jefferson. New York, NY: Perennial HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-019793-5.
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(help) - Hitchens, Christopher (2005). "Thomas Jefferson: Author of America".
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(help), short biography. - Malone, Dumas. Jefferson and His Time, 6 vols. (1948–82). Multi-volume biography of TJ by leading expert; A short version is online[dead link].
- Onuf, Peter. "The Scholars' Jefferson," William and Mary Quarterly 3d Series, L:4 (October 1993), 671–699. Historiographical review or scholarship about TJ; online through JSTOR at most academic libraries.
- Padover, Saul K. Jefferson: A Great American's Life and Ideas
- Peterson, Merrill D. (1975). Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation.
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(help) A standard scholarly biography. - Peterson, Merrill D. (ed.) Thomas Jefferson: A Reference Biography (1986), 24 essays by leading scholars on aspects of Jefferson's career.
- Randall, Henry Stephens (1858). The Life of Thomas Jefferson (volume 1 ed.).
- Salgo, Sandor (1997). Thomas Jefferson: Musician and Violinist. Abook detailing Thomas Jefferson's love of music.
- Schachner, Nathan (1951). Thomas Jefferson: A Biography.
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(help) 2 volumes. - Scharff, Virginia. The Women Jefferson Loved (2010)
Politics and ideas
- Ackerman, Bruce. The Failure of the Founding Fathers: Jefferson, Marshall, and the Rise of Presidential Democracy. (2005)
- Adams, Henry. History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson (1889; Library of America edition 1986) famous 4-volume history
- Wills, Garry, Henry Adams and the Making of America (2005), detailed analysis of Adams' History
- Banning, Lance. The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology (1978)
- Brown, Stuart Gerry (1954). The First Republicans: Political Philosophy and Public Policy in the Party of Jefferson and Madison.
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(help) - Channing; Edward. The Jeffersonian System: 1801–1811 (1906), "American Nation" survey of political history
- Dunn, Susan. Jefferson's Second Revolution: The Election Crisis of 1800 and the Triumph of Republicanism (2004)
- Elkins, Stanley and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism (1995) in-depth coverage of politics of 1790s
- Fatovic, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." : American Journal of Political Science, 2004 48(3): 429–444. Issn: 0092-5853 Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta, Jstor, and Ebsco
- Ferling, John (2004). Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800.
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(help) - Finkelman, Paul. Slavery and the Founders: Race and Liberty in the Age of Jefferson (2001), esp ch 6–7
- Hatzenbuehler, Ronald L. "I Tremble for My Country": Thomas Jefferson and the Virginia Gentry, (University Press of Florida; 206 pages; 2007). Argues that the TJ's critique of his fellow gentry in Virginia masked his own reluctance to change
- Hitchens, Christopher (2005). Author of America: Thomas Jefferson. HarperCollins.
- Horn, James P. P. Jan Ellen Lewis, and Peter S. Onuf, eds. The Revolution of 1800: Democracy, Race, and the New Republic (2002) 17 essays by scholars
- Jayne, Allen. Jefferson's Declaration of Independence: Origins, Philosophy and Theology (2000); traces TJ's sources and emphasizes his incorporation of Deist theology into the Declaration.
- Roger G. Kennedy. Mr. Jefferson's Lost Cause: Land, Farmers, Slavery, and the Louisiana Purchase (2003).
- Knudson, Jerry W. Jefferson and the Press: Crucible of Liberty. (2006)
- Lewis, Jan Ellen, and Onuf, Peter S., eds. Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson: History, Memory, Civic Culture. (1999)
- McDonald, Forrest. The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson (1987) intellectual history approach to Jefferson's Presidency
- Matthews, Richard K. "The Radical Political Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson: An Essay in Retrieval," Midwest Studies in Philosophy, XXVIII (2004)
- Mayer, David N. The Constitutional Thought of Thomas Jefferson (2000)
- Miller, Robert (2006). Native America, Discovered and Conquered: : Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780275990114.
- Onuf, Peter S. Jefferson's Empire: The Languages of American Nationhood. (2000). Online review
- Onuf, Peter. "Thomas Jefferson, Federalist" (1993) online journal essay
- Rahe, Paul A. "Thomas Jefferson's Machiavellian Political Science". Review of Politics 1995 57(3): 449–481. ISSN 0034–6705 Fulltext online at Jstor and Ebsco.
- Sears, Louis Martin. Jefferson and the Embargo (1927), state by state impact
- Sloan, Herbert J. Principle and Interest: Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Debt (1995). Shows the burden of debt in Jefferson's personal finances and political thought.
- Smelser, Marshall. The Democratic Republic: 1801–1815 (1968). "New American Nation" survey of political and diplomatic history
- Staloff, Darren. Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding. (2005)
- Tucker, Robert W. and David C. Hendrickson. Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (1992), foreign policy
- Urofsky, Melvin I. "Thomas Jefferson and John Marshall: What Kind of Constitution Shall We Have?" Journal of Supreme Court History 2006 31(2): 109–125. Issn: 1059-4329 Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
- Valsania, Maurizio. "'Our Original Barbarism': Man Vs. Nature in Thomas Jefferson's Moral Experience." Journal of the History of Ideas 2004 65(4): 627–645. Issn: 0022-5037 Fulltext: in Project Muse and Swetswise
- Wagoner, Jennings L., Jr. Jefferson and Education. (2004).
Religion
- Gaustad, Edwin S. Sworn on the Altar of God: A Religious Biography of Thomas Jefferson (2001) Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 0-8028-0156-0
- Sanford, Charles B. The Religious Life of Thomas Jefferson (1987) University of Virginia Press, ISBN 0-8139-1131-1
- Sheridan, Eugene R. Jefferson and Religion, preface by Martin Marty, (2001) University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 1-882886-08-9
- Edited by Jackson, Henry E., President, College for Social Engineers, Washington, D. C. "The Thomas Jefferson Bible" (1923) Copyright Boni and Liveright, Inc. Printed in the United States of America. Arranged by Thomas Jefferson. Translated by R. F. Weymouth. Located in the National Museum, Washington, D. C.
Legacy and historiography
- Cogliano, Francis D. Thomas Jefferson: Reputation and Legacy (Edinburgh University Press, 2006) online edition
- Onuf, Peter S., ed. Jeffersonian Legacies. (1993)
- Perry, Barbara A. "Jefferson's Legacy to the Supreme Court: Freedom of Religion." Journal of Supreme Court History 2006 31(2): 181–198. Issn: 1059-4329 Fulltext in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
- Pasley, Jeffrey L. "Politics and the Misadventures of Thomas Jefferson's Modern Reputation: a Review Essay." Journal of Southern History 2006 72(4): 871–908. Issn: 0022-4642 Fulltext in Ebsco.
- Peterson, Merrill D. The Jefferson Image in the American Mind (1960), how Americans interpreted and remembered Jefferson
- Taylor, Jeff. Where Did the Party Go?: William Jennings Bryan, Hubert Humphrey, and the Jeffersonian Legacy (2006), on Jefferson's role in Democratic history and ideology.
- Wiltse, Charles Maurice. The Jeffersonian Tradition in American Democracy (1935), analysis of Jefferson's political philosophy
- PBS interviews with 24 historians
Primary sources
- Thomas Jefferson: Writings: Autobiography / Notes on the State of Virginia / Public and Private Papers / Addresses / Letters (1984, ISBN 978-0-940450-16-5) Library of America edition. There are numerous one-volume collections; this is perhaps the best place to start.
- Thomas Jefferson, Political Writings ed by Joyce Appleby and Terence Ball. Cambridge University Press. 1999 online
- Lipscomb, Andrew A. and Albert Ellery Bergh, eds. The Writings Of Thomas Jefferson 19 vol. (1907) not as complete nor as accurate as Boyd edition, but covers TJ from birth to death. It is out of copyright, and so is online free.
- Edwin Morris Betts (editor), Thomas Jefferson's Farm Book, (Thomas Jefferson Memorial: December 1, 1953) ISBN 1-882886-10-0. Letters, notes, and drawings—a journal of plantation management recording his contributions to scientific agriculture, including an experimental farm implementing innovations such as horizontal plowing and crop-rotation, and Jefferson's own moldboard plow. It is a window to slave life, with data on food rations, daily work tasks, and slaves' clothing. The book portrays the industries pursued by enslaved and free workmen, including in the blacksmith's shop and spinning and weaving house.
- Boyd, Julian P. et al., eds. The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. The definitive multivolume edition; available at major academic libraries. 36 volumes covers TJ to March 1802.
- The Jefferson Cyclopedia (1900) large collection of TJ quotations arranged by 9000 topics; searchable; copyright has expired and it is online free.
- The Thomas Jefferson Papers, 1606–1827, 27,000 original manuscript documents at the Library of Congress online collection
- Jefferson, Thomas. Notes on the State of Virginia (1787), London: Stockdale. This was Jefferson's only book
- Shuffelton, Frank, ed., (1998) Penguin Classics paperback: ISBN 0-14-043667-7
- Waldstreicher, David, ed., (2002) Palgrave Macmillan hardcover: ISBN 0-312-29428-X
- online edition
- Cappon, Lester J., ed. The Adams-Jefferson Letters (1959)
- Howell, Wilbur Samuel, ed. Jefferson's Parliamentary Writings (1988). Jefferson's Manual of Parliamentary Practice, written when he was vice-President, with other relevant papers
- Melton, Buckner F.: The Quotable Founding Fathers, Potomac Books, Washington D.C. (2004).
- Smith, James Morton, ed. The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776–1826, 3 vols. (1995)
- public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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External links
- The Papers of Thomas Jefferson – Digital Edition
- Biography on White House website
- A collection of photographs of Thomas Jefferson's architecture
- Library of Congress
- Library of Congress: Jefferson exhibition
- Library of Congress: Jefferson timeline
- Thomas Jefferson: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
- Massachusetts Historical Society
- Thomas Jefferson Papers: An Electronic Archive This digital collection of Thomas Jefferson manuscripts held by the Massachusetts Historical Society includes the page images and transcriptions of Jefferson's Farm Book and Garden Book, also page images of Jefferson's library catalogs and architectural drawings.
- National Park Service
- Monticello – Home of Thomas Jefferson
- Poplar Forest-Thomas Jefferson's second home
- "Frontline: Jefferson's blood: Chronology: The Sally Hemings story (1977), PBS
- The Papers of Thomas Jefferson at the Avalon Project
- United States Congress. "Thomas Jefferson (id: J000069)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
- Notes on the State of Virginia from American Studies at the University of Virginia.
- Works by Thomas Jefferson at Project Gutenberg
- Online catalog of Thomas Jefferson's personal library, based on the catalog of books he sold to the Library of Congress in 1815
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- The Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia, for information on TJ's life and times, written and referenced by historians at Monticello
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