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{{Short description|Historical term for northern and central Asia}} |
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{{references|date=February 2019}} |
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{{Distinguish|Strait of Tartary|Tatarstan}} |
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{{Distinguish|Tărtăria}} |
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[[File:1806 Cary Map of Tartary or Central Asia - Geographicus - Tartary-cary-1806.jpg|thumb|300px| Map of independent Tartary (in yellow) and [[Chinese Tartary]] (in violet), in 1806.]] |
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'''Tartary''' ({{lang-la|Tartaria}}; {{lang-fr|Tartarie}}; {{lang-de|Tartarei}}; {{lang-ru|Тартария|Tartariya}}) or '''Tatary''' ({{lang-ru|Татария|Tatariya|links=no}}) was a [[blanket term]] used in [[Western Europe]]an literature and [[cartography]] for a vast part of [[Asia]] bounded by the [[Caspian Sea]], the [[Ural Mountains]], the [[Pacific Ocean]], and the northern borders of [[China]], [[India]] and [[Persia]], at a time when this region was largely unknown to European geographers. |
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[[File:1806 Cary Map of Tartary or Central Asia - Geographicus - Tartary-cary-1806.jpg|thumb|300px| Map of independent Tartary (in yellow) and Chinese Tartary (in violet), in 1806.]] |
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[[File:Tartary map 2.jpg|thumb|1574 Map of Tartary]] |
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[[File:1680 tartaria map.jpg|thumb|1680 map of Tartary]] |
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[[File:1754 Tartaria map.jpg|thumb|The Empire of Tartary in 1754]] |
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'''Tartary''' ([[Latin]]: ''Tartaria'') or '''Great Tartary''' ([[Latin]]: ''Tartaria Magna'') was a historical [[country]] that existed up until the late 18th century,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://digital.nls.uk/encyclopaedia-britannica/archive/144133903#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=795&xywh=2419,1944,2223,1648|title=Volume III, M-Z - Encyclopaedia Britannica; or, A dictionary of arts and sciences, compiled upon a new plan … - Encyclopaedia Britannica - National Library of Scotland|website=digital.nls.uk|access-date=2019-02-12}}</ref> located in northern and central [[Asia]] stretching eastwards from the [[Caspian Sea]] and from the [[Ural Mountains]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]], inhabited mostly by [[Turkic peoples]]. One notable emperor of Tartary was Tamerlane.<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=-oR9AX0q5XcC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=tamerlane+emperor+of+tartary&source=bl&ots=gEDRg6BMXD&sig=ACfU3U2Qu6a8mf8DKQc9Q4VPSuBxN38eeg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj4n4O40_HgAhWr1FkKHUEyBr4Q6AEwEHoECAIQAQ#v=onepage&q=tamerlane%20emperor%20of%20tartary&f=false</ref> |
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The active use of the [[Toponymy|toponym]] (place name) can be traced from the 13th to the 19th centuries. In European sources, Tartary became the most common name for [[Central Asia]] that had no connection with the real polities or ethnic groups of the region; until the 19th century, European knowledge of the area remained extremely scarce and fragmentary. In modern English-speaking tradition, the region formerly known as Tartary is usually called [[Inner Asia]] or [[Central Asia|Central Eurasia]]. Much of this area consists of arid plains, the main nomadic population of which in the past was engaged in [[animal husbandry]].{{sfn|Connell|2016}} |
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The vast empire spanned much of the [[Pontic-Caspian steppe]], [[Idel-Ural| Volga-Urals]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Siberia]], [[Central Asia]], [[Mongolia]], [[Manchuria]], [[East Turkestan]] and the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. |
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[[File:Tartary flag.jpg|thumb|Flag of Tartary]] |
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[[File:Conquest of China.jpg|thumb|"History of the Conquest of China by the Tartars" written by Juan De Palafox y Mendoza; published in 1670]] |
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[[File:Tamerlane image.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Tamerlane]] |
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Ignorance surrounding Tartary's use as a place name has spawned [[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] including ideas of a "hidden past" and "mud [[Flood|floods]]". Such theories assert that Tartary (or the "[[Tartarian Empire (conspiracy theory)|Tartarian Empire]]") was a lost civilization with advanced technology and culture. This ignores the well-documented [[history of Asia]], which Tartary refers to.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dunning |first=Brian |date=February 2021 |title=Skeptoid #765: Tartaria and the Mud Flood |url=https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4765 |url-status=live |access-date=16 September 2021 |website=[[Skeptoid]]|archive-date=16 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916083415/https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4765}}</ref> In the present day, the Tartary region spans from central [[Afghanistan]] to northern [[Kazakhstan]], as well as areas in present [[Mongolia]], [[China]] and the [[Russian Far East]] in "[[Chinese Tartary]]". |
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== Geography and history == |
== Geography and history == |
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[[File:Giovanni Botero - Tartaria map and description.jpg|thumb|right|Tartaria map and description by [[Giovanni Botero]] from his "Relationi universali" ([[Brescia]], 1599).]] |
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Genghiscan was the first emperor of Tartary, followed by his sons Zagatay and Octai. <ref>https://archive.org/stream/gri_33125011099708#page/n229/mode/2up</ref> |
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Knowledge of [[Manchuria]], [[Siberia]] and [[Central Asia]] in Europe prior to the 18th century was limited. The entire area was known simply as "Tartary" and its inhabitants "Tartars".{{sfn|Elliott|2000|pp=625–626}} In the [[early modern period]], as understanding of the geography increased, Europeans began to subdivide Tartary into sections with prefixes denoting the name of the ruling power or the geographical location. Thus, Siberia was ''Great Tartary'' or ''[[Russia]]n Tartary'', the [[Crimean Khanate]] was ''Little Tartary'', [[Manchuria]] was ''[[Chinese Tartary]]'', and western Central Asia (prior to becoming [[Russian Central Asia]]) was known as ''Independent Tartary''.{{sfn|Elliott|2000|pp=625–626}}{{sfn|Vermeulen|2018|p=88}}{{sfn|Sela|2016|p=542}} By the seventeenth century, however, largely under the influence of Catholic missionary writings, the word "Tartar" came to refer to the Manchus and the lands they ruled as "Tartary".{{sfn|Dong|2020|pp=82–83}} |
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Later on different parts of Tartary were annexed by other countries. Thus, western Siberia was ''[[Muscovy|Muscovite]]'' or ''[[Russia]]n Tartary'', [[East Turkestan]],[[Tibet]], Mongolia and Manchuria were ''Chinese'' or ''[[Cathay]] Tartary'', western Central Asia (later [[Russian Central Asia]]) was known as ''Independent Tartary''. |
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European opinions of the area were often negative, and reflected the legacy of the [[Mongol invasion]]s that originated from this region. The term originated in the wake of the widespread devastation spread by the [[Mongol Empire]]. The adding of an extra "r" to "Tatar" was suggestive of [[Tartarus]], a [[Hell]]-like realm in [[Greek mythology]].{{sfn|Elliott|2000|pp=625–626}} In the 18th century, conceptions of Siberia or Tartary and its inhabitants as "barbarous" by [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]-era writers tied into contemporary concepts of [[civilization]], savagery and [[racism]].{{sfn|Wolff|2006|p=448}} |
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As the [[Imperial Russia|Russian Empire]] expanded eastward and more of Tartary became known to Europeans, the term fell into disuse. |
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There was an ethnic and cultural exchange between Slavic and Turkic tribes in ''Russian Tartary'' and [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovite Rus']]. European areas north of the [[Black Sea]] inhabited by Tataric peoples were known as [[Little Tartary]]. |
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More positive opinions were also expressed by Europeans. Some saw Tartary as a possible source of spiritual knowledge lacking in contemporary European society. In ''Five Years of Theosophy'', edited by the [[Theosophist]] and scholar [[G.R.S. Mead]], the polymath and "seer" [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] is quoted as having advised, "Seek for the Lost Word among the [[hierophant]]s of Tartary, China, and Tibet."<ref>{{cite book|last=Mead |first=G.R.S. |title=Five Years of Theosophy |publisher=[[Project Gutenberg]] |year=2004 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14378}}</ref> |
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The "[[Hami Desert|Komul Desert]] of the Tartary" was mentioned by [[Immanuel Kant]] in his ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]]'', as a "great far-reaching solitude". |
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=== Decline === |
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East Tartary and Maritime Tartary are old names for the [[Manchu]]-inhabited territory extending from the [[Confluence (geography)|confluence]] of the [[River Amur]] with the [[River Ussuri]] to [[Sakhalin Island]]. This area is now the [[Primorsky Krai]] with [[Vladivostok]] as regional administrative center. |
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The use of "Tartary" declined as the region became more known to European geographers; however, the term was still used long into the 19th century.{{sfn|Sela|2016|p=542}} Ethnographical data collected by [[Jesuit]] missionaries in China contributed to the replacement of "[[Chinese Tartary]]" with [[Manchuria]] in European geography by the early 18th century.{{sfn|Elliott|2000|pp=625–626}} The voyages of Egor Meyendorff and [[Alexander von Humboldt]] into this region gave rise to the term [[Central Asia]] in the early 19th century as well as supplementary terms such as [[Inner Asia]],{{sfn|Sela|2016|p=542}} and Russian expansionism led to the term "[[Siberia]]" being coined for the Asian half of the [[Russian Empire]].{{sfn|Vermeulen|2018|p=88}} |
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By the 20th century, Tartary as a term for Siberia and Central Asia was obsolete.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}} However, it lent the title to [[Peter Fleming (writer)|Peter Fleming]]'s 1936 book ''[[News from Tartary]]'', which detailed his travels in Central Asia. |
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These lands were once occupied by the [[Mohe people|Mohe]] tribes and [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] nation; and also by various old kingdoms including [[Goryeo]], [[Balhae]], [[Liao Dynasty|Liao]] and the [[Khitan people|Khitan]] kingdoms. |
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== Tartaria conspiracy theory == |
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According to [[Sheng-Wu-Chi]]'s [[Ming dynasty]] chronicle ("Our dynasty is informed by military realizations"), in this land the [[Tungusic peoples|Tungus]] [[Weji]], [[Warka (tribe)|Warka]] and [[Kurka]] tribes were established. Later these were unified in Manchu [[Qing Empire]] with [[Nurhaci]] as their leader and founder. These lands were lost to Russia under the [[Treaty of Peking]]. |
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{{main|Tartarian Empire}} |
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Misinterpretations of Tartary as an empire distinct from the [[Mongol Empire]] or as an archaic name for Central Asia gave rise to a conspiracy theory alleging the existence of an advanced "Tartarian Empire".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mortice |first=Zach |date=April 2021 |title=Inside the 'Tartarian Empire,' the QAnon of Architecture |language=en |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-04-27/inside-architecture-s-wildest-conspiracy-theory |access-date=2021-09-20}}</ref> |
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Nearest this land lies the Ku-Ye-Dao ({{zh|c=庫頁島|p=Kùyèdǎo}}) or Fu-Sang ([[Hangul]]: 후상) island, better known as [[Karafuto]] or [[Sakhalin]]; in recent times Russian archaeologists have found here remains of ancient cities with walls and castles. These may correspond with the ancient Manchu nation, or possibly during [[Mongol]] or [[Tungusic peoples|Tungus]] times, or the [[Balhae kingdom]]. |
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== See also == |
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These lands were visited by Japanese explorers, [[Mamiya Rinzo]] and others, who reported on the various important cities and ports, such as [[Haishenwei]] (present day Vladivostok). From these lands and nearby [[Hulun Buir|Hulun]] (Amur area), the Japanese have claimed North Asian ancestors, who settled North Japan. |
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* [[Chinese Tartary]] |
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* [[Cossack]] |
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* [[Eurasian Steppe]] |
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* [[Golden Horde]] |
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* [[Khanate of Crimea]] |
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* [[Mongol Empire]] |
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* [[Tatars]] |
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* [[Tatarstan]] |
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== References == |
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The book Bellum Tartaricum written in 1654 by Martin Martino, describes the conquest of China by the Tartars.<ref>https://archive.org/details/bellumtartaricum00mart/page/n5</ref> |
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=== Citations === |
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{{Reflist|20em}} |
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=== Sources === |
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Other ancient cities in the region are: [[Tetyukhe]] (now [[Dalnegorsk]]) and probably [[Deleng]], an important commercial imperial post according to some records. |
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{{refbegin}} |
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* {{cite journal |last1=Connell |first1=Charles W. |date=2016 |title=Western Views of the Origin of the 'Tartars': An Example of the Influence of Myth in the Second Half of the Thirteenth Century |url= |journal=The Spiritual Expansion of Medieval Latin Christendom: The Asian Missions |series=The Expansion of Latin Europe, 1000–1500 |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |editor-last1=Ryan |editor-first1=James D. |pages=103–125 |isbn=978-0754659570}} |
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== Tartary in art == |
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* {{cite book |first=Shaoxin |last=Dong |chapter=The Tartars in European Missionary Writings of the Seventeenth Century |pages=82–103 |title=Foreign Devils and Philosophers Cultural Encounters between the Chinese, the Dutch, and Other Europeans, 1590–1800 |editor-first=Thijs |editor-last=Weststeijn |location=Leiden |publisher=[[Brill (publishers)|Brill]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-9004418929 |chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004418929/BP000004.xml}} |
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* {{cite journal |last1=Elliott |first1=Mark C. |title=The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=59 |number=3 |date=August 2000 |pages=603–646 |doi=10.2307/2658945 |jstor=2658945 |s2cid=162684575}} |
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In the novel ''[[Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle|Ada]]'' by [[Vladimir Nabokov]], Tartary is the name of a large country on the fictional planet of [[Antiterra]]. [[Russia]] is Tartary's approximate geographic counterpart on Terra, Antiterra's twin world apparently identical to "our" Earth, but doubly fictional in the context of the novel. |
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* {{cite journal |last1=Sela |first1=Ron |title=Svetlana Gorshenina. L'invention de l'Asie centrale: Histoire du concept de la Tartarie a' l'Eurasie. (Rayon histoire de la librairie Droz, no. 4.) Geneva: Droz, 2014. pp. 702 |journal=[[American Historical Review]] |date=April 2016 |pages=542–543 |doi=10.1353/imp.2015.0005 |s2cid=176332219}} |
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* {{cite journal |last1=Wolff |first1=Larry |title=The Global Perspective of Enlightened Travelers: Philosophic Geography from Siberia to the Pacific Ocean |journal=[[European Review of History]] |volume=13 |number=3 |date=September 2006 |pages=437–453 |doi=10.1080/13507480600893148 |s2cid=128488228}} |
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In [[Puccini]]'s last opera, ''[[Turandot]]'', Calaf's father Timur is the deposed King of the Tartars. |
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* {{cite book |last=Vermeulen |first=Han F. |title=Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment |location=Albany, NY |publisher=[[University of Nebraska]] |date=2018}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Gorshenina |first=Svetlana |title=L'invention de l'Asie centrale: histoire du concept de la Tartarie à l'Eurasie |publisher=Droz |date=2014 |isbn=978-2600017886 |issn=2235-1353}} |
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In [[Philip Pullman]]'s ''[[His Dark Materials]]'' novels, the European main characters often express fear of Tartars, a term apparently referring to many Asian races, as the story takes place far from Mongolia. |
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* {{cite book |last=Gorshenina |first=Svetlana |script-title=ru:Изобретение концепта Средней / Центральной Азии: между наукой и геополитикой |title=Izobreteniye kontsepta Sredney / Tsentral'noy Azii: mezhdu naukoy i geopolitikoy |language=ru |trans-title=The invention of the concept of Middle / Central Asia: between science and geopolitics |url=https://centralasiaprogram.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/svetlana-gorshenina.pdf |publisher=[[George Washington University]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-9996214-4-8}} |
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{{refend}} |
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In ''[[Macbeth]]'', by [[William Shakespeare]], the witches include Tartars' lips in their [[potion]]. Also, in Shakespeare's ''[[Midsummer Night's Dream]]'', the character Puck makes an allusion to the swiftness of Tartars' arrows. |
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In [[Mary Shelley]]'s ''[[Frankenstein]]'', Dr. Frankenstein pursues the monster "amidst the wilds of Tartary and Russia, although he still evaded me, I have ever followed in his track". |
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In "[[The Pied Piper of Hamelin]]" by [[Robert Browning]], the Pied Piper mentions Tartary as one of his credentials in pest removal to the Mayor of Hamelin. "In Tartary I freed the Cham, last June, from his huge swarms of gnats". |
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In his short work with E. Hoffmann Price, "Through the Gates of the Silver Key", [[H. P. Lovecraft]] briefly mentions Tartary: "Upon their cloaked heads there now seemed to rest tall, uncertainly coloured mitres, strangely suggestive of those on certain nameless figures chiselled by a forgotten sculptor along the living cliffs of a high, forbidden mountain in Tartary". |
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"[[The Squire's Tale]]" from [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s ''[[Canterbury Tales]]'' is set in the royal court of Tartary. |
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In [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'', the eponymic hero refers to his travels in Tartary on two occasions, and suggests that the then modern geographers of Europe were "in a great error, by supposing nothing but sea between Japan and California; for it was ever my opinion, that there must be a balance of earth to counterpoise the great continent of Tartary". |
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[[L. Frank Baum]]'s origin story of [[Santa Claus]], ''[[The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus]]'', features mythical antagonists from Tartary who oppose Santa's compassionate gift giving practices. They are described as the Three-Eyed Giants of Tartary. |
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In [[Matthew Arnold]]'s poem "Sohrab and Rustum", the poem begins with "And the first grey of morning fill'd the east, And the fog rose out of the Oxus stream. But all the Tartar camp along the stream Was hush'd, and still the men were plunged in sleep." |
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In [[Walter de la Mare]]'s poem "If I were lord of Tartary", Tartary is an imaginary land full of happiness. |
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In [[Washington Irving]]'s short story "[[Rip Van Winkle]]", the title character would "sit on a wet rock, with a rod as long and heavy as a Tartar's lance". |
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[[Peter Fleming (writer)|Peter Fleming]]'s ''[[News From Tartary]]'' (1936) |
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== References == |
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{{Reflist}} |
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== External links == |
== External links == |
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{{Commons category |
{{Commons category-inline}} |
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* [http://mapmogul.com/catalog/product_info.php+cPath+54+products_id+530 1704 map of Tartary] |
* [http://mapmogul.com/catalog/product_info.php+cPath+54+products_id+530 1704 map of Tartary] |
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* [http://www.davidrumsey.com/maps4540.html 1736 map of Tartary showing Muscovite, Independent, and Chinese Tartary] |
* [http://www.davidrumsey.com/maps4540.html 1736 map of Tartary showing Muscovite, Independent, and Chinese Tartary] |
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* [http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/cae02.html |
* [http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/cae02.html Nationality of Religion? Views of Central Asian Islam] |
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* [https://world_en.en-academic.com/73702/Tatary Tatary – English World dictionary] |
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{{Inner Asia}} |
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[[Category:Historical regions]] |
[[Category:Historical regions]] |
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[[Category:East Asia]] |
[[Category:East Asia]] |
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[[Category:Mongol states]] |
[[Category:Mongol states]] |
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[[Category:Exonyms]] |
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[[Category:Pseudohistory]] |
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[[Category:Cartography]] |
Revision as of 15:17, 28 March 2024
Tartary (Latin: Tartaria; French: Tartarie; German: Tartarei; Russian: Тартария, romanized: Tartariya) or Tatary (Russian: Татария, romanized: Tatariya) was a blanket term used in Western European literature and cartography for a vast part of Asia bounded by the Caspian Sea, the Ural Mountains, the Pacific Ocean, and the northern borders of China, India and Persia, at a time when this region was largely unknown to European geographers.
The active use of the toponym (place name) can be traced from the 13th to the 19th centuries. In European sources, Tartary became the most common name for Central Asia that had no connection with the real polities or ethnic groups of the region; until the 19th century, European knowledge of the area remained extremely scarce and fragmentary. In modern English-speaking tradition, the region formerly known as Tartary is usually called Inner Asia or Central Eurasia. Much of this area consists of arid plains, the main nomadic population of which in the past was engaged in animal husbandry.[1]
Ignorance surrounding Tartary's use as a place name has spawned conspiracy theories including ideas of a "hidden past" and "mud floods". Such theories assert that Tartary (or the "Tartarian Empire") was a lost civilization with advanced technology and culture. This ignores the well-documented history of Asia, which Tartary refers to.[2] In the present day, the Tartary region spans from central Afghanistan to northern Kazakhstan, as well as areas in present Mongolia, China and the Russian Far East in "Chinese Tartary".
Geography and history
Knowledge of Manchuria, Siberia and Central Asia in Europe prior to the 18th century was limited. The entire area was known simply as "Tartary" and its inhabitants "Tartars".[3] In the early modern period, as understanding of the geography increased, Europeans began to subdivide Tartary into sections with prefixes denoting the name of the ruling power or the geographical location. Thus, Siberia was Great Tartary or Russian Tartary, the Crimean Khanate was Little Tartary, Manchuria was Chinese Tartary, and western Central Asia (prior to becoming Russian Central Asia) was known as Independent Tartary.[3][4][5] By the seventeenth century, however, largely under the influence of Catholic missionary writings, the word "Tartar" came to refer to the Manchus and the lands they ruled as "Tartary".[6]
European opinions of the area were often negative, and reflected the legacy of the Mongol invasions that originated from this region. The term originated in the wake of the widespread devastation spread by the Mongol Empire. The adding of an extra "r" to "Tatar" was suggestive of Tartarus, a Hell-like realm in Greek mythology.[3] In the 18th century, conceptions of Siberia or Tartary and its inhabitants as "barbarous" by Enlightenment-era writers tied into contemporary concepts of civilization, savagery and racism.[7]
More positive opinions were also expressed by Europeans. Some saw Tartary as a possible source of spiritual knowledge lacking in contemporary European society. In Five Years of Theosophy, edited by the Theosophist and scholar G.R.S. Mead, the polymath and "seer" Emanuel Swedenborg is quoted as having advised, "Seek for the Lost Word among the hierophants of Tartary, China, and Tibet."[8]
Decline
The use of "Tartary" declined as the region became more known to European geographers; however, the term was still used long into the 19th century.[5] Ethnographical data collected by Jesuit missionaries in China contributed to the replacement of "Chinese Tartary" with Manchuria in European geography by the early 18th century.[3] The voyages of Egor Meyendorff and Alexander von Humboldt into this region gave rise to the term Central Asia in the early 19th century as well as supplementary terms such as Inner Asia,[5] and Russian expansionism led to the term "Siberia" being coined for the Asian half of the Russian Empire.[4]
By the 20th century, Tartary as a term for Siberia and Central Asia was obsolete.[citation needed] However, it lent the title to Peter Fleming's 1936 book News from Tartary, which detailed his travels in Central Asia.
Tartaria conspiracy theory
Misinterpretations of Tartary as an empire distinct from the Mongol Empire or as an archaic name for Central Asia gave rise to a conspiracy theory alleging the existence of an advanced "Tartarian Empire".[9]
See also
- Chinese Tartary
- Cossack
- Eurasian Steppe
- Golden Horde
- Khanate of Crimea
- Mongol Empire
- Tatars
- Tatarstan
References
Citations
- ^ Connell 2016.
- ^ Dunning, Brian (February 2021). "Skeptoid #765: Tartaria and the Mud Flood". Skeptoid. Archived from the original on 16 September 2021. Retrieved 16 September 2021.
- ^ a b c d Elliott 2000, pp. 625–626.
- ^ a b Vermeulen 2018, p. 88.
- ^ a b c Sela 2016, p. 542.
- ^ Dong 2020, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Wolff 2006, p. 448.
- ^ Mead, G.R.S. (2004). Five Years of Theosophy. Project Gutenberg.
- ^ Mortice, Zach (April 2021). "Inside the 'Tartarian Empire,' the QAnon of Architecture". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 2021-09-20.
Sources
- Connell, Charles W. (2016). Ryan, James D. (ed.). "Western Views of the Origin of the 'Tartars': An Example of the Influence of Myth in the Second Half of the Thirteenth Century". The Spiritual Expansion of Medieval Latin Christendom: The Asian Missions. The Expansion of Latin Europe, 1000–1500. New York: Routledge: 103–125. ISBN 978-0754659570.
- Dong, Shaoxin (2020). "The Tartars in European Missionary Writings of the Seventeenth Century". In Weststeijn, Thijs (ed.). Foreign Devils and Philosophers Cultural Encounters between the Chinese, the Dutch, and Other Europeans, 1590–1800. Leiden: Brill. pp. 82–103. ISBN 978-9004418929.
- Elliott, Mark C. (August 2000). "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies". The Journal of Asian Studies. 59 (3): 603–646. doi:10.2307/2658945. JSTOR 2658945. S2CID 162684575.
- Sela, Ron (April 2016). "Svetlana Gorshenina. L'invention de l'Asie centrale: Histoire du concept de la Tartarie a' l'Eurasie. (Rayon histoire de la librairie Droz, no. 4.) Geneva: Droz, 2014. pp. 702". American Historical Review: 542–543. doi:10.1353/imp.2015.0005. S2CID 176332219.
- Wolff, Larry (September 2006). "The Global Perspective of Enlightened Travelers: Philosophic Geography from Siberia to the Pacific Ocean". European Review of History. 13 (3): 437–453. doi:10.1080/13507480600893148. S2CID 128488228.
- Vermeulen, Han F. (2018). Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment. Albany, NY: University of Nebraska.
- Gorshenina, Svetlana (2014). L'invention de l'Asie centrale: histoire du concept de la Tartarie à l'Eurasie. Droz. ISBN 978-2600017886. ISSN 2235-1353.
- Gorshenina, Svetlana (2019). Izobreteniye kontsepta Sredney / Tsentral'noy Azii: mezhdu naukoy i geopolitikoy Изобретение концепта Средней / Центральной Азии: между наукой и геополитикой [The invention of the concept of Middle / Central Asia: between science and geopolitics] (PDF) (in Russian). George Washington University. ISBN 978-0-9996214-4-8.
External links
Media related to Tartary at Wikimedia Commons