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A '''symphony''' is an extended [[musical composition]] in Western [[classical music]], most often written for [[orchestra]]. Symphonies have been composed for both symphony and [[chamber orchestra]]s, [[concert band]]s, [[Chamber music|chamber ensembles]], [[Organ symphony|organ]], [[Piano symphony|piano]], [[Choral symphony|choir]], or combinations of these resources. A symphony usually contains at least one movement or episode composed according to the [[Sonata#The sonata idea or principle|sonata principle]]. Many symphonies are [[tonality|tonal]] works in four [[movement (music)|movements]] with the first in [[sonata form]], which is often described by music theorists as the structure of a "[[Classical period (music)|classical]]" symphony. |
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[[File:8th symphony of Mahler, Kölner Philharmonie, 27-6-2009.JPG|thumb|300px|A performance of the 8th Symphony of [[Gustav Mahler]] in the Kölner Philharmonie. The orchestra is the Wuppertaler Sinfonieorchester, conducted by Heinz-Walter Florin.]] |
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A '''symphony''' is an extended [[musical composition]] in Western [[classical music]], most often written for [[orchestra]].<!--Nothing in the body of this article even suggests that concert band has recently superseded the orchestra as the principal medium for the symphony.; agreed. add back when a reliable secondary source work about the symphony in general can be cited that includes the concert band in its primary definition. We are already more open than Grove by saying "most often" before "written for orchestra"--> Although the term has had many meanings from its origins in the ancient Greek era, by the late 18th century the word had taken on the meaning common today: a work usually consisting of multiple distinct sections or [[movement (music)|movements]], often four, with the first movement in [[sonata form]]. |
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The term was used from the ancient Greek era, with meanings which evolved over time. By the 18th century the word had taken on the meaning common today: a work for orchestra in several (usually four) movements, and after 1790 assumed an important role in concert life. |
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The word is also used as a reference to orchestras that are primarily associated with the performance of symphonies (for example, Miami's [[New World Symphony (orchestra)|New World Symphony]]). |
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==Origins== |
==Origins== |
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The word ''symphony'' is derived from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|συμφωνία}} (''symphonia''), meaning "agreement or concord of sound", "concert of vocal or instrumental music", from {{lang|grc|σύμφωνος}} (''symphōnos''), "harmonious" (''Oxford English Dictionary''). The word referred to an astonishing variety of different things, before ultimately settling on its current meaning designating a musical form. |
The word ''symphony'' is derived from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|συμφωνία}} (''symphonia''), meaning "agreement or concord of sound", "concert of vocal or instrumental music", from {{lang|grc|σύμφωνος}} (''symphōnos''), "harmonious" (''Oxford English Dictionary''). The word referred to an astonishing variety of different things, before ultimately settling on its current meaning designating a musical form. |
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In late Greek and medieval theory, the word was used for [[Consonance and dissonance|consonance]], as opposed to διαφωνία (''diaphōnia''), which was the word for dissonance (Brown 2001). In the Middle Ages and later, the Latin form ''symphonia'' was used to describe various instruments, especially those capable of producing more than one sound simultaneously (Brown 2001). [[Isidore of Seville]] was the first to use the word symphonia as the name of a two-headed drum, and from c. 1155 to 1377 the French form ''symphonie'' was the name of the ''organistrum'' or [[hurdy-gurdy]]. In late medieval England, ''symphony'' was used in both of these senses, whereas by the 16th century it was equated with the [[appalachian dulcimer|dulcimer]]. In German, ''Symphonie'' was a generic term for [[spinet]]s and [[virginals]] from the late 16th century to the 18th century (Marcuse 1975, 501). In the sense of "sounding together," the word begins to appear in the titles of some works by 16th- and 17th-century composers including [[Giovanni Gabrieli]]'s ''Sacrae symphoniae'', and ''Symphoniae sacrae, liber secundus'', published in 1597 and 1615, respectively; [[Adriano Banchieri]]'s ''Eclesiastiche sinfonie, dette canzoni in aria francese, per sonare, et cantare'', op. 16, published in 1607; [[Lodovico Grossi da Viadana]]'s ''Sinfonie musicali'', op. 18, published in 1610; and [[Heinrich Schütz]]'s ''Symphoniae sacrae'', op. 6, and ''Symphoniarum sacrarum secunda pars'', op. 10, published in 1629 and 1647, respectively. Except for Viadana's collection, which contained purely instrumental and secular music, these were all collections of sacred vocal works, some with instrumental accompaniment (Bowman 1971, 7; Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001). |
In late Greek and medieval theory, the word was used for [[Consonance and dissonance|consonance]], as opposed to διαφωνία (''diaphōnia''), which was the word for dissonance (Brown 2001). In the Middle Ages and later, the Latin form ''symphonia'' was used to describe various instruments, especially those capable of producing more than one sound simultaneously (Brown 2001). [[Isidore of Seville]] was the first to use the word symphonia as the name of a two-headed drum, and from c. 1155 to 1377 the French form ''symphonie'' was the name of the ''organistrum'' or [[hurdy-gurdy]]. In late medieval England, ''symphony'' was used in both of these senses, whereas by the 16th century it was equated with the [[appalachian dulcimer|dulcimer]]. In German, ''Symphonie'' was a generic term for [[spinet]]s and [[virginals]] from the late 16th century to the 18th century (Marcuse 1975, 501). |
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In the sense of "sounding together," the word begins to appear in the titles of some works by 16th- and 17th-century composers including [[Giovanni Gabrieli]]'s ''Sacrae symphoniae'', and ''Symphoniae sacrae, liber secundus'', published in 1597 and 1615, respectively; [[Adriano Banchieri]]'s ''Eclesiastiche sinfonie, dette canzoni in aria francese, per sonare, et cantare'', op. 16, published in 1607; [[Lodovico Grossi da Viadana]]'s ''Sinfonie musicali'', op. 18, published in 1610; and [[Heinrich Schütz]]'s ''Symphoniae sacrae'', op. 6, and ''Symphoniarum sacrarum secunda pars'', op. 10, published in 1629 and 1647, respectively. Except for Viadana's collection, which contained purely instrumental and secular music, these were all collections of sacred vocal works, some with instrumental accompaniment (Bowman 1971, 7; Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001). |
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In the 17th century, for most of the Baroque period, the terms ''symphony'' and ''sinfonia'' were used for a range of different compositions, including instrumental pieces used in [[operas]], [[sonatas]] and [[concertos]] |
In the 17th century, for most of the Baroque period, the terms ''symphony'' and ''sinfonia'' were used for a range of different compositions, including instrumental pieces used in [[operas]], [[sonatas]] and [[concertos]]—usually part of a larger work. The ''opera sinfonia'', or ''Italian [[overture]]'' had, by the 18th century, a standard structure of three contrasting movements: fast, slow, fast and dance-like. It is this form that is often considered as the direct forerunner of the orchestral symphony. The terms "overture", "symphony" and "sinfonia" were widely regarded as interchangeable for much of the 18th century (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001). |
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==18th century== |
==18th century== |
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<!-- linked from redirects [[three-movement form]] and [[four-movement form]] --> |
<!-- linked from redirects [[three-movement form]] and [[four-movement form]] --> |
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During the 18th century, "the symphony was cultivated with extraordinary intensity" (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001, §I.2, citing two scholarly catalogs listing over 13,000 distinct works: Larue 1959 and 1988). It played a role in many areas of public life, including church services (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001, §I.2), but a particularly strong area of support for symphonic performances was the aristocracy. In Vienna, perhaps the most important location Europe for the composition of symphonies, "literally hundreds of noble families supported musical establishments, generally dividing their time between Vienna and their ancestral estate [elsewhere in the Empire]" (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001, §I.10). Since the normal size of the orchestra at the time was quite small, many of these courtly establishments were capable of performing symphonies. The young [[Joseph Haydn]], taking up his first job as a music director in 1757 for the [[Count Morzin|Morzin family]], found that when the Morzin household was in Vienna, his own orchestra was only part of a lively and competitive musical scene, with multiple aristocrats sponsoring concerts with their own ensembles (Carpani 1823, 66, cited in Gotwals 1968). |
During the 18th century, "the symphony was cultivated with extraordinary intensity" (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001, §I.2, citing two scholarly catalogs listing over 13,000 distinct works: Larue 1959 and 1988). It played a role in many areas of public life, including church services (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001, §I.2), but a particularly strong area of support for symphonic performances was the aristocracy. In Vienna, perhaps the most important location in Europe for the composition of symphonies, "literally hundreds of noble families supported musical establishments, generally dividing their time between Vienna and their ancestral estate [elsewhere in the Empire]" (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001, §I.10). Since the normal size of the orchestra at the time was quite small, many of these courtly establishments were capable of performing symphonies. The young [[Joseph Haydn]], taking up his first job as a music director in 1757 for the [[Count Morzin|Morzin family]], found that when the Morzin household was in Vienna, his own orchestra was only part of a lively and competitive musical scene, with multiple aristocrats sponsoring concerts with their own ensembles (Carpani 1823, 66, cited in Gotwals 1968). |
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Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson (2001, §I.4) trace the gradual expansion of the symphonic orchestra through the 18th century. At first, symphonies were string symphonies, written in just four parts: first violin, second violin, viola, and bass (the bass line was taken by cello(s), double bass(es) playing the part an octave below, and perhaps also a bassoon). Occasionally the early symphonists even dispensed with the viola part, thus creating three-part symphonies. A [[continuo]] part |
Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson (2001, §I.4) trace the gradual expansion of the symphonic orchestra through the 18th century. At first, symphonies were string symphonies, written in just four parts: first violin, second violin, viola, and bass (the bass line was taken by cello(s), double bass(es) playing the part an octave below, and perhaps also a bassoon). Occasionally the early symphonists even dispensed with the viola part, thus creating three-part symphonies. A [[basso continuo]] part including a bassoon together with a harpsichord or other chording instrument was also possible (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001, §I.4). |
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The first |
The first additions to this simple ensemble were a pair of horns, occasionally a pair of oboes, and then both horns and oboes together. Over the century, other instruments were added to the classical orchestra: flutes (sometimes replacing the oboes), separate parts for bassoons, clarinets, and trumpets and timpani. Works varied in their scoring concerning which of these additional instruments were to appear. The full-scale classical orchestra, deployed at the end of the century for the largest-scale symphonies, has the standard string ensemble mentioned above, pairs of winds (flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons), a pair of horns, and timpani. A keyboard continuo instrument (harpsichord or piano) remained an option. |
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The "Italian" style of symphony, often used as overture and [[entr'acte]] in opera houses, became a standard three-movement form: a fast movement, a slow movement, and another fast movement. [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]] and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], whose early symphonies were in this form, eventually replaced it with a four-movement form through the addition of a second middle movement (Prout 1895, 249). The four-movement symphony became dominant in the latter part of the 18th century and most of the 19th century. This symphonic form was influenced by Germanic practice, and would come to be associated with the classical style of Haydn and Mozart. |
The "Italian" style of symphony, often used as overture and [[entr'acte]] in opera houses, became a standard three-movement form: a fast movement, a slow movement, and another fast movement. [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]] and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], whose early symphonies were in this form, eventually replaced it with a four-movement form through the addition of a second middle movement (Prout 1895, 249). The four-movement symphony became dominant in the latter part of the 18th century and most of the 19th century. This symphonic form was influenced by Germanic practice, and would come to be associated with the classical style of Haydn and Mozart. |
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# an opening sonata or [[Tempo#Basic tempo markings|allegro]] |
# an opening sonata or [[Tempo#Basic tempo markings|allegro]] |
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# a slow movement, such as [[Tempo#Basic tempo markings|adagio]] |
# a slow movement, such as [[Tempo#Basic tempo markings|adagio]] |
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# a [[minuet]] or [[scherzo]] with trio |
# a [[minuet]] or [[scherzo]] with trio |
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# an allegro, [[rondo]], or sonata |
# an allegro, [[rondo]], or sonata |
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Variations on this layout, like changing the order of the middle movements or adding a slow introduction to the first movement, were common. Haydn, Mozart and their contemporaries restricted their use of the four-movement form to orchestral or multi-instrument chamber music such as quartets, though since Beethoven solo sonatas are as often written in four as in three movements (Prout 1895, 249). |
Variations on this layout, like changing the order of the middle movements or adding a slow introduction to the first movement, were common. Haydn, Mozart and their contemporaries restricted their use of the four-movement form to orchestral or multi-instrument chamber music such as quartets, though since Beethoven solo sonatas are as often written in four as in three movements (Prout 1895, 249). |
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The composition of early symphonies was centred on Milan, Vienna, and [[Mannheim]]. The Milanese school centred around [[Giovanni Battista Sammartini]] and included [[Antonio Brioschi]], Ferdinando Galimberti and [[Giovanni Battista Lampugnani]]. Early exponents of the form in Vienna included [[Georg Christoph Wagenseil]], [[Wenzel Raimund Birck]] and [[Georg Matthias Monn]], while later significant Viennese composers of symphonies included [[Johann Baptist Wanhal]], [[Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf]] and [[Leopold Hoffmann]]. The [[Mannheim school]] included [[Johann Stamitz]]. |
The composition of early symphonies was centred on Milan, Vienna, and [[Mannheim]]. The Milanese school centred around [[Giovanni Battista Sammartini]] and included [[Antonio Brioschi]], Ferdinando Galimberti and [[Giovanni Battista Lampugnani]]. Early exponents of the form in Vienna included [[Georg Christoph Wagenseil]], [[Wenzel Raimund Birck]] and [[Georg Matthias Monn]], while later significant Viennese composers of symphonies included [[Johann Baptist Wanhal]], [[Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf]] and [[Leopold Hoffmann]]. The [[Mannheim school]] included [[Johann Stamitz]] (Anon. n.d.). |
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The most important symphonists of the latter part of the 18th century are Haydn, who wrote at least 107 symphonies over the course of 36 years (Webster and Feder 2001), and Mozart, with at least 47 symphonies in 24 years (Eisen and Sadie 2001). |
The most important symphonists of the latter part of the 18th century are Haydn, who wrote at least 107 symphonies over the course of 36 years (Webster and Feder 2001), and Mozart, with at least 47 symphonies in 24 years (Eisen and Sadie 2001). |
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==19th century== |
==19th century== |
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<!--Symphonies over here--> |
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⚫ | At the beginning of the 19th century, [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] elevated the symphony from an everyday genre produced in large quantities to a supreme form in which composers strove to reach the highest potential of music in just a few works (Dahlhaus 1989, 265). Beethoven began with two works directly emulating his models Mozart and Haydn, then seven more symphonies, starting with the [[Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)|Third Symphony]] ( "Eroica") that expanded the scope and ambition of the genre. His [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 5]] is perhaps the most famous symphony ever written; its transition from the emotionally stormy [[Beethoven and C minor|C minor]] opening movement to a triumphant major-key finale provided a model adopted by later symphonists such as [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]] (Libbey 1999, 40) and [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2014}} His [[Symphony No. 6 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 6]] is a [[program music|programmatic]] work, featuring instrumental imitations of bird calls and a storm, and a convention-defying{{Clarify|date=December 2014}}<!--What convention or conventions does this movement defy?--> fifth movement. His [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 9]] takes the |
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{{listen|filename=Ludwig van Beethoven - symphony no. 5 in c minor, op. 67 - i. allegro con brio.ogg|title=First movement: Allegro con brio|description=Performed by the Skidmore College Orchestra. Music courtesy of [http://www.musopen.com Musopen]|format=[[Ogg]] |
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|filename2=Ludwig van Beethoven - Symphonie 5 c-moll - 1. Allegro con brio.ogg|title2=First movement: Allegro con brio|description2=Performed by the Fulda Symphony|format2=[[Ogg]] |
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|header=First movement}} |
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{{listen|filename=Ludwig van Beethoven - symphony no. 5 in c minor, op. 67 - ii. andante con moto.ogg|title=Second movement: Andante con moto|description=Performed by the Skidmore College Orchestra. Music courtesy of [http://www.musopen.com Musopen]|format=[[Ogg]] |
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|filename2=Ludwig van Beethoven - Symphonie 5 c-moll - 2. Andante con moto.ogg|title2=Second movement: Andante con moto|description2=Performed by the Fulda Symphony|format2=[[Ogg]] |
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|header=Second movement}} |
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{{listen|filename=Ludwig van Beethoven - symphony no. 5 in c minor, op. 67 - iii. allegro.ogg|title=Third movement: Scherzo. Allegro|description=Performed by the Skidmore College Orchestra. Music courtesy of [http://www.musopen.com Musopen]|format=[[Ogg]] |
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|filename2=Ludwig van Beethoven - Symphonie 5 c-moll - 3. Allegro.ogg|title2=Third movement: Scherzo. Allegro|description2=Performed by the Fulda Symphony|format2=[[Ogg]] |
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|header=Third movement}} |
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{{listen|filename=Ludwig van Beethoven - symphony no. 5 in c minor, op. 67 - iv. allegro.ogg|title=Fourth movement: Allegro|description=Performed by the Skidmore College Orchestra. Music courtesy of [http://www.musopen.com Musopen]|format=[[Ogg]] |
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|filename2=Ludwig van Beethoven - Symphonie 5 c-moll - 4. Allegro.ogg|title2=Fourth movement: Allegro|description2=Performed by the Fulda Symphony|format2=[[Ogg]] |
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|header=Fourth movement}} |
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<!--Symphonies ends--> |
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⚫ | At the beginning of the 19th century, [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] elevated the symphony from an everyday genre produced in large quantities to a supreme form in which composers strove to reach the highest potential of music in just a few works (Dahlhaus 1989, 265). Beethoven began with two works directly emulating his models Mozart and Haydn, then seven more symphonies, starting with the [[Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)|Third Symphony]] ( "Eroica") that expanded the scope and ambition of the genre. His [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 5]] is perhaps the most famous symphony ever written; its transition from the emotionally stormy [[Beethoven and C minor|C minor]] opening movement to a triumphant major-key finale provided a model adopted by later symphonists such as [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]] (Libbey 1999, 40) and [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2014}} His [[Symphony No. 6 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 6]] is a [[program music|programmatic]] work, featuring instrumental imitations of bird calls and a storm, and a convention-defying{{Clarify|date=December 2014}}<!--What convention or conventions does this movement defy?--> fifth movement. His [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 9]] takes the step unprecedented since the early baroque era of including parts for vocal soloists and choir in the last movement, making it a [[choral symphony]]. |
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Of the symphonies of [[Franz Schubert]], two are core repertory items and are frequently performed. Of the [[Symphony No. 8 (Schubert)|Eighth Symphony]] (1822), Schubert completed only the first two movements; this highly Romantic work is usually called by its nickname "The Unfinished." His last completed symphony, the [[Symphony No. 9 (Schubert)|Ninth]] (1826) is a massive work in the Classical idiom (Rosen 1997:521). |
Of the symphonies of [[Franz Schubert]], two are core repertory items and are frequently performed. Of the [[Symphony No. 8 (Schubert)|Eighth Symphony]] (1822), Schubert completed only the first two movements; this highly Romantic work is usually called by its nickname "The Unfinished." His last completed symphony, the [[Symphony No. 9 (Schubert)|Ninth]] (1826) is a massive work in the Classical idiom (Rosen 1997:521). |
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Of the early Romantics, [[Felix Mendelssohn]] (five symphonies) and [[Robert Schumann]] (four) continued to write symphonies in the classical mold, though using their own musical language. In contrast, [[Hector Berlioz]] favored programmatic works, including his "dramatic symphony" ''[[Roméo et Juliette (Berlioz)|Roméo et Juliette]]'' and the highly original ''[[Symphonie fantastique]]''. The latter is also a programme work and has both a march and a [[waltz]] and five movements instead of the customary four. His fourth and last symphony, the ''[[Grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale]]'' (originally titled ''Symphonie militaire'') was composed in 1840 for a 200-piece [[Marching band|marching]] [[military band]], to be performed out of doors, and is an early example of a band symphony. Berlioz later added optional string parts and a choral finale (Macdonald 2001b, §3: 1831–42). In 1851, [[Richard Wagner]] declared that all of these post-Beethoven symphonies were no more than an epilogue, offering nothing substantially new. Indeed, after Schumann's last symphony, the "Rhenish" composed in 1850, for two decades the [[Franz Liszt|Lisztian]] symphonic poem appeared to have displaced the symphony as the leading form of large-scale instrumental music. If the symphony had been eclipsed, it was not long before it re-emerged in a "second age" in the 1870s and 1880s, with the symphonies of [[Anton Bruckner]], [[Johannes Brahms]], [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]], [[Alexander Borodin]], [[Antonín Dvořák]], and [[César Franck]]—works which continued to dominate the concert repertory for at least a century (Dahlhaus 1989, 265). |
Of the early Romantics, [[Felix Mendelssohn]] (five symphonies) and [[Robert Schumann]] (four) continued to write symphonies in the classical mold, though using their own musical language. In contrast, [[Hector Berlioz]] favored programmatic works, including his "dramatic symphony" ''[[Roméo et Juliette (Berlioz)|Roméo et Juliette]]'' and the highly original ''[[Symphonie fantastique]]''. The latter is also a programme work and has both a march and a [[waltz]] and five movements instead of the customary four. His fourth and last symphony, the ''[[Grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale]]'' (originally titled ''Symphonie militaire'') was composed in 1840 for a 200-piece [[Marching band|marching]] [[military band]], to be performed out of doors, and is an early example of a band symphony. Berlioz later added optional string parts and a choral finale (Macdonald 2001b, §3: 1831–42). In 1851, [[Richard Wagner]] declared that all of these post-Beethoven symphonies were no more than an epilogue, offering nothing substantially new. Indeed, after Schumann's last symphony, the "Rhenish" composed in 1850, for two decades the [[Franz Liszt|Lisztian]] symphonic poem appeared to have displaced the symphony as the leading form of large-scale instrumental music. If the symphony had been eclipsed, it was not long before it re-emerged in a "second age" in the 1870s and 1880s, with the symphonies of [[Anton Bruckner]], [[Johannes Brahms]], [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]], [[Alexander Borodin]], [[Antonín Dvořák]], and [[César Franck]]—works which continued to dominate the concert repertory for at least a century (Dahlhaus 1989, 265). |
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Over the course of the 19th century, composers continued to add to the size of the symphonic orchestra. Around the beginning of the century, a full-scale orchestra would consist of the string section plus pairs of flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns, trumpets, and lastly a set of timpani (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001, II.1) This is, for instance, the scoring used in Beethoven's symphonies numbered 1, 2, 4, 7, and 8 (instrumentation of Beethoven symphonies taken from Hopkins 1981,{{Pn|date=January 2015}}<!-- |
Over the course of the 19th century, composers continued to add to the size of the symphonic orchestra. Around the beginning of the century, a full-scale orchestra would consist of the string section plus pairs of flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns, trumpets, and lastly a set of timpani (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001, II.1) This is, for instance, the scoring used in Beethoven's symphonies numbered 1, 2, 4, 7, and 8 (instrumentation of Beethoven symphonies taken from the chapter headings for each symphony in Hopkins 1981,{{Pn|date=January 2015}}<!--Pages of those chapter headings needed.-->). Trombones, which had previously been confined to church and theater music, came to be added to the symphonic orchestra, notably in Beethoven's 5th, 6th, and 9th symphonies. The combination of bass drum, triangle, and cymbals (sometimes also: piccolo), which 18th century composers employed as a coloristic effect in so-called "[[Turkish music (style)|Turkish music]]", came to be increasingly used during the second half of the 19th century without any such connotations of genre (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001, II.1). By the time of Mahler (see below), it was possible for a composer to write a symphony scored for "a veritable compendium of orchestral instruments" (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001, II.1). In addition to increasing in variety of instruments, 19th century symphonies were gradually augmented with more string players and more wind parts, so that that the orchestra grew substantially in sheer numbers, as concert halls likewise grew (Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson 2001, II.1). |
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==20th century== |
==20th century== |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{portal|Music}} |
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* [[Choral symphony]] |
* [[Choral symphony]] |
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* [[Organ symphony]] |
* [[Organ symphony]] |
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==Sources== |
==Sources== |
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{{refbegin|normalfont=yes}} |
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* {{Wikicite|ref={{harvid|Anon.|n.d.}}|reference=Anon. n.d. "[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/362596/Mannheim-school Mannheim School]". ''[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]'' (accessed 27 January 2015).}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Anon.|2008}}|reference=Anon. 2008. "[http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e10019 Symphony]." ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', second edition, revised, edited by [[Michael Kennedy (music critic)|Michael Kennedy]], associate editor Joyce Bourne. Oxford Music Online (Accessed 24 July 2008) {{subscription}}.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Anon.|2008}}|reference=Anon. 2008. "[http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e10019 Symphony]." ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', second edition, revised, edited by [[Michael Kennedy (music critic)|Michael Kennedy]], associate editor Joyce Bourne. Oxford Music Online (Accessed 24 July 2008) {{subscription}}.}} |
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* Battisti, Frank L. 2002. ''The Winds of Change: The Evolution of the Contemporary American Wind Band/Ensemble and Its Conductor''. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications. ISBN 9780634045226. |
* Battisti, Frank L. 2002. ''The Winds of Change: The Evolution of the Contemporary American Wind Band/Ensemble and Its Conductor''. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications. ISBN 9780634045226. |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Berlioz|1857}}|reference=[[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz, Hector]]. 1857. ''Roméo et Juliette: Sinfonie dramatique: avec choeurs, solos de chant et prologue en récitatif choral, op. 17''. Partition de piano par Th. Ritter. Winterthur: J. Rieter-Biedermann.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Berlioz|1857}}|reference=[[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz, Hector]]. 1857. ''Roméo et Juliette: Sinfonie dramatique: avec choeurs, solos de chant et prologue en récitatif choral, op. 17''. Partition de piano par Th. Ritter. Winterthur: J. Rieter-Biedermann.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Berlioz|2002}}|reference=Berlioz, Hector. 2002. ''Berlioz's Orchestration Treatise: A Translation and Commentary'', translated by [[Hugh Macdonald]]. Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-521-23953-2.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Berlioz|2002}}|reference=Berlioz, Hector. 2002. ''Berlioz's Orchestration Treatise: A Translation and Commentary'', translated by [[Hugh Macdonald]]. Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-521-23953-2.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Bowman|1971}}|reference=Bowman, Carl Byron. 1971. "The Ecclesiastiche Sinfonie (Opus 16) of Adriano Banchieri (1568–1634)". Ph.D. diss. New York: New York University.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Bowman|1971}}|reference=Bowman, Carl Byron. 1971. "The Ecclesiastiche Sinfonie (Opus 16) of Adriano Banchieri (1568–1634)". Ph.D. diss. New York: New York University.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Brown|2001}}|reference=[[Howard Mayer Brown|Brown, Howard Mayer]]. 2001. "Symphonia". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by [[Stanley Sadie]] and [[John Tyrrell (musicologist)|John Tyrrell]]. London: Macmillan Publishers.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Brown|2001}}|reference=[[Howard Mayer Brown|Brown, Howard Mayer]]. 2001. "Symphonia". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by [[Stanley Sadie]] and [[John Tyrrell (musicologist)|John Tyrrell]]. London: Macmillan Publishers.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Dahlhaus|1989}}|reference=Dahlhaus, Carl. 1989. ''Nineteenth-Century Music'', translated by J. Bradford Robinson. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07644-0.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Dahlhaus|1989}}|reference=Dahlhaus, Carl. 1989. ''Nineteenth-Century Music'', translated by J. Bradford Robinson. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07644-0.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Kennedy|2006a}}|reference=[[Michael Kennedy (music critic)|Kennedy, Michael]]. 2006a. "Sinfonietta". ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', second edition, revised, Joyce Bourne, associate editor. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Kennedy|2006a}}|reference=[[Michael Kennedy (music critic)|Kennedy, Michael]]. 2006a. "Sinfonietta". ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', second edition, revised, Joyce Bourne, associate editor. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Kennedy|2006b}}|reference=[[Michael Kennedy (music critic)|Kennedy, Michael]]. 2006b. "Symphony". ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', second edition, revised, Joyce Bourne, associate editor. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Kennedy|2006b}}|reference=[[Michael Kennedy (music critic)|Kennedy, Michael]]. 2006b. "Symphony". ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', second edition, revised, Joyce Bourne, associate editor. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Larue|1959}}|reference=LaRue, Jan. 1959. "A Union Thematic Catalogue of 18th Century Symphonies". '' |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Larue|1959}}|reference=LaRue, Jan. 1959. "A Union Thematic Catalogue of 18th Century Symphonies". ''Fontes Artis Musicae'' 6:18–20.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Larue|1988}}|reference=LaRue, Jan. 1988. ''A Catalogue of 18th-Century Symphonies, i: Thematic Identifier''. Bloomington, IN |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Larue|1988}}|reference=LaRue, Jan. 1988. ''A Catalogue of 18th-Century Symphonies, i: Thematic Identifier''. Bloomington, IN<!--This must be Indiana University Press, but needs verifying.-->.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson|2001}}|reference=Larue, Jan, Mark Evan Bonds, Stephen Walsh, and Charles Wilson. 2001. "Symphony". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Larue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson|2001}}|reference=Larue, Jan, Mark Evan Bonds, Stephen Walsh, and Charles Wilson. 2001. "Symphony". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.}} |
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* Libbey, Theodore. 1999. ''The NPR Guide to Building a Classical CD Collection'' |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Libbey|1999}}|reference=Libbey, Theodore. 1999. ''The NPR Guide to Building a Classical CD Collection'', second edition. Workman Publishing. New York: Workman Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0761104872}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Macdonald|2001b}}|reference=Macdonald, Hugh. 2001b. "Berlioz, Hector". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Macdonald|2001b}}|reference=Macdonald, Hugh. 2001b. "Berlioz, Hector". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Marcuse|1975}}|reference=Marcuse, Sybil. 1975. ''Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary''. Revised edition. The Norton Library. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-00758-8.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Marcuse|1975}}|reference=Marcuse, Sybil. 1975. ''Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary''. Revised edition. The Norton Library. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-00758-8.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Prout|1895}}|reference=[[Ebenezer Prout|Prout, Ebenezer]]. 1895. ''Applied Forms: A Sequel to 'Musical Form''', third edition. Augener's Edition, no. 9183. London: Augener. Facsimile reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1971. ISBN 0-404-05138-3.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Prout|1895}}|reference=[[Ebenezer Prout|Prout, Ebenezer]]. 1895. ''Applied Forms: A Sequel to 'Musical Form''', third edition. Augener's Edition, no. 9183. London: Augener. Facsimile reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1971. ISBN 0-404-05138-3.}} |
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*{{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Randel|2003}}|reference=Randel, Don Michael. 2003. ''The Harvard Dictionary of Music'', fourth edition. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674011632.}} |
*{{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Randel|2003}}|reference=Randel, Don Michael. 2003. ''The Harvard Dictionary of Music'', fourth edition. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674011632.}} |
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* Rosen, Charles. 1997. ''The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven'', expanded edition. London: Faber and Faber; New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 9780571192878 (Faber and Faber, cloth); ISBN 9780571228126 (Faber and Faber, pbk); ISBN 9780393040203 (Norton, cloth); ISBN 9780393317121 (Norton, pbk). |
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*Rhodes, Stephen L. 2007. "[http://www.lipscomb.edu/windbandhistory/rhodeswindband_12_20thcenturyrepertoire.htm 20th Century Repertoire]"{{verify credibility|date=January 2015}} [Accessed 3 January 15] |
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* Rosen, Charles (1997) ''The Classical Style'', 2nd ed. New York: Norton. |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Stainer and Galpin|1914}}|reference=[[John Stainer|Stainer, John]], and Francis W Galpin. 1914. "[http://www.oldandsold.com/articles22/music-bible-7.shtml Wind Instruments - Sumponyah; Sampunia; Sumphonia; Symphonia]". In ''The Music of the Bible, with Some Account of the Development of Modern Musical Instruments from Ancient Types'', new edition. London: Novello and Co.; New York: H.W. Gray Co.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Stainer and Galpin|1914}}|reference=[[John Stainer|Stainer, John]], and Francis W Galpin. 1914. "[http://www.oldandsold.com/articles22/music-bible-7.shtml Wind Instruments - Sumponyah; Sampunia; Sumphonia; Symphonia]". In ''The Music of the Bible, with Some Account of the Development of Modern Musical Instruments from Ancient Types'', new edition. London: Novello and Co.; New York: H.W. Gray Co.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Stein|1979}}|reference=[[Leon Stein|Stein, Leon]]. 1979. ''Structure & Style: The Study and Analysis of Musical Forms'', expanded edition. Princeton, N.J.: Summy-Birchard Music. ISBN 0-87487-164-6.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Stein|1979}}|reference=[[Leon Stein|Stein, Leon]]. 1979. ''Structure & Style: The Study and Analysis of Musical Forms'', expanded edition. Princeton, N.J.: Summy-Birchard Music. ISBN 0-87487-164-6.}} |
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* Steinberg, Michael. 1995. ''The Symphony: A |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Steinberg|1995}}|reference=[[Michael Steinberg (music critic)|Steinberg, Michael]]. 1995. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=lozBiI1ehiIC&printsec=frontcover The Symphony: A Listener's Guide]''. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-506177-2 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-19-512665-5 (pbk) (accessed 27 January 2015).}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Tawa|2001}}|reference=Tawa, Nicholas E. ''From Psalm to Symphony: A History of Music in New England''. Boston: Northeastern University Press. ISBN 978-1-55553-491-2.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Tawa|2001}}|reference=Tawa, Nicholas E. ''From Psalm to Symphony: A History of Music in New England''. Boston: Northeastern University Press. ISBN 978-1-55553-491-2.}} |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Temperley|2001}}|reference=Temperley, Nicholas. 2001. "Sinfonietta." ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Temperley|2001}}|reference=Temperley, Nicholas. 2001. "Sinfonietta." ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.}} |
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*Vande Moortele, Steven. 2013. "'Two-dimensional' Symphonic Forms: Schoenberg's Chamber Symphony, Before and After". In ''The Cambridge Companion to the Symphony'', edited by Julian Horton, 268–84. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107469709. |
*Vande Moortele, Steven. 2013. "'Two-dimensional' Symphonic Forms: Schoenberg's Chamber Symphony, Before and After". In ''The Cambridge Companion to the Symphony'', edited by Julian Horton, 268–84. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107469709. |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Webster|2001}}|reference=Webster, James, and Georg Feder. 2001. "Haydn, (Franz) Joseph". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.}} |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Webster|2001}}|reference=Webster, James, and Georg Feder. 2001. "Haydn, (Franz) Joseph". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.}} |
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{{refend}} |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
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* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Ritzarev|2014}}|reference=Ritzarev, Marina. 2014. ''Tchaikovsky's Pathétique and Russian Culture''. Ashgate. ISBN 978-1-4724-2411-2. |
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Ritzarev|2014}}|reference=Ritzarev, Marina. 2014. ''Tchaikovsky's Pathétique and Russian Culture''. Farnham, Surrey; Burlington, VT: Ashgate. ISBN 978-1-4724-2411-2.}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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⚫ | |||
{{Wikisource1911Enc}} |
{{Wikisource1911Enc}} |
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* [http://www.kylegann.com/Symphony.html A Chronology of the Symphony 1730-2005] A list of selected major symphonies composed 1800-2005, with composers of 18th century symphonies |
* [http://www.kylegann.com/Symphony.html A Chronology of the Symphony 1730-2005] A list of selected major symphonies composed 1800-2005, with composers of 18th century symphonies |
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* [http://library.thinkquest.org/22673/index.html The Symphony - Interactive Guide] |
* [http://library.thinkquest.org/22673/index.html The Symphony - Interactive Guide] |
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* [http://ttle.perso.neuf.fr/Symphonies/symphonistes_k-o.htm A fairly detailed list of symphonists, mostly active after 1800 - Part 3] |
* [http://ttle.perso.neuf.fr/Symphonies/symphonistes_k-o.htm A fairly detailed list of symphonists, mostly active after 1800 - Part 3] |
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* [http://ttle.perso.neuf.fr/Symphonies/symphonistes_p-z.htm A fairly detailed list of symphonists, mostly active after 1800 - Part 4] |
* [http://ttle.perso.neuf.fr/Symphonies/symphonistes_p-z.htm A fairly detailed list of symphonists, mostly active after 1800 - Part 4] |
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{{Symphonies by number and name| }} |
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[[Category:Symphonies| ]] |
[[Category:Symphonies| ]] |