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{{Short description|Group of diseases}} |
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== General Overview == |
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'''Streptococcosis''' is a set of diseases varying from mild to fatal side effects of the infection which originate from the bacterial group [[streptococcus]], particularly in animals.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Fast facts: Streptococcosus |url=https://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/FastFacts/pdfs/streptococcosis_F.pdf |website=The Centre for Food Secturity and Public Health |publisher=Iowa State University |date=June 2006|access-date=20 April 2024}}</ref> Some of the areas of infection include wounds, body tissue, and respiratory areas. Research within horses, dogs, cats, wound injuries and swine infections have been done to document specific side effects from streptococcosis. Streptococcosis can occur to both humans and animals, the most common including horses, guinea pigs, dogs, cats and fish; while uncommon animals infected include monkeys, cattle, sheep, goats, ferrets and poultry. The wide range of diseases is due to the variability of streptococcus strains which thus creates multiple species for the diseases to occur.<ref name=":0" /> |
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== Pathogenesis and |
== Pathogenesis and classification == |
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=== Pathogenesis === |
=== Pathogenesis === |
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Occurring in pairs or chains, streptococcus are found to be [[Gram-positive bacteria|Gram-positive]] (although older cultures may lose this characteristic), non-mobile, non-spore forming, and catalase-negative.<ref name=": |
Occurring in pairs or chains, streptococcus are found to be [[Gram-positive bacteria|Gram-positive]] (although older cultures may lose this characteristic), non-mobile, non-spore forming, and catalase-negative.<ref name=":4"/> Bacteriophages, also known as phages, of streptococcus within different parameters of temperature, pH, and salinity maintain successfully stable and are lytic.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Preenanka |first1=R. |last2=Safeena |first2=Muhammed P. |title=Morphological, biological and genomic characterization of lytic phages against Streptococcus agalactiae causing streptococcosis in tilapia |journal=Microbial Pathogenesis |date=January 2023 |volume=174 |pages=105919 |doi=10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105919 |pmid=36460145 }}</ref> [[Integrase]], [[transposase]], and [[recombinase]] coding genes are found to be absent within phages.<ref name=":2" /> Streptococcosis can start occurring due to a weak immune system, or by having bacteria enter wounds.<ref name=":0" /> Spreading of streptococcus is often sporadic,<ref name=":3">{{cite web |last1=Spickler |first1=Anna Rovid |date=September 2020 |title=Zoonotic Streptococcosis |publisher=Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University |url=https://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/streptococcosis.pdf }}</ref> and can be done through direct contact (may be done through materials that are likely to carry infection), air transport or (rarely) ingestion.<ref name=":0" /> |
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=== Classification === |
=== Classification === |
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Multiple species of streptococcus exist. Differentiation of species is mainly determined by antibody detection, however morphology, biochemical reactions, and hemolysis can also be used for classification.<ref name=": |
Multiple species of streptococcus exist. Differentiation of species is mainly determined by antibody detection, however morphology, biochemical reactions, and hemolysis can also be used for classification.<ref name=":4"/> Antibody detection, also known as serologic grouping, categorizes with the labeling of Group A to Group V; it uses differences with cell wall carbohydrates and pili-associated protein.<ref name=":4"/> With the use of hemolysis, species are divided within three different categories: incomplete (α hemolytic), complete (β-hemolytic), and no (γ hemolytic) hemolysis detected.<ref name=":4"/> Two common species seen are [[Streptococcus agalactiae|S. agalactiae]] which has been associated with fish and (more significant) [[Streptococcus suis|S. suis]] which has been associated with pigs.<ref name=":3" /> |
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== Clinical |
== Clinical identification == |
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The clinical manifestations of streptococcus infections differ greatly depending on both the host species and group and strain of the bacteria.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |last=Patterson |first=Maria Jevitz |title=Streptococcus |date=1996 |work=Medical Microbiology |editor-last=Baron |editor-first=Samuel |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7611/ |access-date=2024-04-09 |edition=4th |place=Galveston (TX) |publisher=University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston |isbn=978-0-9631172-1-2 |pmid=21413248}}</ref> |
The clinical manifestations of streptococcus infections differ greatly depending on both the host species and group and strain of the bacteria.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |last=Patterson |first=Maria Jevitz |title=Streptococcus |date=1996 |work=Medical Microbiology |editor-last=Baron |editor-first=Samuel |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7611/ |access-date=2024-04-09 |edition=4th |place=Galveston (TX) |publisher=University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston |isbn=978-0-9631172-1-2 |pmid=21413248}}</ref> |
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=== Alpha- |
=== Alpha-hemolytic streptococci (''S. pneumoniae'' and viridians) === |
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The first group of streptococci is alpha-hemolytic which |
The first group of streptococci is alpha-hemolytic which comprises primarily [[Streptococcus pneumoniae|''S.pneumoniae'']] and [[viridans streptococci]]. This group is referred to as alpha-hemolysis because the [[cell membrane]] of [[Red blood cell|red blood cells]] is left intact.<ref name=":4" /> When cultured, alpha-hemolysis can be deemed present when the agar gel appears greenish.<ref name=":4" /> |
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Identifying and diagnosing alpha-hemolytic streptococcus is done with a sputum [[gram stain]] and culture test.<ref name=":5">{{ |
Identifying and diagnosing alpha-hemolytic streptococcus is done with a sputum [[gram stain]] and culture test.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Paton |first1=James C. |last2=Trappetti |first2=Claudia |title=Streptococcus pneumoniae Capsular Polysaccharide |journal=Microbiology Spectrum |date=12 April 2019 |volume=7 |issue=2 |doi=10.1128/microbiolspec.GPP3-0019-2018 |pmid=30977464 }}</ref> Further identification can be done serologically to test for the presence of capsular antigen, which is the dominant structure on the surface of ''S. pneumoniae''.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Bile solubility can be used to further distinguish ''S. pneumoniae'' from viridans streptococci as ''S. pneumoniae'' are bile soluble and viridans streptococci are not.<ref>{{cite web |title=Laboratory Identification: Streptococcus pneumoniae |url=https://www.labce.com/spg966215_laboratory_identification_streptococcus_pneumoniae.aspx |website=LabCE.com, Laboratory Continuing Education }}</ref> |
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''S. pneumoniae'' are the most significant alpha-hemolytic streptococci and are responsible for several infections including: |
''S. pneumoniae'' are the most significant alpha-hemolytic streptococci and are responsible for several infections including: |
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The identification and diagnosis of these conditions often require a combination of bacteriologic methods with other clinical identification characteristics that are condition-specific. |
The identification and diagnosis of these conditions often require a combination of bacteriologic methods with other clinical identification characteristics that are condition-specific. |
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=== Beta- |
=== Beta-hemolytic streptococci (Group A, B, C, D, F, G, and H) === |
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In contrast, the beta-hemolytic group of streptococci includes those capable of complete lysis of red blood cells.<ref name=":5" /> Beta-hemolytic streptococci are further divided into additional subgroups consisting of: Group A, Group B, Group C, Group D, Group F, Group G, and Group H. Beta-hemolysis is identified by its yellow and transparent appearance on the cultured media.<ref name=":5" /> |
In contrast, the beta-hemolytic group of streptococci includes those capable of complete lysis of red blood cells.<ref name=":5" /> Beta-hemolytic streptococci are further divided into additional subgroups consisting of: Group A, Group B, Group C, Group D, Group F, Group G, and Group H. Beta-hemolysis is identified by its yellow and transparent appearance on the cultured media.<ref name=":5" /> |
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Clinical identification of beta-hemolytic streptococci relies on culturing the bacteria with agar media that has been supplemented with blood.<ref name=":4" /> This method allows for beta-hemolysis to be easily identified, which is a critical step in further identification tactics.<ref name=":4" /> Identification into subgroups can be done by the Lancefield antigen-determination test which uses antibodies to distinguish B-hemolytic streptococci into different species.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{ |
Clinical identification of beta-hemolytic streptococci relies on culturing the bacteria with agar media that has been supplemented with blood.<ref name=":4" /> This method allows for beta-hemolysis to be easily identified, which is a critical step in further identification tactics.<ref name=":4" /> Identification into subgroups can be done by the Lancefield antigen-determination test which uses antibodies to distinguish B-hemolytic streptococci into different species.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-7506-0187-0.50007-9 |chapter=Gram-positive cocci |title=Medical Microbiology Illustrated |date=1994 |last1=Gillespie |first1=S.H. |pages=12–29 |isbn=978-0-7506-0187-0 }}</ref> An additional method used to identify B-hemolytic streptococci is the PYR test, which is primarily used in distinguishing ''S. pyogenes'' from other B-hemolytic strains by testing for the presence of pyrrolidonyl aminopeptidase.<ref name=":4" /> Both the Lancefield antigen grouping sera and PYR test are widely available for commercial usage. Each method presents its limitations and studies suggest that a combination of the two protocols be used to achieve the most reliable results.<ref name=":4" /> |
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==== Group A ==== |
==== Group A ==== |
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Group A streptococcal infections are predominantly caused by [[Streptococcus pyogenes|''S. pyogenes'']]. Human pathologies are mostly associated with Group A streptococci and arise most often as respiratory or skin infections.<ref name=":6">{{ |
Group A streptococcal infections are predominantly caused by [[Streptococcus pyogenes|''S. pyogenes'']]. Human pathologies are mostly associated with Group A streptococci and arise most often as respiratory or skin infections.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Judith M. |last2=Green |first2=Michael |title=Group A Streptococcus |journal=Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases |date=July 2006 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=140–148 |doi=10.1053/j.spid.2006.07.001 |pmid=16934708 }}</ref> |
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Group A streptococcal infections include: |
Group A streptococcal infections include: |
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==== Group B ==== |
==== Group B ==== |
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Group B streptococcal infections, most commonly associated with ''[[Streptococcus agalactiae|S. agalactiae]]'', are extremely prevalent among pregnant women, newborns, and the elderly. Cattle have also been shown to be important reservoir hosts for ''S. agalactiae''. Reports of ''S. agalactiae'' have also been identified in several other mammals, fish, and reptiles.<ref name=":3" /> |
Group B streptococcal infections, most commonly associated with ''[[Streptococcus agalactiae|S. agalactiae]]'', are extremely prevalent among pregnant women, newborns, and the elderly. Cattle have also been shown to be important reservoir hosts for ''S. agalactiae''. Reports of ''S. agalactiae'' have also been identified in several other mammals, fish, and reptiles.<ref name=":3" /> |
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== Economic |
== Economic impacts and considerations == |
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Streptococcosis has been shown to have serious consequences on [[Aquaculture]] industries around the world as a result of various streptococcal-based infections in marine and freshwater organisms.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal | |
Streptococcosis has been shown to have serious consequences on [[Aquaculture]] industries around the world as a result of various streptococcal-based infections in marine and freshwater organisms.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Van Doan |first1=Hien |last2=Soltani |first2=Mehdi |last3=Leitão |first3=Alexandra |last4=Shafiei |first4=Shafigh |last5=Asadi |first5=Sepideh |last6=Lymbery |first6=Alan J. |last7=Ringø |first7=Einar |date=2022-08-22 |title=Streptococcosis a Re-Emerging Disease in Aquaculture: Significance and Phytotherapy |journal=Animals |volume=12 |issue=18 |pages=2443 |doi=10.3390/ani12182443 |doi-access=free |pmc=9495100 |pmid=36139303 }}</ref> Streptococosis in fish specifically has proven to be a public health concern due to the [[Zoonosis|zoonotic]] capabilities of streptococcal infections and diseases.<ref name=":7" /> Mitigating streptococcosis in marine and freshwater organisms, has the potential to improve the economics of the aquaculture sector and decrease the risks of human illness. |
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Traditionally, [[Antibiotic|antibiotics]] and other chemotherapeutic drugs have been used to combat streptococcosis infections in aquaculture settings.<ref name=":7" /> However, re-infection rates, drugs accumulating in aquatic ecosystems, demand for chemical-free aquaculture products, and the diversity of species and strains within the Streptococcus genus has proven to be a major challenge.<ref name=":7" /> Since re-infection rates among fish populations are high, multiple treatments are often needed which introduces an additional problem of increased antibiotic resistance.<ref name=":7" /> In search of alternative solutions, current research is investigating the possibility of using dietary supplements or [[Medicinal plants|medicinal herbs]] and other plants as alternatives to antibiotics, and recent findings have generated promising results.<ref name=":7" /> |
Traditionally, [[Antibiotic|antibiotics]] and other chemotherapeutic drugs have been used to combat streptococcosis infections in aquaculture settings.<ref name=":7" /> However, re-infection rates, drugs accumulating in aquatic ecosystems, demand for chemical-free aquaculture products, and the diversity of species and strains within the Streptococcus genus has proven to be a major challenge.<ref name=":7" /> Since re-infection rates among fish populations are high, multiple treatments are often needed which introduces an additional problem of increased antibiotic resistance.<ref name=":7" /> In search of alternative solutions, current research is investigating the possibility of using dietary supplements or [[Medicinal plants|medicinal herbs]] and other plants as alternatives to antibiotics, and recent findings have generated promising results.<ref name=":7" /> |
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The existing literature has placed a strong emphasis on the economic impacts of streptococcosis in tilapia cultures.<ref name=":8">{{ |
The existing literature has placed a strong emphasis on the economic impacts of streptococcosis in tilapia cultures.<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |last1=Maulu |first1=Sahya |last2=Hasimuna |first2=Oliver J. |last3=Mphande |first3=Joseph |last4=Munang’andu |first4=Hetron M. |title=Prevention and Control of Streptococcosis in Tilapia Culture: A Systematic Review |journal=Journal of Aquatic Animal Health |date=September 2021 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=162–177 |doi=10.1002/aah.10132 |pmid=34121243 |bibcode=2021JAqAH..33..162M }}</ref> Tilapia have rapid growth rates, exhibit tolerance to numerous environmental conditions, and are available globally which causes the species to be of major importance in the global aquaculture sector.<ref name=":8" /> Tilapia production is often conducted by large-scale producers in intensive systems, which increases their susceptibility to disease and infection due to the density of cultures and subsequent water quality issues.<ref name=":8" /> Streptococcosis has been identified as the most important pathogen affecting these systems and has caused considerable economic losses to the industry.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Musa |first1=Najiah |last2=Wei |first2=Lee Seong |last3=Musa |first3=Nadirah |last4=Hamdan |first4=Ruhil H |last5=Leong |first5=Lee Kok |last6=Wee |first6=Wendy |last7=Amal |first7=Mohd Nur |last8=Kutty |first8=Basiriah M |last9=Abdullah |first9=Siti Zahrah |title=Streptococcosis in red hybrid tilapia (''Oreochromis niloticus'') commercial farms in Malaysia |journal=Aquaculture Research |date=March 2009 |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=630–632 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2109.2008.02142.x }}</ref> In general, preventing disease and infection should be a priority compared to simply controlling and mitigating outbreaks.<ref name=":8" /> Research acknowledges that disease prevention may be possible by utilizing effective biosecurity measures at both global and local levels.<ref name=":8" /> In addition, recent studies have found several benefits of using medicinal herbs to treat streptococcosis in aquaculture. Studies suggest that a combination of vaccines, antibiotics, and phytotherapy may be the most viable solution to improve both the economics of the industry and mitigate public health concerns.<ref name=":7" /> Considerations and adjustments will have to made depending on national regulations, the countries economic status, and the farms production capacity.<ref name=":8" /> |
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== Epidemiology == |
== Epidemiology == |
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=== Different |
=== Different organisms it affects/host range === |
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Streptococcosis encompasses a spectrum of diseases caused by bacteria from the genera [[Streptococcus]] and [[Lactococcus]].<ref name=":37" |
Streptococcosis encompasses a spectrum of diseases caused by bacteria from the genera [[Streptococcus]] and [[Lactococcus]].<ref name=":37">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-812211-2.00035-4 |chapter=Streptococcosis |title=Aquaculture Pathophysiology |date=2022 |last1=Wang |first1=Pei-Chi |last2=Maekawa |first2=Shun |last3=Chen |first3=Shih-Chu |pages=439–445 |isbn=978-0-12-812211-2 }}</ref>Various species within these genera can cause infections in both wild and cultured animals, including fish and terrestrial species. |
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Commonly affected organisms include: |
Commonly affected organisms include: |
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'''Fish |
'''Fish species''': [[Streptococcus iniae]], [[Streptococcus agalactiae]], [[Streptococcus dysgalactiae]], [[Lactococcus garvieae]], [[Lactococcus piscium|Lactococccus piscium]], and Streptococcus parauberis have a significant impact in aquaculture, impacting freshwater, marine, and brackish water species.<ref name=":14">{{cite journal |last1=Toranzo |first1=Alicia E. |last2=Magariños |first2=Beatriz |last3=Romalde |first3=Jesús L. |title=A review of the main bacterial fish diseases in mariculture systems |journal=Aquaculture |date=May 2005 |volume=246 |issue=1–4 |pages=37–61 |doi=10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.01.002 |bibcode=2005Aquac.246...37T }}</ref> Among these ''L. garvieae, S. iniae, and S. parauberis'' are considered the primary causative agents responsible for diseases in marine aquaculture among the streptococcal bacteria affecting fish.<ref name=":14"/><ref name=":37">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-812211-2.00035-4 |chapter=Streptococcosis |title=Aquaculture Pathophysiology |date=2022 |last1=Wang |first1=Pei-Chi |last2=Maekawa |first2=Shun |last3=Chen |first3=Shih-Chu |pages=439–445 |isbn=978-0-12-812211-2 }}</ref> |
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'''Terrestrial |
'''Terrestrial animals''': [[Streptococcus agalactiae]], commonly found in cattle and dromedary camels, has been detected in numerous species, including small ruminants, llamas, horses, and marine mammals, often associated with human sources.<ref name=":15">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/82_2012_277 |chapter=Epidemiology and Pathogenicity of Zoonotic Streptococci |title=Host-Pathogen Interactions in Streptococcal Diseases |series=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology |date=2012 |last1=Fulde |first1=Marcus |last2=Valentin-Weigand |first2=Peter |volume=368 |pages=49–81 |pmid=23192319 |isbn=978-3-642-36339-9 }}</ref> [[Streptococcus dysgalactiae]] primarily infects cattle but also affects small ruminants, pigs, dogs, horses, and vampire bats. ''Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus'', prevalent in horses, is also present in guinea pigs, pigs, monkeys, and various other animals, including dogs, cats, ferrets, and birds.<ref name=":16"/> Additionally, Streptococcus suis mainly affects suids but can be found in other animals like cattle, sheep, goats, and chickens, with different genotypes found in rabbits and chickens compared to pigs.<ref name=":15"/><ref name=":16" /> |
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'''Humans''': Streptococcal infections in humans are primarily caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, the most common beta-hemolytic group A streptococcus, often referred to simply as group A streptococcus |
'''Humans''': Streptococcal infections in humans are primarily caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, the most common beta-hemolytic group A streptococcus, often referred to simply as group A streptococcus.<ref name=":15" /> Similarly, group B streptococcus typically denotes Streptococcus agalactiae, although minor beta-hemolytic group B streptococci like S. troglodytidis exist.<ref name=":16">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-50890-0 |title=Emerging Zoonoses |date=2017 |last1=Fong |first1=I. W. |isbn=978-3-319-50888-7 }}</ref> While most streptococcal illnesses in humans originate from species adapted to humans, such as S. pneumoniae or S. pyogenes, there are zoonotic species capable of causing infections.<ref name=":16"/> These include ''S. canis, S. dysgalactiae subsp. dysgalactiae, S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus, S. halichoeri, S. iniae, and S. suis'', along with some animal-associated genotypes of ''S. agalactiae''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boonyayatra |first1=Sukolrat |last2=Wongsathein |first2=Dilok |last3=Tharavichitkul |first3=Prasit |title=Genetic Relatedness Among Streptococcus agalactiae Isolated from Cattle, Fish, and Humans |journal=Foodborne Pathogens and Disease |date=February 2020 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=137–143 |doi=10.1089/fpd.2019.2687 |pmid=31549865 }}</ref><ref name=":9" /> Notably, some streptococci found in animals may infect humans under certain circumstances. Fish-associated ''S. agalactiae'', primarily affecting farmed freshwater and marine fish, have also been implicated in human illnesses, particularly the ST283 genotype.<ref name=":9">{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9781119350927.ch61 |chapter=Streptococcosis |title=Diseases of Swine |date=2019 |last1=Gottschalk |first1=Marcelo |last2=Segura |first2=Mariela |pages=934–950 |isbn=978-1-119-35085-9 }}</ref> The prevalence of specific ''S. suis'' serotypes varies by region, impacting disease incidence in both pigs and humans. |
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=== Transmission |
=== Transmission routes === |
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Members of the Streptococcus genus are frequently found as part of the normal microbial community in both animals and humans, commonly inhabiting sites such as the upper respiratory tract, urogenital tract, mucous membranes, mammary glands, or skin.<ref>{{cite |
Members of the Streptococcus genus are frequently found as part of the normal microbial community in both animals and humans, commonly inhabiting sites such as the upper respiratory tract, urogenital tract, mucous membranes, mammary glands, or skin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dumke |first1=J |title=Potential transmission pathways of Streptococcus gallolyticus subsp. gallolyticus |date=2015 |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=e0126507 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0126507 |doi-access=free |pmid=25978355 |pmc=4433203 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1026507D }}</ref> While these organisms can occasionally cause infections as primary pathogens, they more commonly act as opportunistic pathogens, particularly in carriers.<ref name=":10">{{cite journal |last1=Abbott |first1=Y. |last2=Acke |first2=E. |last3=Khan |first3=S. |last4=Muldoon |first4=E. G. |last5=Markey |first5=B. K. |last6=Pinilla |first6=M. |last7=Leonard |first7=F. C. |last8=Steward |first8=K. |last9=Waller |first9=A. |title=Zoonotic transmission of Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus from a dog to a handler |journal=Journal of Medical Microbiology |date=2010 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=120–123 |doi=10.1099/jmm.0.012930-0 |pmid=19745031 }}</ref> However, their transmission between hosts does not always lead to disease manifestation.<ref name=":10" /> Streptococci are typically transmitted through close contact, though aerosols may sometimes play a role. Some species, such as ''S. suis, S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus, and S. agalactiae ST283'', can be acquired through the consumption of undercooked pork, horsemeat, or fish, respectively, or via unpasteurized dairy products. ''S. iniae'' infections in humans often occur through skin abrasions during fish cleaning. The mode of transmission among fish is not fully elucidated but can occur orally or through exposure to contaminated water baths, particularly in laboratory settings. Streptococci can also be transmitted through fomites and can persist in the environment for varying durations, especially in organic material under moist, cool conditions. For instance, ''S. suis'' can remain viable for approximately a week in pig feces at 25°C (77°F) and up to six weeks in carcasses at 4°C (39°F).<ref name=":10"/> |
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=== Geographic |
=== Geographic distribution === |
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The strains of Streptococcus, including ''S. canis, S. dysgalactiae subsp. dysgalactiae, S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus, S. suis, and'' mammalian ''S. agalactiae'', maintained in domestic animals are widely distributed and their presence follows the hosts that they reside in.<ref name=": 37">{{cite |
The strains of Streptococcus, including ''S. canis, S. dysgalactiae subsp. dysgalactiae, S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus, S. suis, and'' mammalian ''S. agalactiae'', maintained in domestic animals are widely distributed and their presence follows the hosts that they reside in.<ref name=": 37">{{cite journal |last1=McCormick |first1=A.W. |title=Geographic diversity and temporal trends of antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States |journal=Nature Medicine |date=2003 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=424–430 |doi=10.1038/nm839 |pmid=12627227 }}</ref> Regional variations in the predominant serotypes of S. suis may impact disease prevalence in both pigs and humans. S. iniae infections have predominantly been documented in regions such as North America, the Caribbean, parts of Asia (such as Japan, China, Singapore, and Taiwan), Australia, and the Middle East. Meanwhile, occurrences of S. halichoeri have been reported in certain parts of Europe and South Korea, with potential wider distribution.<ref name=": 37"/><ref name=":11" /> Notably, ''S. agalactiae ST283'' appears to be primarily found in Asia but has recently been identified in farmed fish in South America.<ref name=": 37"/><ref name=":11">{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=J. A. G. |last2=Hall |first2=A. J. |last3=Dagan |first3=R. |last4=Dixon |first4=J. M. S. |last5=Eykyn |first5=S. J. |last6=Fenoll |first6=A. |last7=Hortal |first7=M. |last8=Jette |first8=L. P. |last9=Jorgensen |first9=J. H. |last10=Lamothe |first10=F. |last11=Latorre |first11=C. |last12=Macfarlane |first12=J. T. |last13=Shlaes |first13=D. M. |last14=Smart |first14=L. E. |last15=Taunay |first15=A. |title=Serogroup-Specific Epidemiology of Streptococcus pneumoniae: Associations with Age, Sex, and Geography in 7,000 Episodes of Invasive Disease |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |date=1 June 1996 |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=973–981 |doi=10.1093/clinids/22.6.973 |pmid=8783696 }}</ref> |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist}} |
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==Further reading== |
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Fish affected by streptococcosis exhibit various symptoms indicative of the disease. These symptoms can manifest in different forms, ranging from external visual changes, to internal and behavioral changes, as well as histopathological alterations.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Mishra |first=Anshuman |last2=Nam |first2=Gyu-Hwi |last3=Gim |first3=Jeong-An |last4=Lee |first4=Hee-Eun |last5=Jo |first5=Ara |last6=Kim |first6=Heui-Soo |date=2018-06 |title=Current Challenges of Streptococcus Infection and Effective Molecular, Cellular, and Environmental Control Methods in Aquaculture |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29754470/ |journal=Molecules and Cells |volume=41 |issue=6 |pages=495–505 |doi=10.14348/molcells.2018.2154 |issn=0219-1032 |pmc=6030242 |pmid=29754470}}</ref> |
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* {{cite journal |last1=Yoshida |first1=Kio |last2=Chambers |first2=James K |last3=Uchida |first3=Kazuyuki |title=Systemic ''Streptococcus agalactiae'' infection with meningo-ventriculitis in a Linnaeus's two-toed sloth (''Choloepus didactylus'') |journal=Journal of Veterinary Medical Science |date=2022 |volume=84 |issue=10 |pages=1417–1421 |doi=10.1292/jvms.22-0317 |pmid=36058878 |pmc=9586031 }} |
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=== External Visual Changes === |
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[[File:Figure-4-Nile-tilapia--Oreochromis-niloticus--from-Lake-Sentani-showing-gross-clinical-signs-of-streptococcosis.jpg|thumb|Photo from Lake Sentani of a Nile tilapia (''[[Nile tilapia|Oreochromis niloticus]]'') with signs of streptococcosis in which it shows exophthalmos, opaque, and haemorrhagic eye (a), the pale gill (b), and ascites in abdominal cavity (c).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anshary |first=Hilal |last2=Kurniawan |first2=Rio A. |last3=Sriwulan |first3=Sriwulan |last4=Ramli |first4=Ramli |last5=Baxa |first5=Dolores V. |date=2014-10-24 |title=Isolation and molecular identification of the etiological agents of streptococcosis in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) cultured in net cages in Lake Sentani, Papua, Indonesia |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-3-627 |journal=SpringerPlus |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=627 |doi=10.1186/2193-1801-3-627 |issn=2193-1801 |pmc=PMC4216822 |pmid=25392797}}</ref>]] |
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Visually, fish may display darkening of the skin, although acutely infected individuals may succumb to septicemia with minimal observable clinical signs.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=BLUE BOOK {{!}} AFS Fish Health Section |url=https://units.fisheries.org/fhs/fish-health-section-blue-book-2020/ |access-date=2024-04-09 |website=units.fisheries.org}}</ref> Affected fish may exhibit raised, [[Bleeding|hemorrhagic]], and inflamed areas on the skin, including around the mouth, operculum, fins' bases, and along the dorsolateral portions of the body. Unilateral or bilateral [[exophthalmos]] (pop eye) with or without hemorrhage, distended abdomen due to fluid accumulation, ventral reddening, and fecal casts or strings are indicative of streptococcal infection. Fish, whether deceased or surviving recent infections, may present with jaw and caudal pustules.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=LaFrentz |first=Benjamin R. |last2=Lozano |first2=Carlos A. |last3=Shoemaker |first3=Craig A. |last4=García |first4=Julio C. |last5=Xu |first5=De-Hai |last6=Løvoll |first6=Marie |last7=Rye |first7=Morten |date=2016-05-01 |title=Controlled challenge experiment demonstrates substantial additive genetic variation in resistance of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) to Streptococcus iniae |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004484861630103X |journal=Aquaculture |volume=458 |pages=134–139 |doi=10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.02.034 |issn=0044-8486}}</ref> |
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=== Internal Changes === |
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The peritoneal cavity may contain fluid ranging from straw to bloody in color. The liver may appear pale, while the spleen typically exhibits a dark red hue, often enlarged in ''S. agalactiae'' infections. Although posterior kidneys are not frequently targeted by clinical pathology, bacterial recovery is possible upon culture. Hemorrhagic enteritis with bloody fluid in the intestinal lumen may also be observed.<ref name=":12" /> |
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=== Behavioral Changes === |
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Among the initial signs of disease, fish may exhibit [[lethargy]] and loss of appetite. In cases where the central nervous system is affected, additional behavioral changes may manifest, such as tail-chasing and spiral swimming due to spinal curvature. Buccal paralysis is also observed in infections caused by ''S. agalactiae''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=LaFrentz |first=Benjamin R. |last2=Lozano |first2=Carlos A. |last3=Shoemaker |first3=Craig A. |last4=García |first4=Julio C. |last5=Xu |first5=De-Hai |last6=Løvoll |first6=Marie |last7=Rye |first7=Morten |date=2016-05-01 |title=Controlled challenge experiment demonstrates substantial additive genetic variation in resistance of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) to Streptococcus iniae |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004484861630103X |journal=Aquaculture |volume=458 |pages=134–139 |doi=10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.02.034 |issn=0044-8486}}</ref> |
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=== Histopathological Changes === |
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Histopathological findings vary depending on the pathogen and host species involved. Recent reviews detail the pathological changes observed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=LaFrentz |first=Benjamin R. |last2=Lozano |first2=Carlos A. |last3=Shoemaker |first3=Craig A. |last4=García |first4=Julio C. |last5=Xu |first5=De-Hai |last6=Løvoll |first6=Marie |last7=Rye |first7=Morten |date=2016-05-01 |title=Controlled challenge experiment demonstrates substantial additive genetic variation in resistance of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) to Streptococcus iniae |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004484861630103X |journal=Aquaculture |volume=458 |pages=134–139 |doi=10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.02.034 |issn=0044-8486}}</ref> Infections of the head and brain often lead to granulomatous [[encephalitis]] and [[meningitis]]. In the eye, infections may result in granulomatous or lymphohistiocytic choroiditis. Streptococcus sp. infections in [[tilapia]] may lead to polyserositis, granulomatous splenitis, ovaritis, granulomatous or lymphohistiocytic epicarditis, [[pericarditis]], and [[myocarditis]].<ref name=":12" /> |
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== Treatment == |
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Streptococcal infections are commonly managed with antibiotics, particularly beta-lactams, macrolides, and quinolones. In some cases, additional interventions like surgical removal of necrotic tissues may be required.<ref name=":30">{{cite web |last1=Bridy‐Pappas |first1=A.E. |title=Streptococcus pneumoniae: description of the pathogen, disease epidemiology, treatment, and prevention. |url=.https://accpjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1592/phco.2005.25.9.1193 |publisher=Pharmacotherapy: The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy, 25(9), 1193-1212 |access-date=9 April 2024}}</ref> Prompt administration of supportive therapy is crucial, particularly in cases of streptococcal toxic shock-like syndrome.<ref name=":13">{{cite web |last1=Wang |first1=P.C |title=Streptococcosis. In Aquaculture pathophysiology (pp. 439-445) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128122112000354 |website=Science Direct |publisher=Academic Press. |access-date=9 April 2024}}</ref> Treatment typically involves a combination of antibiotics and supportive measures. While most cases are treated with antibiotics commonly used in veterinary medicine, occasionally, medications typically reserved for humans, like vancomycin, may be employed.<ref name=":30">{{cite web |last1=Bridy‐Pappas |first1=A.E. |title=Streptococcus pneumoniae: description of the pathogen, disease epidemiology, treatment, and prevention. |url=.https://accpjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1592/phco.2005.25.9.1193 |publisher=Pharmacotherapy: The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy, 25(9), 1193-1212 |access-date=9 April 2024}}</ref> Prompt administration of supportive therapy is crucial, particularly in cases of streptococcal toxic shock-like syndrome.<ref name=":13">{{cite web |last1=Wang |first1=P.C |title=Streptococcosis. In Aquaculture pathophysiology (pp. 439-445) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128122112000354 |website=Science Direct |publisher=Academic Press. |access-date=9 April 2024}}</ref> |
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== Disease Control == |
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Research indicates that preventing fish diseases is more effective and economically advantageous than treating outbreaks after they occur.<ref>Yanong, Roy PE and Ruth Francis-Floyd. "Streptococcal infections of fish." ''Florida Cooperative Extension Service. IFAS, University of Florida'' (2002): 1-5. |
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<nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241040381_Streptococcal_Infections_of_Fish_1</nowiki>.</ref> |
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=== Vaccination === |
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The utilization of vaccines in aquaculture to combat pathogenic diseases is widely acknowledged as a preventive measure.<ref name=":8" /> In recent years, vaccines have gained prominence in preventing streptococcosis in tilapia by enhancing the fish host's resistance to infection, making it a common practice in disease prevention.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maulu |first=Sahya |last2=Hasimuna |first2=Oliver J. |last3=Mphande |first3=Joseph |last4=Munang’andu |first4=Hetron M. |date=2021-09 |title=Prevention and Control of Streptococcosis in Tilapia Culture: A Systematic Review |url=https://afspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aah.10132 |journal=Journal of Aquatic Animal Health |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=162–177 |doi=10.1002/aah.10132 |issn=0899-7659}}</ref> |
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=== Utilization of Probiotics and Synthetic Compounds === |
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There is growing interest in using probiotics and synthetic compounds to bolster immune response and increase fish resilience to diseases.<ref name=":8" /> Probiotics, containing live microorganisms that positively impact the host's intestinal microbiota by inhibiting the growth of harmful bacteria while promoting beneficial bacteria development, have garnered attention for their potential benefits.<ref>Buruiană, Cristian-Teodor, Alina Georgiana Profi and Camelia Vizireanu. "Effects of probiotic Bacillus species in aquaculture–an overview." ''The Annals of the University Dunarea de Jos of Galati. Fascicle VI-Food Technology''(2014): 9-17. <nowiki>https://www.gup.ugal.ro/ugaljournals/index.php/food/article/download/1741/1470</nowiki>.</ref> |
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=== Preventing Pathogens from Entering the Farm === |
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Streptococcal diseases in fish primarily affect external organs like the skin, fins, and gills. Therefore, it is crucial to rigorously monitor water sources and implement filtration and treatment measures to prevent pathogen entry into culture systems.<ref name=":8" /> While liquid disinfecting agents like copper sulfate and formalin can control external infections effectively, they also pose environmental risks.<ref name=":13" /> |
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=== Aquatic Environmental Management === |
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Establishing effective control systems requires comprehensive understanding and coordination across various domains, including fishery industry dynamics, fish biology, environmental factors, and management practices.<ref name=":13" /> Given the limitations of vaccines and antibiotics for fish diseases, environmental protective measures emerge as cost-effective, easily monitored strategies without associated side effects. |
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=== Control Measures during an Outbreak === |
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During streptococcosis outbreaks, a range of measures is deployed to contain the infection spread. While traditional approaches involve antimicrobial use and culture condition adjustments, their efficacy may be limited due to factors such as antibiotic resistance.<ref name=":13" /> Alternative strategies like herbal remedies, along with practices such as adjusting feeding rates and prompt removal of dead fish, are recognized as essential preventive measures. Employing a combination of these strategies enables effective control of streptococcosis outbreaks in fish populations. |
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==References== |
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{{reflist}} |
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[[Category:Wikipedia Student Program]] |
[[Category:Wikipedia Student Program]] |
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[[Category:Streptococcal infections]] |
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[[Category:Bacterial diseases of fish]] |
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[[Category:Zoonotic bacterial diseases]] |
Revision as of 05:27, 27 April 2024
Streptococcosis is a set of diseases varying from mild to fatal side effects of the infection which originate from the bacterial group streptococcus, particularly in animals.[1] Some of the areas of infection include wounds, body tissue, and respiratory areas. Research within horses, dogs, cats, wound injuries and swine infections have been done to document specific side effects from streptococcosis. Streptococcosis can occur to both humans and animals, the most common including horses, guinea pigs, dogs, cats and fish; while uncommon animals infected include monkeys, cattle, sheep, goats, ferrets and poultry. The wide range of diseases is due to the variability of streptococcus strains which thus creates multiple species for the diseases to occur.[1]
Pathogenesis and classification
Pathogenesis
Occurring in pairs or chains, streptococcus are found to be Gram-positive (although older cultures may lose this characteristic), non-mobile, non-spore forming, and catalase-negative.[2] Bacteriophages, also known as phages, of streptococcus within different parameters of temperature, pH, and salinity maintain successfully stable and are lytic.[3] Integrase, transposase, and recombinase coding genes are found to be absent within phages.[3] Streptococcosis can start occurring due to a weak immune system, or by having bacteria enter wounds.[1] Spreading of streptococcus is often sporadic,[4] and can be done through direct contact (may be done through materials that are likely to carry infection), air transport or (rarely) ingestion.[1]
Classification
Multiple species of streptococcus exist. Differentiation of species is mainly determined by antibody detection, however morphology, biochemical reactions, and hemolysis can also be used for classification.[2] Antibody detection, also known as serologic grouping, categorizes with the labeling of Group A to Group V; it uses differences with cell wall carbohydrates and pili-associated protein.[2] With the use of hemolysis, species are divided within three different categories: incomplete (α hemolytic), complete (β-hemolytic), and no (γ hemolytic) hemolysis detected.[2] Two common species seen are S. agalactiae which has been associated with fish and (more significant) S. suis which has been associated with pigs.[4]
Clinical identification
The clinical manifestations of streptococcus infections differ greatly depending on both the host species and group and strain of the bacteria.[2]
Alpha-hemolytic streptococci (S. pneumoniae and viridians)
The first group of streptococci is alpha-hemolytic which comprises primarily S.pneumoniae and viridans streptococci. This group is referred to as alpha-hemolysis because the cell membrane of red blood cells is left intact.[2] When cultured, alpha-hemolysis can be deemed present when the agar gel appears greenish.[2]
Identifying and diagnosing alpha-hemolytic streptococcus is done with a sputum gram stain and culture test.[5] Further identification can be done serologically to test for the presence of capsular antigen, which is the dominant structure on the surface of S. pneumoniae.[2][5] Bile solubility can be used to further distinguish S. pneumoniae from viridans streptococci as S. pneumoniae are bile soluble and viridans streptococci are not.[6]
S. pneumoniae are the most significant alpha-hemolytic streptococci and are responsible for several infections including:
The identification and diagnosis of these conditions often require a combination of bacteriologic methods with other clinical identification characteristics that are condition-specific.
Beta-hemolytic streptococci (Group A, B, C, D, F, G, and H)
In contrast, the beta-hemolytic group of streptococci includes those capable of complete lysis of red blood cells.[5] Beta-hemolytic streptococci are further divided into additional subgroups consisting of: Group A, Group B, Group C, Group D, Group F, Group G, and Group H. Beta-hemolysis is identified by its yellow and transparent appearance on the cultured media.[5]
Clinical identification of beta-hemolytic streptococci relies on culturing the bacteria with agar media that has been supplemented with blood.[2] This method allows for beta-hemolysis to be easily identified, which is a critical step in further identification tactics.[2] Identification into subgroups can be done by the Lancefield antigen-determination test which uses antibodies to distinguish B-hemolytic streptococci into different species.[2][7] An additional method used to identify B-hemolytic streptococci is the PYR test, which is primarily used in distinguishing S. pyogenes from other B-hemolytic strains by testing for the presence of pyrrolidonyl aminopeptidase.[2] Both the Lancefield antigen grouping sera and PYR test are widely available for commercial usage. Each method presents its limitations and studies suggest that a combination of the two protocols be used to achieve the most reliable results.[2]
Group A
Group A streptococcal infections are predominantly caused by S. pyogenes. Human pathologies are mostly associated with Group A streptococci and arise most often as respiratory or skin infections.[8]
Group A streptococcal infections include:
- Pharyngitis
- Impetigo
- Necrotizing fasciitis
- Cellulitis
- Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome
- Rheumatic fever
- Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis
The identification and diagnosis of these conditions often require a combination of bacteriologic methods with other clinical identification characteristics that are condition-specific.[8]
Group B
Group B streptococcal infections, most commonly associated with S. agalactiae, are extremely prevalent among pregnant women, newborns, and the elderly. Cattle have also been shown to be important reservoir hosts for S. agalactiae. Reports of S. agalactiae have also been identified in several other mammals, fish, and reptiles.[4]
Economic impacts and considerations
Streptococcosis has been shown to have serious consequences on Aquaculture industries around the world as a result of various streptococcal-based infections in marine and freshwater organisms.[9] Streptococosis in fish specifically has proven to be a public health concern due to the zoonotic capabilities of streptococcal infections and diseases.[9] Mitigating streptococcosis in marine and freshwater organisms, has the potential to improve the economics of the aquaculture sector and decrease the risks of human illness.
Traditionally, antibiotics and other chemotherapeutic drugs have been used to combat streptococcosis infections in aquaculture settings.[9] However, re-infection rates, drugs accumulating in aquatic ecosystems, demand for chemical-free aquaculture products, and the diversity of species and strains within the Streptococcus genus has proven to be a major challenge.[9] Since re-infection rates among fish populations are high, multiple treatments are often needed which introduces an additional problem of increased antibiotic resistance.[9] In search of alternative solutions, current research is investigating the possibility of using dietary supplements or medicinal herbs and other plants as alternatives to antibiotics, and recent findings have generated promising results.[9]
The existing literature has placed a strong emphasis on the economic impacts of streptococcosis in tilapia cultures.[10] Tilapia have rapid growth rates, exhibit tolerance to numerous environmental conditions, and are available globally which causes the species to be of major importance in the global aquaculture sector.[10] Tilapia production is often conducted by large-scale producers in intensive systems, which increases their susceptibility to disease and infection due to the density of cultures and subsequent water quality issues.[10] Streptococcosis has been identified as the most important pathogen affecting these systems and has caused considerable economic losses to the industry.[11] In general, preventing disease and infection should be a priority compared to simply controlling and mitigating outbreaks.[10] Research acknowledges that disease prevention may be possible by utilizing effective biosecurity measures at both global and local levels.[10] In addition, recent studies have found several benefits of using medicinal herbs to treat streptococcosis in aquaculture. Studies suggest that a combination of vaccines, antibiotics, and phytotherapy may be the most viable solution to improve both the economics of the industry and mitigate public health concerns.[9] Considerations and adjustments will have to made depending on national regulations, the countries economic status, and the farms production capacity.[10]
Epidemiology
Different organisms it affects/host range
Streptococcosis encompasses a spectrum of diseases caused by bacteria from the genera Streptococcus and Lactococcus.[12]Various species within these genera can cause infections in both wild and cultured animals, including fish and terrestrial species.
Commonly affected organisms include:
Fish species: Streptococcus iniae, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Lactococcus garvieae, Lactococccus piscium, and Streptococcus parauberis have a significant impact in aquaculture, impacting freshwater, marine, and brackish water species.[13] Among these L. garvieae, S. iniae, and S. parauberis are considered the primary causative agents responsible for diseases in marine aquaculture among the streptococcal bacteria affecting fish.[13][12]
Terrestrial animals: Streptococcus agalactiae, commonly found in cattle and dromedary camels, has been detected in numerous species, including small ruminants, llamas, horses, and marine mammals, often associated with human sources.[14] Streptococcus dysgalactiae primarily infects cattle but also affects small ruminants, pigs, dogs, horses, and vampire bats. Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus, prevalent in horses, is also present in guinea pigs, pigs, monkeys, and various other animals, including dogs, cats, ferrets, and birds.[15] Additionally, Streptococcus suis mainly affects suids but can be found in other animals like cattle, sheep, goats, and chickens, with different genotypes found in rabbits and chickens compared to pigs.[14][15]
Humans: Streptococcal infections in humans are primarily caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, the most common beta-hemolytic group A streptococcus, often referred to simply as group A streptococcus.[14] Similarly, group B streptococcus typically denotes Streptococcus agalactiae, although minor beta-hemolytic group B streptococci like S. troglodytidis exist.[15] While most streptococcal illnesses in humans originate from species adapted to humans, such as S. pneumoniae or S. pyogenes, there are zoonotic species capable of causing infections.[15] These include S. canis, S. dysgalactiae subsp. dysgalactiae, S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus, S. halichoeri, S. iniae, and S. suis, along with some animal-associated genotypes of S. agalactiae.[16][17] Notably, some streptococci found in animals may infect humans under certain circumstances. Fish-associated S. agalactiae, primarily affecting farmed freshwater and marine fish, have also been implicated in human illnesses, particularly the ST283 genotype.[17] The prevalence of specific S. suis serotypes varies by region, impacting disease incidence in both pigs and humans.
Transmission routes
Members of the Streptococcus genus are frequently found as part of the normal microbial community in both animals and humans, commonly inhabiting sites such as the upper respiratory tract, urogenital tract, mucous membranes, mammary glands, or skin.[18] While these organisms can occasionally cause infections as primary pathogens, they more commonly act as opportunistic pathogens, particularly in carriers.[19] However, their transmission between hosts does not always lead to disease manifestation.[19] Streptococci are typically transmitted through close contact, though aerosols may sometimes play a role. Some species, such as S. suis, S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus, and S. agalactiae ST283, can be acquired through the consumption of undercooked pork, horsemeat, or fish, respectively, or via unpasteurized dairy products. S. iniae infections in humans often occur through skin abrasions during fish cleaning. The mode of transmission among fish is not fully elucidated but can occur orally or through exposure to contaminated water baths, particularly in laboratory settings. Streptococci can also be transmitted through fomites and can persist in the environment for varying durations, especially in organic material under moist, cool conditions. For instance, S. suis can remain viable for approximately a week in pig feces at 25°C (77°F) and up to six weeks in carcasses at 4°C (39°F).[19]
Geographic distribution
The strains of Streptococcus, including S. canis, S. dysgalactiae subsp. dysgalactiae, S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus, S. suis, and mammalian S. agalactiae, maintained in domestic animals are widely distributed and their presence follows the hosts that they reside in.[20] Regional variations in the predominant serotypes of S. suis may impact disease prevalence in both pigs and humans. S. iniae infections have predominantly been documented in regions such as North America, the Caribbean, parts of Asia (such as Japan, China, Singapore, and Taiwan), Australia, and the Middle East. Meanwhile, occurrences of S. halichoeri have been reported in certain parts of Europe and South Korea, with potential wider distribution.[20][21] Notably, S. agalactiae ST283 appears to be primarily found in Asia but has recently been identified in farmed fish in South America.[20][21]
References
- ^ a b c d "Fast facts: Streptococcosus" (PDF). The Centre for Food Secturity and Public Health. Iowa State University. June 2006. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Patterson, Maria Jevitz (1996), Baron, Samuel (ed.), "Streptococcus", Medical Microbiology (4th ed.), Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, ISBN 978-0-9631172-1-2, PMID 21413248, retrieved 2024-04-09
- ^ a b Preenanka, R.; Safeena, Muhammed P. (January 2023). "Morphological, biological and genomic characterization of lytic phages against Streptococcus agalactiae causing streptococcosis in tilapia". Microbial Pathogenesis. 174: 105919. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105919. PMID 36460145.
- ^ a b c Spickler, Anna Rovid (September 2020). "Zoonotic Streptococcosis" (PDF). Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University.
- ^ a b c d Paton, James C.; Trappetti, Claudia (12 April 2019). "Streptococcus pneumoniae Capsular Polysaccharide". Microbiology Spectrum. 7 (2). doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.GPP3-0019-2018. PMID 30977464.
- ^ "Laboratory Identification: Streptococcus pneumoniae". LabCE.com, Laboratory Continuing Education.
- ^ Gillespie, S.H. (1994). "Gram-positive cocci". Medical Microbiology Illustrated. pp. 12–29. doi:10.1016/B978-0-7506-0187-0.50007-9. ISBN 978-0-7506-0187-0.
- ^ a b Martin, Judith M.; Green, Michael (July 2006). "Group A Streptococcus". Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases. 17 (3): 140–148. doi:10.1053/j.spid.2006.07.001. PMID 16934708.
- ^ a b c d e f g Van Doan, Hien; Soltani, Mehdi; Leitão, Alexandra; Shafiei, Shafigh; Asadi, Sepideh; Lymbery, Alan J.; Ringø, Einar (2022-08-22). "Streptococcosis a Re-Emerging Disease in Aquaculture: Significance and Phytotherapy". Animals. 12 (18): 2443. doi:10.3390/ani12182443. PMC 9495100. PMID 36139303.
- ^ a b c d e f Maulu, Sahya; Hasimuna, Oliver J.; Mphande, Joseph; Munang’andu, Hetron M. (September 2021). "Prevention and Control of Streptococcosis in Tilapia Culture: A Systematic Review". Journal of Aquatic Animal Health. 33 (3): 162–177. Bibcode:2021JAqAH..33..162M. doi:10.1002/aah.10132. PMID 34121243.
- ^ Musa, Najiah; Wei, Lee Seong; Musa, Nadirah; Hamdan, Ruhil H; Leong, Lee Kok; Wee, Wendy; Amal, Mohd Nur; Kutty, Basiriah M; Abdullah, Siti Zahrah (March 2009). "Streptococcosis in red hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) commercial farms in Malaysia". Aquaculture Research. 40 (5): 630–632. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2109.2008.02142.x.
- ^ a b Wang, Pei-Chi; Maekawa, Shun; Chen, Shih-Chu (2022). "Streptococcosis". Aquaculture Pathophysiology. pp. 439–445. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-812211-2.00035-4. ISBN 978-0-12-812211-2.
- ^ a b Toranzo, Alicia E.; Magariños, Beatriz; Romalde, Jesús L. (May 2005). "A review of the main bacterial fish diseases in mariculture systems". Aquaculture. 246 (1–4): 37–61. Bibcode:2005Aquac.246...37T. doi:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.01.002.
- ^ a b c Fulde, Marcus; Valentin-Weigand, Peter (2012). "Epidemiology and Pathogenicity of Zoonotic Streptococci". Host-Pathogen Interactions in Streptococcal Diseases. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 368. pp. 49–81. doi:10.1007/82_2012_277. ISBN 978-3-642-36339-9. PMID 23192319.
- ^ a b c d Fong, I. W. (2017). Emerging Zoonoses. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-50890-0. ISBN 978-3-319-50888-7.
- ^ Boonyayatra, Sukolrat; Wongsathein, Dilok; Tharavichitkul, Prasit (February 2020). "Genetic Relatedness Among Streptococcus agalactiae Isolated from Cattle, Fish, and Humans". Foodborne Pathogens and Disease. 17 (2): 137–143. doi:10.1089/fpd.2019.2687. PMID 31549865.
- ^ a b Gottschalk, Marcelo; Segura, Mariela (2019). "Streptococcosis". Diseases of Swine. pp. 934–950. doi:10.1002/9781119350927.ch61. ISBN 978-1-119-35085-9.
- ^ Dumke, J (2015). "Potential transmission pathways of Streptococcus gallolyticus subsp. gallolyticus". PLOS ONE. 10 (5): e0126507. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1026507D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0126507. PMC 4433203. PMID 25978355.
- ^ a b c Abbott, Y.; Acke, E.; Khan, S.; Muldoon, E. G.; Markey, B. K.; Pinilla, M.; Leonard, F. C.; Steward, K.; Waller, A. (2010). "Zoonotic transmission of Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus from a dog to a handler". Journal of Medical Microbiology. 59 (1): 120–123. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.012930-0. PMID 19745031.
- ^ a b c McCormick, A.W. (2003). "Geographic diversity and temporal trends of antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States". Nature Medicine. 9 (4): 424–430. doi:10.1038/nm839. PMID 12627227.
- ^ a b Scott, J. A. G.; Hall, A. J.; Dagan, R.; Dixon, J. M. S.; Eykyn, S. J.; Fenoll, A.; Hortal, M.; Jette, L. P.; Jorgensen, J. H.; Lamothe, F.; Latorre, C.; Macfarlane, J. T.; Shlaes, D. M.; Smart, L. E.; Taunay, A. (1 June 1996). "Serogroup-Specific Epidemiology of Streptococcus pneumoniae: Associations with Age, Sex, and Geography in 7,000 Episodes of Invasive Disease". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 22 (6): 973–981. doi:10.1093/clinids/22.6.973. PMID 8783696.
Further reading
- Yoshida, Kio; Chambers, James K; Uchida, Kazuyuki (2022). "Systemic Streptococcus agalactiae infection with meningo-ventriculitis in a Linnaeus's two-toed sloth (Choloepus didactylus)". Journal of Veterinary Medical Science. 84 (10): 1417–1421. doi:10.1292/jvms.22-0317. PMC 9586031. PMID 36058878.