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{{otheruses4|a Jewish symbol|other uses of this ancient symbol|Hexagram}} |
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[[Image:Star of David.svg|thumb|right|125px|The Star of David]] |
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[[Image:Leningrad Codex Carpet page e.jpg|thumb|right|125px|The Star of David in the oldest surviving complete copy of the [[Masoretic text]], the [[Leningrad Codex]], dated [[1008]].]] |
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The '''Star of David''' or '''Shield of David''' ('''Magen David''' in Hebrew, מָגֵן דָּוִד with [[Niqqud|nikkud]] or מגן דוד without, academically transcribed {{unicode|Māḡēn Dāwīḏ}} by [[Biblical Hebrew]] linguists, {{pronounced|maˈɡen daˈvid}} in [[Modern Hebrew]] and ''Mogein Dovid'' {{IPA|[ˈmɔɡeɪn ˈdɔvid]}} or ''Mogen Dovid'' {{IPA|[ˈmɔɡen ˈdɔvid]}} in [[Ashkenazi Hebrew]] and [[Yiddish]]) is a generally recognized symbol of [[Jewish identity]] and [[Judaism]]. |
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It is named after [[King David]] of [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|ancient Israel]]; and its earliest known communal usage began in the [[Middle Ages]], alongside the more ancient symbol of the [[Menorah (Temple)|menorah]]. [[Geometrically]] it is the [[hexagram]]. |
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With the establishment of the state of Israel in [[1948]] the Star of David on the [[Flag of Israel]] has also become a symbol of Israel. The symbol is also associated with the [[Zionism|Zionism movement]]. |
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==As a Jewish symbol== |
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The earliest archaeological evidence for the Jewish use of the symbol comes from an inscription attributed to [[Yehoshua ben Asayahu]] in the late [[7th century BCE]], in [[Sidon]], in what is now [[Lebanon]](should be in israel). <ref name="starofdavid">{{cite web |
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| last = Yashir |
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| first = Yevu |
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| title = Capernaum Synagogue |
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| url=http://star-of-david.blogspot.com/2006/04/capernaum-synagogue.html |
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| accessdate = 2007-10-23 }}</ref> |
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The exact origins of the symbol's relation to [[Jewish identity]] are unknown. Several theories were put forward. According to one hypothesis{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, the Star of David comprises two of the three letters in the name David. In its Hebrew spelling (דוד), it contains only three characters, two of which are "D" (or "[[Dalet]]", in Hebrew). In the [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet]], the standard alphabet for writing Hebrew before the [[Babylonian captivity]], this letter was written in a form much like a triangle, similar to the Greek letter [[Delta (letter)|Delta]] ('''Δ'''), with which it shares a sound and the same (4th) position in their respective alphabets, as it does with Latin. The symbol may have been a simple family crest formed by flipping and juxtaposing the two most prominent letters in the name. |
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A popular folk [[etymology]] has it that the Star of David is literally modeled after the shield of the young [[Israelite]] warrior David, who would later become [[King David]]. In order to save metal, the shield was not made of metal but of leather spanned across the simplest metal frame that would hold the round shield: two interlocking triangles. No reliable historical evidence for this etymology exists. |
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===Use in Kabbalah=== |
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According to Judaic sources, the Star or Shield of David signifies the number seven: that is, the six points plus the center. The earliest known Jewish text to mention the symbol is ''[[Judah Hadassi|Eshkol Ha-Kofer]]'' by the [[Karaism|Karaite]] [[Judah Hadassi]], in the mid-12th century CE: |
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<blockquote>"Seven names of angels precede the [[mezuzah]]: Michael, Gabriel, etc. ... [[Tetragrammaton]] protect you! And likewise the sign, called the 'Shield of David', is placed beside the name of each angel."<ref>''Eshkol Ha-Kofer'' by [[Judah Hadassi]], 12th century CE</ref></blockquote> |
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[[Image:Sack of jerusalem.JPG|thumb|right|125px|The Menorah on the [[Arch of Titus]]: notice the three stems on each side plus the central stem, totaling seven]] |
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The number seven has religious significance in Judaism, e.g., the six days of [[Creation according to Genesis|Creation]] plus the seventh day of rest, the six working days in the week plus [[Shabbat]], the Seven Spirits of [[God]], as well as the [[Menorah (Temple)|Menorah]] in the ancient Temple, whose seven oil lamps rest on three stems branching from each side of a central pole. Perhaps, the Star of David came to be used as a standard symbol in synagogues because its organization into 3+3+1 corresponds to the Temple's Menorah, which was the more traditional symbol for Judaism in ancient times. There are also six words in the [[Shema]], the most important prayer in Judaism, and it is not uncommon to find the Shema written around a Star of David. |
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In [[Kabbalah]], the Star of David symbolizes the six directions of space plus the center, under the influence of the description of space found in the [[Sefer Yetzirah|Sefer Yetsira]]: Up, Down, East, West, South, North, and Center. Congruently, under the influence of the [[Zohar]], it represents the Six Sefirot of the Male ([[Zeir Anpin]]) united with the Seventh Sefirot of the Female ([[Nekuva]]). |
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Some Kabbalistic amulets use the symbol to arrange the Ten [[Sephiroth (Kabbalah)|Sefirot]]. However, reference to the symbol is nowhere in the [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabbalah:_Primary_Texts#Primary_Texts|classical kabbalistic texts]] themselves, such as the [[Zohar]] and the like. Therefore, its use as a sefirotic diagram in amulets is more likely a reinterpretation of a preexisting symbol. |
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According to G.S. Oegema - |
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<blockquote>"[[Isaac Luria]] provided the Shield of David with a further mystical meaning. In his book ''[[Tree of life (Kabbalah)|Etz Chayim]]'' he teaches that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram: above the three sefirot "Crown", "Wisdom", and "Insight", below the other seven". <ref>G.S. Oegema, ''Realms of Judaism. The history of the Shield of David, the birth of a symbol'' (Peter Lang, Germany, 1996) ISBN 3-631-30192-8</ref></blockquote> |
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Similarly, M. Costa wrote that M. Gudemann and other researchers in the 1920s claimed that [[Isaac Luria]] was influential in turning the Star of David into a national Jewish emblem by teaching that the elements of the plate for the [[Seder]] evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram, but [[Gershom Scholem]] proved that Isaac Luria talked about parallel triangles one beneath the other and not about the hexagram. <ref>''Hatakh ha-Zahav, Hotam Shelomoh u-Magen-David'' (Poalim, 1990, Hebrew) p.156</ref> |
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===Shield form=== |
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The ''Shield of David'' is not mentioned in ancient [[rabbinic literature]]. A supposed Shield of David however has recently been noted on a Jewish [[tomb stone|tombstone]] at [[Taranto]], in Southern [[Italy]], which may date as early as the [[third century]] [[Common Era|CE]]. Likewise, a stone bearing the Shield from the arch of a 3-4th century synagogue in the Galilee was found. |
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<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/2/King%20Solomon-s%20Seal King Solomon-s Seal]</ref> |
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The earliest Jewish literary source which mentions the "Shield of David" is the ''[[Eshkol Ha-Kofer]]'' by [[Judah Hadassi]] from the middle of the [[12th century]] [[Common Era|CE]], where seven Shields are used in an amulet for a [[mezuzah]]. It appears to have been in use as part of amulets before it was in use in formal Jewish contexts. A [[manuscript]] [[Tanakh]] dated [[1307]] and belonging to [[Rabbi Yosef bar Yehuda ben Marvas]] from [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], [[Spain]], was decorated with a Shield of David. In the synagogues, perhaps, it was associated with the mezuzah. Originally, the hexagram may have been employed as an architectural ornament on synagogues, as it is, for example, on the [[cathedral]]s of [[Brandenburg]] and [[Stendal]], and on the [[Marktkirche]] at [[Hanover]]. A pentagram in this form is found on the ancient synagogue at [[Tell Hum]]. |
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[[Image:14c ed of the Guide for the Perplexed by Maimonides.jpg|thumb|right|125px|A page from a 14th century manuscript of the ''[[Guide for the Perplexed]]'' by [[Maimonides]]. The figure seated on the chair with Stars of David is thought to be [[Aristotle]]]] |
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===Shield with stars=== |
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In [[1354]], [[King of Bohemia]] [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]] prescribed for the Jews of [[Prague]] a red flag with both David's shield and [[seal of solomon|Solomon's seal]], while the red flag with which the Jews met [[King Matthias]] of [[Hungary]] in the [[15th century]] showed two pentagrams with two golden stars.<ref>Schwandtner, ''Scriptores Rerum Hungaricarum,'' ii. 148</ref> The pentagram, therefore, may also have been used among the Jews as early as the year [[1073]].<ref>Facsimile in M. Friedmann, ''Seder Eliyahu Rabbah ve-Seder Eliyahu Ztṭa,'' Vienna, 1901</ref> |
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In [[1460]], the Jews of [[Ofen]] ([[Budapest]], [[Hungary]]) received [[King Mathios Kuruvenus]] with a red flag on which were two Shields of David and two stars. In the first [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[prayer]] book, printed in [[Prague]] in [[1512]], a large Shield of David appears on the cover. In the [[colophon (publishing)|colophon]] is written: "Each man beneath his flag according to the house of their fathers... and he will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David." In [[1592]], [[Mordechai Maizel]] was allowed to affix "a flag of King David, similar to that located on the Main Synagogue" on his synagogue in Prague. |
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. In [[1648]], the Jews of Prague were again allowed a flag, in acknowledgment of their part in defending the city against the [[Sweden|Swedes]]. On a red background was a yellow Shield of David, in the center of which was a Swedish star.<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/1/Reuven%20Kashani%20-%20The%20National%20Flag The National Flag] at MFA</ref> |
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[[Image:Karlsruhe Synagoge Luftbild.jpg|thumb|right|125px|A synagogue in [[Karlsruhe]], [[Germany]], with the outline of a Star of David]] |
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[[Image:Bat Zion I want your Old New Land join Jewish regiment.jpg|thumb|right|125px|A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines. |
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ring WWI. Daughter of [[Zion]] (representing the Jewish people): ''Your Old New Land must have you! Join the [[Jewish Legion|Jewish regiment]].'']] |
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The Star of David can be found on the tombstones of religious Jews going back hundreds of years in [[Europe]], as it became accepted as the universal symbol of the Jewish people. Following [[Jewish emancipation]] after the [[French revolution]], Jewish communities chose the Star of David to represent themselves, comparable to the cross used by most [[Christian]]s. |
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Some [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jewish]] groups reject the use of the Jewish Star of David because of its association with [[magic (paranormal)|magic]]. |
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[[Neturei Karta]] and [[Satmar]] reject it because they associate it with [[Zionism]]. |
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The vast majority of [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews]] do no use the star as well. This probably reflects the trends before the forced conversion in Portugal and also its use is Spain. Their symbols are connected with the survival from [[the Inquisition]],like the bird [[Phoenix]]. |
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Many [[Modern Orthodox Judaism|Modern Orthodox]] synagogues, and many synagogues of other Jewish movements, however, have the Israeli flag with the Star of David prominently displayed at the front of the synagogues near the Ark containing the Torah scrolls. |
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The star is usually in blue, like on the flag of Israel. |
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== Use by the Nazis == |
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{{See also|Yellow badge}} |
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[[Image:Judenstern JMW.jpg|thumb|left|125px|The [[yellow badge]]]] |
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A Star of David, often [[yellow]]-[[color]]ed, was used by the [[Nazis]] during [[the Holocaust]] as a method of identifying [[Jewish People]]. After the [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|German invasion of Poland]] in 1939 there were initially different local decrees forcing Jews to wear a distinct sign – in the [[General Government]] e.g. a white armband with a blue Star of David on it, in the [[Reichsgau Wartheland|Warthegau]] a yellow badge in the form of a Star of David on the left side of the breast and on the back.<ref>[http://motlc.learningcenter.wiesenthal.org/text/x02/xr0254.html ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust''] (at [[Museum of Tolerance]])</ref> The requirement to wear the Star of David with the word ''Jude'' ([[German language|German]] for Jew) inscribed was then extended to all Jews over the age of 6 in the [[Nazi Germany|Reich]] and the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] (by a decree issued on [[September 1]], [[1941]] signed by [[Reinhard Heydrich]] <ref>''[http://www.verfassungen.de/de/de33-45/juden41.htm Polizeiverordnung über die Kennzeichnung der Juden]'' (came into force [[September 19]], [[1941]])</ref>) and was gradually introduced in other German-occupied areas, where local words were used (e.g. ''Juif'' in [[French language|French]], ''Jood'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]]). |
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Jewish inmates in [[concentration camp]]s were later forced to wear similar [[Nazi concentration camp badges]]. |
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Claims have been made that [[Hitler]] chose the star because of his [[occultist]] beliefs. See the work by [[O. J. Graham]]. |
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==Magen David Adom== |
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{{main|Magen David Adom}} |
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[[Image:Magen David Adom.svg|thumb|right|125px|The [[Magen David Adom]] emblem]] |
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[[Magen David Adom]] (MDA) (''Red Star of David'' or, translated literally, ''Red Shield of David'') is Israel's only official emergency medical, disaster, ambulance service. It is an official member of the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]]. |
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✡ |
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==See also== |
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*[[Chai (symbol)|Chai symbol]] |
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*[[Flag of Israel]] |
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*[[Seal of Solomon]] |
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*[[Star of Bethlehem]] |
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*[[Merkaba]] |
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==Notes== |
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* In [[Unicode]], the "Star of David" symbol is U+2721 (<font size="+3">{{unicode|✡}}</font>). |
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== Footnotes == |
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{{reflist}} |
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==Further reading== |
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* Graham, Dr. O.J. ''The Six-Pointed Star: Its Origin and Usage'' 4th ed. Toronto: The Free Press, 2001. ISBN 0-9689383-0-2 |
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==External links== |
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{{commons|Star of David}} |
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* [http://www.jewfaq.org/signs.htm#MagenDavid Jewish Signs and Symbols. Magen David] (JewFAQ) |
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* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=38&letter=M&search=magen%20david 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia on Jewish symbols] |
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* [http://www.kulanu.org/links/hexagram.html Kulanu on the Star of David] |
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*[http://www.gaiamind.com/starbird.html The Archetypal Mandala of India of the Star of David] |
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* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/star.html Star of David at the Jewish Virtual Library] |
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[[Category:Star symbols]] |
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[[Category:Jewish symbols]] |
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[[ar:نجمة داوود]] |
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[[bs:Davidova zvijezda]] |
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[[br:Steredenn David]] |
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[[ca:Estrella de David]] |
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[[cs:Davidova hvězda]] |
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[[da:Davidsstjerne]] |
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[[de:Davidstern]] |
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[[es:Estrella de David]] |
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[[eo:Stelo de Davido]] |
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[[fa:ستاره داوود]] |
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[[fr:Étoile de David]] |
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[[ko:다윗의 별]] |
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[[hr:Davidova zvijezda]] |
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[[id:Bintang Daud]] |
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[[it:Maghen David]] |
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[[he:מגן דוד]] |
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[[lt:Dovydo žvaigždė]] |
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[[nl:Davidster]] |
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[[ja:ダビデの星]] |
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[[no:Davidsstjerne]] |
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[[nn:Davidsstjerne]] |
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[[pl:Gwiazda Dawida]] |
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[[pt:Estrela de Davi]] |
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[[ru:Звезда Давида]] |
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[[simple:Star of David]] |
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[[sk:Dávidova hviezda]] |
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[[sr:Давидова звезда]] |
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[[fi:Daavidintähti]] |
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[[sv:Davidsstjärna]] |
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[[tr:Davud'un Kalkanı]] |
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[[yi:מגן דוד]] |
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[[zh:大衛星]] |
Revision as of 22:48, 1 May 2008
The Star of David or Shield of David (Magen David in Hebrew, מָגֵן דָּוִד with nikkud or מגן דוד without, academically transcribed Māḡēn Dāwīḏ by Biblical Hebrew linguists, IPA: [maˈɡen daˈvid] in Modern Hebrew and Mogein Dovid [ˈmɔɡeɪn ˈdɔvid] or Mogen Dovid [ˈmɔɡen ˈdɔvid] in Ashkenazi Hebrew and Yiddish) is a generally recognized symbol of Jewish identity and Judaism. It is named after King David of ancient Israel; and its earliest known communal usage began in the Middle Ages, alongside the more ancient symbol of the menorah. Geometrically it is the hexagram.
With the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948 the Star of David on the Flag of Israel has also become a symbol of Israel. The symbol is also associated with the Zionism movement.
As a Jewish symbol
The earliest archaeological evidence for the Jewish use of the symbol comes from an inscription attributed to Yehoshua ben Asayahu in the late 7th century BCE, in Sidon, in what is now Lebanon(should be in israel). [1]
The exact origins of the symbol's relation to Jewish identity are unknown. Several theories were put forward. According to one hypothesis[citation needed], the Star of David comprises two of the three letters in the name David. In its Hebrew spelling (דוד), it contains only three characters, two of which are "D" (or "Dalet", in Hebrew). In the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet, the standard alphabet for writing Hebrew before the Babylonian captivity, this letter was written in a form much like a triangle, similar to the Greek letter Delta (Δ), with which it shares a sound and the same (4th) position in their respective alphabets, as it does with Latin. The symbol may have been a simple family crest formed by flipping and juxtaposing the two most prominent letters in the name.
A popular folk etymology has it that the Star of David is literally modeled after the shield of the young Israelite warrior David, who would later become King David. In order to save metal, the shield was not made of metal but of leather spanned across the simplest metal frame that would hold the round shield: two interlocking triangles. No reliable historical evidence for this etymology exists.
Use in Kabbalah
According to Judaic sources, the Star or Shield of David signifies the number seven: that is, the six points plus the center. The earliest known Jewish text to mention the symbol is Eshkol Ha-Kofer by the Karaite Judah Hadassi, in the mid-12th century CE:
"Seven names of angels precede the mezuzah: Michael, Gabriel, etc. ... Tetragrammaton protect you! And likewise the sign, called the 'Shield of David', is placed beside the name of each angel."[2]
The number seven has religious significance in Judaism, e.g., the six days of Creation plus the seventh day of rest, the six working days in the week plus Shabbat, the Seven Spirits of God, as well as the Menorah in the ancient Temple, whose seven oil lamps rest on three stems branching from each side of a central pole. Perhaps, the Star of David came to be used as a standard symbol in synagogues because its organization into 3+3+1 corresponds to the Temple's Menorah, which was the more traditional symbol for Judaism in ancient times. There are also six words in the Shema, the most important prayer in Judaism, and it is not uncommon to find the Shema written around a Star of David.
In Kabbalah, the Star of David symbolizes the six directions of space plus the center, under the influence of the description of space found in the Sefer Yetsira: Up, Down, East, West, South, North, and Center. Congruently, under the influence of the Zohar, it represents the Six Sefirot of the Male (Zeir Anpin) united with the Seventh Sefirot of the Female (Nekuva).
Some Kabbalistic amulets use the symbol to arrange the Ten Sefirot. However, reference to the symbol is nowhere in the [kabbalistic texts] themselves, such as the Zohar and the like. Therefore, its use as a sefirotic diagram in amulets is more likely a reinterpretation of a preexisting symbol.
According to G.S. Oegema -
"Isaac Luria provided the Shield of David with a further mystical meaning. In his book Etz Chayim he teaches that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram: above the three sefirot "Crown", "Wisdom", and "Insight", below the other seven". [3]
Similarly, M. Costa wrote that M. Gudemann and other researchers in the 1920s claimed that Isaac Luria was influential in turning the Star of David into a national Jewish emblem by teaching that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram, but Gershom Scholem proved that Isaac Luria talked about parallel triangles one beneath the other and not about the hexagram. [4]
Shield form
The Shield of David is not mentioned in ancient rabbinic literature. A supposed Shield of David however has recently been noted on a Jewish tombstone at Taranto, in Southern Italy, which may date as early as the third century CE. Likewise, a stone bearing the Shield from the arch of a 3-4th century synagogue in the Galilee was found. [5]
The earliest Jewish literary source which mentions the "Shield of David" is the Eshkol Ha-Kofer by Judah Hadassi from the middle of the 12th century CE, where seven Shields are used in an amulet for a mezuzah. It appears to have been in use as part of amulets before it was in use in formal Jewish contexts. A manuscript Tanakh dated 1307 and belonging to Rabbi Yosef bar Yehuda ben Marvas from Toledo, Spain, was decorated with a Shield of David. In the synagogues, perhaps, it was associated with the mezuzah. Originally, the hexagram may have been employed as an architectural ornament on synagogues, as it is, for example, on the cathedrals of Brandenburg and Stendal, and on the Marktkirche at Hanover. A pentagram in this form is found on the ancient synagogue at Tell Hum.
Shield with stars
In 1354, King of Bohemia Charles IV prescribed for the Jews of Prague a red flag with both David's shield and Solomon's seal, while the red flag with which the Jews met King Matthias of Hungary in the 15th century showed two pentagrams with two golden stars.[6] The pentagram, therefore, may also have been used among the Jews as early as the year 1073.[7]
In 1460, the Jews of Ofen (Budapest, Hungary) received King Mathios Kuruvenus with a red flag on which were two Shields of David and two stars. In the first Hebrew prayer book, printed in Prague in 1512, a large Shield of David appears on the cover. In the colophon is written: "Each man beneath his flag according to the house of their fathers... and he will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David." In 1592, Mordechai Maizel was allowed to affix "a flag of King David, similar to that located on the Main Synagogue" on his synagogue in Prague. . In 1648, the Jews of Prague were again allowed a flag, in acknowledgment of their part in defending the city against the Swedes. On a red background was a yellow Shield of David, in the center of which was a Swedish star.[8]
The Star of David can be found on the tombstones of religious Jews going back hundreds of years in Europe, as it became accepted as the universal symbol of the Jewish people. Following Jewish emancipation after the French revolution, Jewish communities chose the Star of David to represent themselves, comparable to the cross used by most Christians.
Some Orthodox Jewish groups reject the use of the Jewish Star of David because of its association with magic. Neturei Karta and Satmar reject it because they associate it with Zionism.
The vast majority of Spanish and Portuguese Jews do no use the star as well. This probably reflects the trends before the forced conversion in Portugal and also its use is Spain. Their symbols are connected with the survival from the Inquisition,like the bird Phoenix.
Many Modern Orthodox synagogues, and many synagogues of other Jewish movements, however, have the Israeli flag with the Star of David prominently displayed at the front of the synagogues near the Ark containing the Torah scrolls.
The star is usually in blue, like on the flag of Israel.
Use by the Nazis
A Star of David, often yellow-colored, was used by the Nazis during the Holocaust as a method of identifying Jewish People. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939 there were initially different local decrees forcing Jews to wear a distinct sign – in the General Government e.g. a white armband with a blue Star of David on it, in the Warthegau a yellow badge in the form of a Star of David on the left side of the breast and on the back.[9] The requirement to wear the Star of David with the word Jude (German for Jew) inscribed was then extended to all Jews over the age of 6 in the Reich and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (by a decree issued on September 1, 1941 signed by Reinhard Heydrich [10]) and was gradually introduced in other German-occupied areas, where local words were used (e.g. Juif in French, Jood in Dutch).
Jewish inmates in concentration camps were later forced to wear similar Nazi concentration camp badges.
Claims have been made that Hitler chose the star because of his occultist beliefs. See the work by O. J. Graham.
Magen David Adom
Magen David Adom (MDA) (Red Star of David or, translated literally, Red Shield of David) is Israel's only official emergency medical, disaster, ambulance service. It is an official member of the International Committee of the Red Cross.
✡
See also
Notes
- In Unicode, the "Star of David" symbol is U+2721 (✡).
Footnotes
- ^ Yashir, Yevu. "Capernaum Synagogue". Retrieved 2007-10-23.
- ^ Eshkol Ha-Kofer by Judah Hadassi, 12th century CE
- ^ G.S. Oegema, Realms of Judaism. The history of the Shield of David, the birth of a symbol (Peter Lang, Germany, 1996) ISBN 3-631-30192-8
- ^ Hatakh ha-Zahav, Hotam Shelomoh u-Magen-David (Poalim, 1990, Hebrew) p.156
- ^ King Solomon-s Seal
- ^ Schwandtner, Scriptores Rerum Hungaricarum, ii. 148
- ^ Facsimile in M. Friedmann, Seder Eliyahu Rabbah ve-Seder Eliyahu Ztṭa, Vienna, 1901
- ^ The National Flag at MFA
- ^ Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (at Museum of Tolerance)
- ^ Polizeiverordnung über die Kennzeichnung der Juden (came into force September 19, 1941)
Further reading
- Graham, Dr. O.J. The Six-Pointed Star: Its Origin and Usage 4th ed. Toronto: The Free Press, 2001. ISBN 0-9689383-0-2