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Spacecraft docking and berthing mechanisms are used to join two spacecraft. Docking specifically refers to the joining or coming together of two separate free flying space vehicles.[1] Berthing refers to mating operations where an inactive module/vehicle is placed into the mating interface using a robotic arm.[2]
Docking to manned spacecraft
Types
Image | Name | Method | Internal Crew Transfer | Use | Type |
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Gemini Docking Mechanism | Docking | No | Gemini Spacecraft, Agena target vehicle | Non-Androgynous |
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Apollo Docking Mechanism | Docking | Yes | Apollo Spacecraft, Apollo Lunar Module[3], Skylab, Docking Module (ASTP) | Non-Androgynous |
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Original Russian probe and drogue docking system | Docking | No | Soyuz 7K-OK | Non-Androgynous |
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Kontakt docking system | Docking | No | LK lander (intended)[4], Soyuz 7K-LOK (intended)[4] | Non-Androgynous |
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Modern Russian probe and drogue docking system | Docking | Yes | Post Soyuz 7K-OK, Progress, ATV, Salyut stations, Mir, ISS (connects Zarya to Rassvet; used by Zeveda, Rassvet, Poisk for visiting spacecraft)[5] | Non-Androgynous |
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APAS-75 | Docking | Yes | Docking Module (ASTP), Soyuz 7K-TM | Androgynous |
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APAS-89 | Docking | Yes | Mir (Kristall[4], Mir Docking Module[citation needed]), Soyuz TM-16[4], ISS (Zarya)[citation needed] | Androgynous (Soyuz TM-16) Non-Androgynous (Kristall) |
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APAS-95 | Docking | Yes | Space Shuttle[6], Pressurized Mating Adapter | Androgynous (Shuttle and PMA-1)[5], Non-Androgynous (PMA-2 and PMA-3)[5] |
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Hybrid Docking System | Docking | Yes | ISS (Connects Zvezda to Zarya, Pirs & Poisk)[5] | Non-Androgynous |
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Common Berthing Mechanism | Berthing | Yes | ISS, MPLMs, HTV, Dragon Cargo, Cygnus | Non-Androgynous |
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NASA Docking System | Docking or Berthing | Yes | NDS APAS Docking Adapter, future US vehicles | Androgynous |
Androgyny
Early systems for conjoining spacecraft were all non-androgynous docking system designs. Non-androgynous designs are a form of "gender mating"[1] where each spacecraft to be joined has a unique design and a specific role to play in the docking process. The roles cannot be reversed. Furthermore, two spacecraft of the same gender cannot be joined at all.
Androgynous docking, and later androgynous berthing, on the other hand has an identical interface design on both spacecraft, allowing system-level redundancy (role reversing) as well as rescue and collaboration between any two spacecraft vehicles. In an androgynous interface, there is a single design which can connect to a duplicate of itself. This results in more flexible mission design and reduces unique mission analysis and training.[1]
Adapters
A docking or berthing adapter is a mechanical or electromechanical device that facilitates the connection of one type of docking or berthing interface to a different interface. While such interfaces may theoretically be docking/docking, docking/berthing, or berthing/berthing, only the first two types have been deployed in space to date. Previously launched and planned to be launched adapters are listed below:
- Docking Module: Converts U.S. Probe and Drogue to APAS-75. Built for the 1975 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project mission.
- Pressurized Mating Adapter (PMA): Converts an active Common Berthing Mechanism to the Androgynous Peripheral Attach System. Three PMAs are attached to the ISS, PMA-1 and PMA-2 were launched in 1998 on STS-88, PMA-3 in late 2000 on STS-92.
- NDS APAS Docking Adapter (NADA): Will be attached to ISS's two open PMAs, it will convert APAS-95 to the NASA Docking System (NDS).[7] Two of them will be attached to Node 2 (Harmony module) of the International Space Station, the first in late 2014 and the second in either 2015 or 2016. One will be attached to Node-2's forward port and the other to its zenith port. The adapter will be compatible with the International Docking System Standard (IDSS), which is an attempt by the ISS Multilateral Coordination Board to create a docking standard.[8]
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Docking Module
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Pressurized Mating Adapter
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NDS APAS Docking Adapter
Docking of two unmanned spacecraft
During the first fifty years of spaceflight, most docking, and all berthing, of spacecraft have been of vehicles where at least one of the two were so-called "manned spacecraft", with docking to a pressurized habitable volume a necessary part of the technical objective.
This is changing. A substantial number of economically driven commercial dockings of unmanned spacecraft are planned starting as soon as 2015. In early 2011, two commercial spacecraft providers have announced plans to provide new autonomous/teleoperated unmanned resupply spacecraft for servicing other unmanned spacecraft. Notably, both of these servicing spacecraft will be intending to dock with satellites that were not designed for docking, nor in-space servicing.
The early business model for these services is primarily in near-geosynchronous orbit, although large delta-v orbital maneuvering services are also envisioned.[9]
Building off of the 2007 Orbital Express mission — a U.S. government-sponsored mission to test in-space satellite servicing with two vehicles designed from the ground up for on-orbit refueling and subsystem replacement — two companies have announced new commercial satellite servicing missions that will require docking of two unmanned vehicles.
- Space Infrastructure Servicing (SIS) is a spacecraft being developed by Canadian aerospace firm MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates (MDA)—maker of Canadarm—to operate as a small-scale in-space refueling depot for communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit. Intelsat is a requirements and funding partner for the initial demonstration satellite, aimed to be launched in approximately 2015.[10][11]
- Mission Extension Vehicle (MEV)[12] is a spacecraft being developed by the U.S. firm ViviSat, a 50/50 joint venture of aerospace firms U.S. Space and ATK, to operate as a small-scale in-space satellite-refueling spacecraft.[9] MEV will dock but will not transfer fuel. It will rather use "its own thrusters to supply attitude control for the target."[9]
The SIS and MEV vehicles will each use a different docking technique. SIS will utilize a ring attachment around the kick motor[13] while the Mission Extension Vehicle will use a somewhat more standard insert-a-probe-into-the-nozzle-of-the-kick-motor approach.[9]
Non-cooperative docking
All spacecraft dockings to date have been accomplished with vehicles where both spacecraft involved were under either piloted, autonomous or telerobotic attitude control.[14] However, it might be desirable to dock with a spacecraft that does not have an operable attitude control system, for purposes of repair or disposal. Theoretical techniques for docking with non-cooperative spacecraft have been proposed.[14]
Salyut 7 revived. The March 2 announcement notwithstanding, by the end of March the Soviets resolved to attempt a Salyut 7 rescue. The effort turned out to be one of the most impressive feats of in-space repairs in history. As the Pamirs approached the inert station, they saw that its solar arrays were pointing randomly as it rolled slowly about its long axis. They used a handheld laser range finder to judge their distance, and conducted a fly-around inspection to be certain the exterior was intact. Dzhanibekov noted that the thermal blankets on the transfer compartment had turned a dull gray from prolonged exposure to sunlight. Upon achieving hard dock—the first time a Soyuz docked with an inactive station—the crew confirmed through the electrical connectors in the docking collars that the Salyut 7 electrical system was dead. They carefully sampled the air in the station before opening the hatch. The station air was very cold, but breathable. Frost covered the walls and apparatus. The cosmonauts wore winter garb, including fur-lined hats, as they entered the station. The first order of business was to restore electric power. Of the eight batteries, all were dead, and two were destroyed. Dzhanibekov determined that a sensor had failed in the solar array pointing system, preventing the batteries from recharging. A telemetry radio problem prevented the TsUP from detecting the problem. Salyut 7 had quickly run down its batteries, shutting down all its systems and accounting for the break in radio contact. The cosmonauts set about recharging the batteries. They used Soyuz-T 13 to turn the station to put its solar arrays in sunlight. On June 10 they turned on the air heaters. The cosmonauts relied on the Soyuz-T 13 air regeneration system until they could get the Salyut 7 system back in order. On June 13 the attitude control system was successfully reactivated. This was cause for jubilation, as it meant a Progress bearing replacement parts could dock with Salyut 7. Wall heaters were turned on only after all the frost had evaporated, in order to prevent water from entering equipment. Normal atmospheric humidity was achieved only at the end of July. The station’s water tanks thawed by the end of June. Freezing destroyed the water heater, so the cosmonauts used a powerful television light to heat fluids.
A typical approach for solving this problem involves two phases. First, attitude and orbital changes are made to the "chaser" spacecraft until it has zero relative motion with the "target" spacecraft. Second, docking maneuvers commence that are similar to traditional cooperative spacecraft docking. A standardized docking interface on each spacecraft is assumed.[15]
NASA has identified automated and autonomous rendezvous and docking — the ability of two spacecraft to rendezvous and dock "operating independently from human controllers and without other back-up, [and which requires technology] advances in sensors, software, and realtime on-orbit positioning and flight control, among other challenges" — as a critical technology to the "ultimate success of capabilities such as in-orbit propellant storage and refueling," and also for complex operations in assembling mission components for interplanetary destinations.[16]
The Automated/Autonomous Rendezvous & Docking Vehicle (ARDV) is a proposed NASA Flagship Technology Demonstration (FTD) mission, for flight as early as 2014/2015. An important NASA objective on the proposed mission is to advance the technology and demonstrate automated rendezvous and docking. One mission element defined in the 2010 analysis was the development of a laser proximity operations sensor that could be used for non-cooperative vehicles at distances between 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) and 3 kilometres (2 mi). Non-cooperative docking mechanisms were identified as critical mission elements to the success of such autonomous missions.[16]
Grappling and connecting to non-cooperative space objects was identified as a top technical challenge in the 2010 NASA Robotics, tele-robotics and autonomous systems roadmap.[17]
See also
References
- ^ a b c
"International Docking Standardization" (pdf). NASA. 2009-03-17. p. 15. Retrieved 2011-03-04.
Gender Mating vs. Androgynous Mating ... Hard Docking vs. Soft Capture
- ^ "Advanced Docking/Berthing System - NASA Seal Workshop" (pdf). NASA. 2004-11-04. p. 15. Retrieved 2011-03-04.
Berthing refers to mating operations where an inactive module/vehicle is placed into the mating interface using a Remote Manipulator System-RMS.
- ^ History of U.S. Docking Systems (10/05/2010)
- ^ a b c d Portree, David (1995-03). "Mir Hardware Heritage" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
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(help) - ^ a b c d "ISS Interface Mechanisms and their Heritage" (pdf). NASA. p. 23. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
- ^ Energiya-Buran: The Soviet Space Shuttle. Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing Ltd. 2007. pp. 379–381. ISBN 978-0-387-387-69848-9.
Although Energiya's internal desginator for the Shuttle APAS is APAS-95, it is essentially the same as Buran's APAS-89
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suggested) (help) - ^ Lupo, Chris (2010-06-14). "NDS Configuration and RequirementsChanges since Nov 2010" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 22 August 2011.
- ^ Bayt, Rob (2011-07-26). "Commercial Crew Program: Key Drving Requirments Walkthrough". NASA. Retrieved 27 July 2011.
- ^ a b c d
Morring, Frank, Jr. (2011-03-22). "An End To Space Trash?". Aviation Week. Retrieved 2011-03-21.
ViviSat, a new 50-50 joint venture of U.S. Space and ATK, is marketing a satellite-refueling spacecraft that connects to a target spacecraft using the same probe-in-the-kick-motor approach as MDA, but does not transfer its fuel. Instead, the vehicle becomes a new fuel tank, using its own thrusters to supply attitude control for the target. ... [the ViviSat] concept is not as far along as MDA. ... In addition to extending the life of an out-of-fuel satellite, the company could also rescue fueled spacecraft like AEHF-1 by docking with it in its low orbit, using its own motor and fuel to place it in the right orbit, and then moving to another target.
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"Intelsat Picks MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates Ltd. for Satellite Servicing". press release. CNW Group. Retrieved 2011-03-15.
MDA plans to launch its Space Infrastructure Servicing ("SIS") vehicle into near geosynchronous orbit, where it will service commercial and government satellites in need of additional fuel, re-positioning or other maintenance. ... MDA and Intelsat will work together to finalize specifications and other requirements over the next six months before both parties authorize the build phase of the program. The first refueling mission is to be available 3.5 years following the commencement of the build phase. ... The services provided by MDA to Intelsat under this agreement are valued at more than US$280 million.
- ^
de Selding, Peter B. (2011-03-14). "Intelsat Signs Up for Satellite Refueling Service". Space News. Retrieved 2011-03-15.
if the MDA spacecraft performs as planned, Intelsat will be paying a total of some $200 million to MDA. This assumes that four or five satellites are given around 200 kilograms each of fuel.
- ^ "ViviSat Corporate Overview". company website. ViviSat. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^
de Selding, Peter B. (2011-03-18). "Intelsat Signs Up for MDA's Satellite Refueling Service". Space News. Retrieved 2011-03-20.
more than 40 different types of fueling systems ... SIS will be carrying enough tools to open 75 percent of the fueling systems aboard satellites now in geostationary orbit. ... MDA will launch the SIS servicer, which will rendezvous and dock with the Intelsat satellite, attaching itself to the ring around the satellite's apogee-boost motor. With ground teams governing the movements, the SIS robotic arm will reach through the nozzle of the apogee motor to find and unscrew the satellite's fuel cap. The SIS vehicle will reclose the fuel cap after delivering the agreed amount of propellant and then head to its next mission. ... Key to the business model is MDA's ability to launch replacement fuel canisters that would be grappled by SIS and used to refuel dozens of satellites over a period of years. These canisters would be much lighter than the SIS vehicle and thus much less expensive to launch.
- ^ a b
Ma, Zhanhua (2006). "Optimal Control for Spacecraft to Rendezvous with a Tumbling Satellite in a Close Range" (PDF). Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems: 4109–4114. Retrieved 2011-08-09 quote=One of the most challenging tasks for satellite on-orbit servicing is to rendezvous and capture a non-cooperative satellite such as a tumbling satellite..
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"Optimal Control of Rendezvous and Docking with a Non-Cooperative Satellite" (PDF). New Mexico State University. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
Most of the current research and all the past missions are aiming at capturing very cooperative satellites only. In the future, we may also need to capture non-cooperative satellites such as the ones tumbling in space or not designed for being captured.
- ^ a b Tooley, Craig (2010-05-25). "A New Space Enterprise of Exploration" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 2011-09-24.
- ^
Ambrose, Rob (2010-11). "Robotics, tele-robotics and autonomous systems roadmap — Draft" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 2011-09-25.
A smaller common docking system for robotic spacecraft is also needed to enable robotic spacecraft AR&D within the capture envelopes of these systems. Assembly of the large vehicles and stages used for beyond LEO exploration missions will require new mechanisms with new capture envelopes beyond any docking system currently used or in development. Development and testing of autonomous robotic capture of non-cooperative target vehicles in which the target does not have capture aids such as grapple fixtures or docking mechanisms is needed to support satellite servicing/rescue.
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