Aydin mirza (talk | contribs) see Talk Page, discussian with Jr8825. it's noted that self-proclaimed authority administered Shushi province. But wen we talk about the city in the article It should be used official name Shusha. Tag: Visual edit |
Undid revision 1213883134 by Sword313 (talk) why? Tag: Undo |
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{{Short description|City in Azerbaijan}} |
{{Short description|City in Azerbaijan}} |
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{{Other uses}} |
{{Other uses}} |
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{{Redirect-distinguish|Shushi|Sushi|Xuxa}}{{pp-extended|small=yes}} |
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{{pp-move-indef}} |
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{{pp-semi|small=yes}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}} |
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}} |
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{{Infobox settlement |
{{Infobox settlement |
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| name = Shusha / Shushi |
| name = Shusha / Shushi |
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| native_name = {{lang-az|Şuşa}}<br/>{{lang-hy|Շուշի}} |
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| other_name = {{lang-az|Şuşa|italic=no}} / {{lang-hy|Շուշի}} |
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| settlement_type = [[City]] |
| settlement_type = [[City]] |
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| image_skyline = |
| image_skyline = ShushaCollection2021.jpg |
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| image_caption = Landmarks of Shusha, from top left:<br />[[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]] • [[Yukhari Govhar Agha Mosque]]<br />[[Shusha fortress]] • Shusha mountains<br />[[House of Mehmandarovs]] • City center<br />Shusha skyline • [[House of Khurshidbanu Natavan]] |
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| image_alt = |
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| pushpin_map = Azerbaijan#Karabakh |
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| image_caption = Landmarks of Shusha, from top left:<br />[[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]] • [[Yukhari Govhar Agha Mosque]]<br />[[Shusha fortress]] • National Gallery<br />History Museum • Central park<br />Shusha skyline • [[House of Khurshidbanu Natavan]] |
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| coordinates = {{Coord|39|45|30|N|46|44|54|E|type:city(2039700)_region:AZ|display=inline,title}} |
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| pushpin_map = Azerbaijan#Republic of Artsakh |
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| pushpin_mapsize = |
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| coordinates = {{Coord|39|45.5|N|46|44.9|E|type:city(2039700)_region:AZ_source:dewiki|display=inline,title}} |
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| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]] |
| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]] |
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| subdivision_name = {{flag|Azerbaijan}} |
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| subdivision_name = {{flag|Azerbaijan}} <br> {{flag|Artsakh}} (claimed)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://armenpress.am/arm/news/1044795.html|title=Արցախի տարածքները համարվում են օկուպացված Ադրբեջանի կողմից. ԱՀ ԱԺ հայտարարությունը|date=1 March 2021|website=armenpress.am|language=hy|trans-title=The territories of the Artsakh Republic, which have been under the control of Azerbaijan so far, are considered to be occupied by the Republic of Azerbaijan|access-date=7 September 2021|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307040659/https://armenpress.am/arm/news/1044795.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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| subdivision_type1 = [[ |
| subdivision_type1 = [[Economic regions of Azerbaijan|Region]] |
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| subdivision_name1 = [[ |
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karabakh Economic Region|Karabakh]] |
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| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of Azerbaijan|District]] |
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| subdivision_name2 = [[Shusha District|Shusha]] |
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| established_title = Founded |
| established_title = Founded |
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| government_type = |
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| leader_party1 = |
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| leader_title1 = [[Mayor]] |
| leader_title1 = [[Mayor]] |
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| leader_name1 = [[Bayram Safarov]] |
| leader_name1 = [[Bayram Safarov]] |
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| population_footnotes = <ref name="2015 pop"/> |
| population_footnotes = <ref name="2015 pop"/> |
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| population_total = 4,064 |
| population_total = 4,064 |
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| population_demonym = Şuşalı ("Shushaly"; in [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani |
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| population_density_km2 = |
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]])<br />Շուշեցի ("Shushets'i"; in [[Armenian language|Armenian]]) |
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| population_demonyms = |
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| timezone = [[Azerbaijan Time|AZT]] |
| timezone = [[Azerbaijan Time|AZT]] |
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| utc_offset = +4 |
| utc_offset = +4 |
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| postal_code_type = |
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| postal_code = |
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| iso_code = AZ-SUS |
| iso_code = AZ-SUS |
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| registration_plate = 58 AZ |
| registration_plate = 58 AZ |
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| website = {{URL|shusha-ih.gov.az}} |
| website = {{URL|shusha-ih.gov.az}} |
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}} |
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'''Shusha''' ({{lang-az|Şuşa}}, {{small|{{Audio|Az-Shusha.ogg|(listen)|help=no}}}}) or '''Shushi''' ({{lang-hy|Շուշի}}) is a city in [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] and the centre of the region's [[Shusha District]]. Situated at an altitude of 1,400–1,800 metres (4,600–5,900 ft) in the [[Karabakh]] mountains, the city was a mountain resort in the [[Soviet Union|Soviet era]]. |
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'''Shusha''' ({{lang-az|Şuşa}}, {{small|{{Audio|Az-Shusha.ogg|(listen)|help=no}}}}) or '''Shushi''' ({{lang-hy|Շուշի}}) is a city in [[Azerbaijan]], in the region of [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]. Situated at an altitude of 1,400–1,800 metres (4,600–5,900 ft) in the [[Karabakh]] mountains, the city was a mountain resort in the [[Soviet Union|Soviet era]]. |
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The plateau was the site of a fortress in the Armenian [[Melikdoms of Karabakh#Autonomy|Principality of Varanda]] during the [[Middle Ages]] and through the 18th century.<ref name="Bournoutian, George A 2001, page 133">{{Cite book|last=Bournoutian|first=George A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45136635|title=Armenians and Russia, 1626-1796 : a documentary record|date=2001|publisher=Mazda Publishers|isbn=1-56859-132-2|location=Costa Mesa, Calif.|pages=133|chapter=Kekhva Chelebi's Report to the Collegium of [Russian] Foreign Affairs (17 December 1725)|oclc=45136635|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907165519/https://www.worldcat.org/title/armenians-and-russia-1626-1796-a-documentary-record/oclc/45136635|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Krunk Hayots Ashkharhi 1863. p. 14">Krunk Hayots Ashkharhin. 8 (1863): p. 622, cited in {{Cite book|last=Магалян|first=Артак|url=https://iarex.ru/books/book30.pdf|title=Русский Сборник Исследования По Истории России|work=|publisher=Модест Колеров|year=2010|isbn=978-5-91150-034-4|editor-last=Айрапетов|editor-first=О. Р.|volume=VIII|pages=13–14|trans-title=|chapter=Арцахские меликства и возникновение Карабахского ханства|trans-chapter=The melikates of Artsakh and the emergence of the Karabakh Khanate|quote=And here is a review of these events in the Armenian press of the mid-19th century: 'Shahnazar, Melik of Varanda, fearing the alliance between the Melik of Charaberd Adam and the Melik of Gyulistan Hovsep, became friends with Panah Khan and gave him his settlement, the fortress of Shusha, as well as his daughter (to Panah's son — А. М.) as wife.|editor-last2=Йованович|editor-first2=Мирослав|editor-last3=Колеров|editor-first3=М. А.|editor-last4=Меннинг|editor-first4=Брюс|editor-last5=Чейсти|editor-first5=Пол|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119070219/http://www.iarex.ru/books/book30.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> It was one of the two main Armenian settlements in the [[Transcaucasus]], and the center of the self-governing [[Melikdoms of Karabakh]] until the 1750s.<ref>''Crossroads and Conflict: Security and Foreign Policy in the Caucasus and Central Asia'', By Gary K. Bertsch, Scott A. Jones, Cassady B. Craft, Routledge, 2000, {{ISBN|0-415-92274-7}}, p. 297</ref> The town has religious and strategic importance to Armenians, containing a number of churches, including [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]] and [[Kanach Zham]], and serving (along with the [[Lachin corridor]] to the west) as a land link to [[Armenia]].<ref>Edward Walker, "No War, No Peace in the Caucasus: Contested Sovereignty in Chechnya, Abkhazia, and Karabakh," in ''Crossroads and Conflict: Security and Foreign Policy in the Caucasus and Central Asia'', ed. Gary Bertsch. London: Routledge, 1999. pp. 167–171, 172–173, 297.</ref> |
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Most sources date Shusha's establishment to the 1750s by [[Panah Ali Khan]],<ref name="Islam, Ḳarā Bāg̲h̲, p. 573">{{EI2|last=Bosworth|first=C.E.|author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|title=Ḳarā Bāg̲h̲|volume=4 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/kara-bagh-SIM_3886?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=karabagh|page=573}}</ref> founder of the [[Karabakh Khanate]], coinciding with the foundation of [[Shusha fortress|the fortress of Shusha]]. Some attribute this to an alliance between Panah Ali Khan and [[Melik Shahnazar II|Melik Shahnazar]], the local Armenian prince ({{lang|hy|[[melik]]}}) of [[Melikdom of Varanda|Varanda]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Raffi |author1-link=Raffi (novelist) |chapter=The Five Melikdoms of Karabagh |title=The Adventures of Hovsep Emin |date=1918 |location=Calcutta |page=335 |url=http://www.globalarmenianheritage-adic.fr/0en/6history/a_d/arstsakh_texte.htm |access-date=22 September 2021 |quote=Shahnazar needed an ally, and he found one ready to his hand in the Jevanshir ... the two constructed a fort on the banks of the river Karkar as quickly as they could in the intervals of fighting the four Meliks. Shahnazar laid the foundation stone, and the fortress was completed in 1752, the people of the village of Shoshi were brought to live there, and it was named Shoshi or Shushi fortress |archive-date=26 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926100703/http://www.globalarmenianheritage-adic.fr/0en/6history/a_d/arstsakh_texte.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In these accounts, the name of the town originated from a nearby Armenian village called [[Shosh, Nagorno-Karabakh|Shosh or Shushikent]] (see {{section link||Etymology}} for alternative explanations).<ref name="Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary 1890–1907">{{cite book|last=Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary|title=Shusha|year=1890–1907|location=St Petersburg |url=https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%A1%D0%91%D0%95/%D0%A8%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B0 |access-date=2013-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516173126/http://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%A1%D0%91%D0%95/%D0%A8%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B0 |archive-date=2013-05-16|url-status=live|quote=Shusha was founded in 1752 by Panakh-Ali-bek and got its name from the village of Shushikent, located not far away and existing to this day.}}</ref> Conversely, some sources describe Shusha as an important center within the self-governing Armenian [[melikdoms of Karabakh]] in the 1720s,{{sfn|Walker|2000|p=297}} and others say the plateau was already the site of an Armenian fortification.<ref name="Krunk Hayots Ashkharhi 1863. p. 14">Krunk Hayots Ashkharhin. 8 (1863): p. 622, cited in {{Cite book|last=Магалян|first=Артак|url=https://iarex.ru/books/book30.pdf|title=Русский Сборник Исследования По Истории России|publisher=Модест Колеров|year=2010|isbn=978-5-91150-034-4|editor-last=Айрапетов|editor-first=О. Р.|volume=VIII|pages=13–14|trans-title=|chapter=Арцахские меликства и возникновение Карабахского ханства|trans-chapter=The melikates of Artsakh and the emergence of the Karabakh Khanate|quote=Shahnazar, Melik of Varanda, fearing the alliance between the Melik of Charaberd Adam and the Melik of Gyulistan Hovsep, became friends with Panah Khan and gave him his settlement, the fortress of Shusha, as well as his daughter as wife.|editor-last2=Йованович|editor-first2=Мирослав|editor-last3=Колеров|editor-first3=М. А.|editor-last4=Меннинг|editor-first4=Брюс|editor-last5=Чейсти|editor-first5=Пол|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119070219/http://www.iarex.ru/books/book30.pdf |archive-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> From the mid-18th century to 1822, Shusha was the capital of the Karabakh Khanate. The town became one of the cultural centers of the [[South Caucasus]] after the [[Russo-Persian Wars|Russian conquest of the Caucasus region]] from [[Qajar Iran]] in the first half of the 19th century.<ref>Timothy C. Dowling [https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&dq=russo+persian+war+1804-1813&pg=PA728 ''Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626144341/https://books.google.nl/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728&dq=russo+persian+war+1804-1813&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=QnOXVJXpCcz7UPevhPAK&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=russo%20persian%20war%201804-1813&f=false |date=2015-06-26 }} pp 728 ABC-CLIO, 2 dec. 2014 {{ISBN|1598849484}}</ref> Over the course of the 19th century, the town grew in size to become a city, and was home to many Armenian and Azerbaijani intellectuals, poets, writers and musicians (including Azerbaijani [[ashik]]s, [[mugham]] singers and [[Komuz|kobuz]] players).<ref>"Azerbaijan" (2007) In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved February 3, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-44296 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614135738/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-44296 |date=2006-06-14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Suny |first =Ronald|title=Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_B2W1YOG3N10C |publisher=DIANE Publishing |year=1996 |page=108 |isbn=0788128132}}</ref> |
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Throughout modern history, the city |
The town has religious, cultural and strategic importance to both groups. Shusha is often considered the cradle of Azerbaijan's music and poetry, and one of the leading centres of the [[Culture of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijani culture]].{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p= 189}}<ref name="Mattew O 2004">Mattew O'Brien. ''Uzeir Hajibeyov and His Role in the Development of Musical Life in Azerbaijan''. – Routledge, 2004. – С. 211. – {{ISBN|0-415-30219-6}}, 9780415302197</ref> Shusha also contains a number of [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolic]] churches, including [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]] and [[Kanach Zham]], and serves as a land link between Nagorno-Karabakh and [[Armenia]], via the [[Lachin corridor]] to the west.{{sfn|Walker|2000|pp= 167–171, 172–173, 297}} Throughout modern history, the city fostered a mixed Armenian–Azerbaijani population. The first available demographic information about the city in 1823 suggests the city had an Azerbaijani majority.<ref name="Tbilisi 1866"/> The Armenian inhabitants of the city steadily grew over time to constitute a majority of the city's population until the [[Shusha massacre]] in 1920, in which the Armenian half of the city was destroyed by [[Azerbaijanis|Azerbaijani]] forces, resulting in the death or expulsion of the [[Armenians|Armenian]] population, up to 20,000 people.<ref name="Hovan">{{cite book |last1=Hovannisian |first1=Richard G. |author-link=Richard G. Hovannisian |title=The Republic of Armenia, Volume III: From London to Sèvres, February - August 1920 |date=1996 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0520088034 |url=http://dspace.nplg.gov.ge/handle/1234/228261 |page=152 |quote=The chief of police, Avetis Ter-Ghukasian, was turned into a human torch, and many intellectuals, including Bolshevik Alexandre Dsaturian, were among the 500 Armenian victims. |access-date=23 September 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927023414/https://dspace.nplg.gov.ge/handle/1234/228261 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=202}}<ref name="nesl" /> |
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After the [[Battle of Shusha (1992)|capture of Shusha]] in 1992 by Armenian forces during [[First Nagorno-Karabakh War]], the city's Azerbaijani population |
The city has suffered significant destruction and depopulation during the [[Nagorno-Karabakh conflict]]. After the [[Battle of Shusha (1992)|capture of Shusha]] in 1992 by Armenian forces during [[First Nagorno-Karabakh War]], the city's Azerbaijani population fled, and most of the city was destroyed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Muth |first1=Sebastian |title=Conflict, Exclusion and Dissent in the Linguistic Landscape |date=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-42627-7 |chapter=Language Removal, Commodification and the Negotiation of Cultural Identity in Nagorno-Karabakh}}</ref> Between May 1992 and November 2020, Shusha was under the ''[[de facto]]'' control of the [[Political status of Nagorno-Karabakh|breakaway]] [[Republic of Artsakh]] and administered as the centre of its [[Shushi Province]]. On 8 November 2020, Azerbaijani forces retook the city during the [[Second Nagorno-Karabakh War]] following a [[Battle of Shusha (2020)|three-day long battle]].<ref name="confirmation">{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/11/09/europe/nagorno-karabakh-shusha-armenia-azerbaijan-russia-intl/index.html |title=Azerbaijan, Armenia and Russia sign peace deal over Nagorno-Karabakh |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=10 November 2020 |website=edition.cnn.com |publisher=[[CNN]] |access-date=15 November 2020 |url-status=live |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109192950/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/11/09/europe/nagorno-karabakh-shusha-armenia-azerbaijan-russia-intl/index.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Президент Арцаха прокомментировал мир с Азербайджаном|url=https://www.mk.ru/politics/2020/11/10/prezident-arcakha-prokommentiroval-mir-s-azerbaydzhanom.html|access-date=2020-11-11|website=www.mk.ru|date=10 November 2020 |language=ru|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110062415/https://www.mk.ru/politics/2020/11/10/prezident-arcakha-prokommentiroval-mir-s-azerbaydzhanom.html|archive-date=10 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> The Armenian population of the city fled, and multiple reports emerged that the Armenian cultural heritage of the city was being destroyed.<ref>{{cite web|author1= Lori Khatchadourian|author2= Ian Lindsay|author3= [[Adam T. Smith]]|title= Caucasus Heritage Watch: Monitoring Report #1|date= June 2021|publisher= Cornell Institute of Archaeology and Material Studies: [[Cornell University]]|page= 19|url= https://indd.adobe.com/view/29f1209a-86e5-45a6-a53e-974eda2177b6|access-date= November 4, 2021|quote= In sum, there are real and present threats to the integrity of the heritage landscape of Nagorno Karabakh that result from a range of factors from development work undertaken without sufficient attention to heritage sites to intentional acts against Armenian monuments.|archive-date= 7 July 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210707223114/https://indd.adobe.com/view/29f1209a-86e5-45a6-a53e-974eda2177b6|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=16 December 2020|title=Azerbaijan: Attack on Church Possible War Crime|website=[[Human Rights Watch]]|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/12/16/azerbaijan-attack-church-possible-war-crime|access-date=6 November 2021|archive-date=13 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113125448/https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/12/16/azerbaijan-attack-church-possible-war-crime|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Kucera|first=Joshua|date=7 May 2021|title=Azerbaijan begins controversial renovation of Armenian church|website=[[Eurasianet]] |url=https://eurasianet.org/azerbaijan-begins-controversial-renovation-of-armenian-church|url-status=live|access-date=6 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005113608/https://eurasianet.org/azerbaijan-begins-controversial-renovation-of-armenian-church|archive-date=5 October 2021}}</ref> |
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The Azerbaijani government opened the city to tourists from Azerbaijan in 2022 and plans to start resettling the city in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eurasianet.org/azerbaijan-launches-multi-day-tours-of-shusha|title=Azerbaijan launches multi-day tours of Shusha | Eurasianet|access-date=19 April 2023|archive-date=19 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419081121/https://eurasianet.org/azerbaijan-launches-multi-day-tours-of-shusha|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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== Etymology == |
== Etymology == |
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Several historians believe Shusha derives from the [[Persian language#Early New Persian|New Persian]] ''Shīsha'' ("glass, vessel, bottle, flask").{{sfn|Everett-Heath|2018}}{{sfn|Chkeidze|2001|pages=486-490}} According to the ''Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names'', when Iranian ruler [[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar]] approached the town with his army, he reportedly told |
Several historians believe Shusha derives from the [[Persian language#Early New Persian|New Persian]] ''Shīsha'' ("glass, vessel, bottle, flask").{{sfn|Everett-Heath|2018}}{{sfn|Chkeidze|2001|pages=486-490}} According to the ''Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names'', when Iranian ruler [[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar]] approached the town with his army, he reportedly told the ruler of Karabakh [[Ibrahim Khalil Khan]]: |
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{{ |
{{Blockquote| |
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God is pouring stones on thy head. Sit ye not then in thy fortress of glass. |
God is pouring stones on thy head. Sit ye not then in thy fortress of glass.{{sfn|Everett-Heath|2018}} |
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}} |
}} |
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''Panahabad'' ("City of Panah"), Shusha's previous name, was a tribute to [[Panah Ali Khan]], the first ruler of the [[Karabakh Khanate]].{{sfn|Everett-Heath|2018}} |
''Panahabad'' ("City of Panah"), Shusha's previous name, was a tribute to [[Panah Ali Khan]], the first ruler of the [[Karabakh Khanate]].{{sfn|Everett-Heath|2018}} |
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According to ''[[Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary]]'' the town's name comes from the nearby village [[ |
According to the ''[[Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary]]'', published in the final decades of the [[Russian Empire]], the town's name comes from the nearby village [[Shosh, Nagorno-Karabakh|Shushikent]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/brokgauz_efron/117414/Шуша |title=Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary |access-date=7 September 2021 |archive-date=7 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407170744/https://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/brokgauz_efron/117414/%D0%A8%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B0 |url-status=live }}</ref> (called ''Shosh'' in Armenian), which literally means "Shusha village" in the [[Azerbaijani language]]. Conversely, the Armenian historian [[Leo (historian)|Leo]] (1860–1932) considered it more likely that the village Shosh received its name from the fortress, which he considered the older settlement.<ref name="Shahen">{{cite book|last=Mkrtchyan|first=Shahen|url=https://artsakhlib.am/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Mkrtchyan-Shahen-Lernayin-Karabaghi-hushardzannery-1.pdf|title=Լեռնային Ղարաբաղի պատմա-ճարտարապետական հուշարձանները|date=1980|publisher=Hayastan publishing house|location=Yerevan|page=146|language=hy|trans-title=Historical-architectural monuments of Mountainous Karabakh|chapter=City of Shushi (Շուշի քաղաքը)|access-date=16 December 2020|archive-date=14 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714030926/https://artsakhlib.am/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Mkrtchyan-Shahen-Lernayin-Karabaghi-hushardzannery-1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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According to Armenian sources, Shusha |
According to Armenian sources, the name Shusha most likely derives from the dialectal Armenian word ''shosh''/''shush'' (Armenian: շոշ/շուշ), meaning tree sprout or, figuratively, a high place, first applied either to the adjacent village [[Shosh, Nagorno-Karabakh|Shosh]] or to Shusha itself.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Danielyan|first=Samvel|date=19 February 2021|title=Շուշիի բոլոր անվանումները՝ հայերեն, թե օտարալեզու, հայկական են - Հայտարարում է բանասիրական գիտությունների թեկնածու Արտակ Վարդանյանը|trans-title=All of Shushi's names, Armenian or foreign-language, are Armenian - states Candidate of Philological Sciences Artak Vardanyan|url=https://www.aravot.am/2021/02/20/1172207/ |access-date=2021-03-26|website=www.aravot.am|language=hy|quote=The most reliable version of the etymology of the name of the fortified city of Shushi is that it came from the Artsakh dialect's shosh (tree sprout, high place, height)... The name of the village Shosh, not far from Shushi, obviously also comes from this.|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220092050/https://www.aravot.am/2021/02/20/1172207/}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Vardanyan |first=Artak |date=2021-02-04 |title=ՀԱՅԱՀՈՒՆՉ ՈՒ ՀԱՅԱՇՈՒՆՉ ՇՈՒՇԻ |trans-title=Armenian-sounding and Armenian-breathing Shushi |url=http://language.sci.am/hy/news/hayahownch-ow-hayashownch-showshi.html |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=RA NAA Language Institute named after H. Acharyan |quote=The most reliable version of the etymology of the fortress city of Shushi... is the derivation of the place name from the word ''shosh'' ("tree branch", "high place", "height") of the Artsakh dialect. |archive-date=7 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807102242/http://language.sci.am/hy/news/hayahownch-ow-hayashownch-showshi.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The form ''Shusha'' can also be explained as the genitive form of ''shosh''/''shush'', as ''-a'' or ''-ay'' is a common declensional ending for placenames in pre-modern and dialectal Armenian.<ref name=":1" /> |
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In the first written reference to the settlement in a 15th-century Armenian manuscript, the name is rendered as ''Shushu''.<ref name="Shushu">Khachikyan L. S., (1955), [http://serials.flib.sci.am/openreader/nyut_hay_jogh_patm_6/book/index.html#page/452/mode/2up Memorial records in Armenian manuscripts of 15 c., Part I (1401–1450)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213231250/http://serials.flib.sci.am/openreader/nyut_hay_jogh_patm_6/book/index.html#page/452/mode/2up |date=2014-12-13 }}, Publish. of Academy of Sciences of ArmSSR, p. 384. (in [[Armenian language|Armenian]])</ref> Besides the common Armenian name Shushi, the town has historically been referred to in Armenian by various names, including ''Shoshi/Shushva Berd'', ''Shoshi Sghnakh'', ''Shoshvaghala'', which all mean "Shosh/Shushi Fortress".<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last1=Hakobyan |first1=T. Kh. |title=Hayastani ev harakitsʻ shrjanneri teghanunneri baṛaran |last2=Melik-Bakhshyan |first2=St. T. |last3=Barseghyan |first3=H. Kh. |publisher=Yerevan State University |year=1991 |volume=4 |pages=161 |language=hy |trans-title=Dictionary of toponymy of Armenia and adjacent territories |chapter=Shushi |chapter-url=http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=61&dt=HY_HY&pageNumber=3237 |access-date=16 December 2020 |archive-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119035807/http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=61&dt=HY_HY&pageNumber=3237 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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== History == |
== History == |
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===Foundation=== |
===Foundation=== |
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[[File:Shushi, Kanach zham - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Saint John the Baptist Church ([[Kanach Zham]]), built in 1818.]] |
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[[File:Верхняя мечеть Гевхар-аги06.jpg|thumb|[[Yukhari Govhar Agha Mosque]], completed in 1885.]] |
[[File:Верхняя мечеть Гевхар-аги06.jpg|thumb|[[Yukhari Govhar Agha Mosque]], completed in 1885.]] |
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A settlement at Shusha is first recorded in a 15th-century illustrated Armenian [[gospel]] kept on display at Yerevan's [[Matenadaran]] (archival number 8211), which mentions a "Shushu village". The gospel was written by the scribe and artist Ter-Manuel in 1428, and is the earliest known artifact from the town.<ref>Boris Baratov. ''A Journey to Karabakh''. Moscow, 1998, pp. 32–33.</ref><ref>Hravard Hakobian. ''Miniatures of [[Artsakh (historic province)|Artsakh]] and [[Utik]] 13th–14th centuries''. Yerevan, 1989, p. 25.</ref><ref>Bishop Makar Barkhudariants, ''Patmutiun Aghvanits ashkhari'' [History of the country of Aghvank], vol. 1, Vagharshapat, 1902, p. 384.</ref><ref>[[Bagrat Ulubabyan|Ulubabyan B. A.]], "[http://lraber.asj-oa.am/3278/1/95.pdf The Principality of Lower Khachen, 14th-15th centuries]." {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104084103/http://lraber.asj-oa.am/3278/1/95.pdf |date=2013-11-04 }}, ''[[Patma-Banasirakan Handes]]'' 11 (1972): pp. 95–108, here p. 105.</ref><ref name="Shushu"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Barkhudariants |first=Bishop Makar |date=1895 |title=Artsakh |url=https://artsakhlib.am/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Barkhudaryan-Makar-Artsakh.pdf |location=Baku |publisher=Aror publishing house |page=137 |chapter=The City of Shushi (Շուշի քաղաք) |language=hy |access-date=16 December 2020 |archive-date=9 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509062031/https://artsakhlib.am/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Barkhudaryan-Makar-Artsakh.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[File:Kanach Zham2018-12.jpg|thumb|Saint John the Baptist Church ([[Kanach Zham]]), built in 1818, seen in a photo taken in 2018.]] |
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Shusha as a settlement is first mentioned as "Shushu village" in a 15th-century illuminated Armenian [[Gospel]] kept on display at Yerevan's [[Matenadaran]] (archival number 8211), which is the earliest known artifact from the town. The Gospel was illuminated in Shusha by the scribe and artist Ter-Manuel in 1428.<ref>Boris Baratov. ''A Journey to Karabakh''. Moscow, 1998, pp. 32–33.</ref><ref>Hravard Hakobian. ''Miniatures of [[Artsakh (historic province)|Artsakh]] and [[Utik]] 13th–14th centuries''. Yerevan, 1989, p. 25.</ref><ref>Bishop Makar Barkhudariants, ''Patmutiun Aghvanits ashkhari'' [History of the country of Aghvank], vol. 1, Vagharshapat, 1902, p. 384.</ref><ref>[[Bagrat Ulubabyan|Ulubabyan B. A.]], "[http://lraber.asj-oa.am/3278/1/95.pdf The Principality of Lower Khachen, 14th-15th centuries]." {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104084103/http://lraber.asj-oa.am/3278/1/95.pdf |date=2013-11-04 }}, ''[[Patma-Banasirakan Handes]]'' 11 (1972): pp. 95–108, here p. 105.</ref><ref name="Shushu"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Barkhudariants |first=Bishop Makar |date=1895 |title=Artsakh |url=https://artsakhlib.am/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Barkhudaryan-Makar-Artsakh.pdf |location=Baku |publisher=Aror publishing house |page=137 |chapter=The City of Shushi (Շուշի քաղաք) |language=hy |access-date=16 December 2020 |archive-date=9 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509062031/https://artsakhlib.am/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Barkhudaryan-Makar-Artsakh.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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According to several sources, a settlement called |
Some Armenian sources identify Shusha with a fortress called ''Shikakʻar'' or ''Kʻaraglukh'', where the 9th-century Armenian prince [[Sahl Smbatean]] is said to have defeated an invading Arab army.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1982 |title=Shushi |encyclopedia=[[Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia]] |last1=Hasratyan |first1=M. |last2=Ulubabyan |first2=B. |editor-last=Hambardzumyan |editor-first=Viktor |url=https://hy.wikisource.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BB:%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%8D%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6_(Soviet_Armenian_Encyclopedia)_8.djvu/599 |location=Yerevan |volume=8 |pages=599–601 |language=hy |access-date=26 June 2022 |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215195737/https://hy.wikisource.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BB:%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%8D%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6_(Soviet_Armenian_Encyclopedia)_8.djvu/599 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to several sources, a settlement called Shosh served as an ancient fortress in the Armenian principality of Varanda, and had traditionally belonged to the Melik-Shahnazarian princely dynasty.<ref name="Krunk Hayots Ashkharhi 1863. p. 14"/><ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite book|last=Цагарели |first=А. А. |url=http://dspace.nplg.gov.ge/bitstream/1234/136367/4/Gramoti_Tom_%20I.pdf|title=Грамоты и другие исторические документы XVIII столетия относящиеся к Грузии : Том I|year=1891|location=Saint Petersburg|pages=434–435|trans-title=Letters and other historical documents of the 18th century regarding Georgia, Vol. 1|quote=когдажъ персицкаго шаха нестало, то сь их же стороны одинъ человекъ, закону магометанскаго и отъ народа жаванширскаго, принялъ силу; среди того правления, Хамсы, состоитъ старинная крепость, которая имъ обманомъ взята...|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411184552/http://dspace.nplg.gov.ge/bitstream/1234/136367/4/Gramoti_Tom_%20I.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="iarex.ru">Армяно-русские отношения в XVIII веке. Т. IV. С. 212, as cited in {{Cite book|last=Магалян|first=Артак|url=https://iarex.ru/books/book30.pdf|title=Русский Сборник Исследования По Истории России|publisher=Модест Колеров|year=2010|isbn=978-5-91150-034-4|editor-last=Айрапетов|editor-first=О. Р.|volume=VIII|pages=13–14|trans-title=Russian collection of research on the history of Russia|chapter=Арцахские меликства и возникновение Карабахского ханства|trans-chapter=The melikates of Artsakh and the emergence of the Karabakh Khanate|quote=In [Archbishop Hovsep] Argutyan's letter to General Pavel Potemkin dated January 28, 1783, we read: 'The council of Melik Adam, Melik Hovsep and Melik Esai was united, but among them was the schismatic Melik Shahnazar, who was a cunning man, faithless and unfit for good deeds, treacherous and traitorous towards his brothers. A certain tribe called Javanshir comes to Karabakh, like homeless wanderers on the land, doing robbery and wandering in tents, the leader of which was named Panah Khan. Melik Shahnazar, cunning in his evil deeds, called him to help him, obeyed him of his own free will and handed over his fortress.'|editor-last2=Йованович|editor-first2=Мирослав|editor-last3=Колеров|editor-first3=М. А.|editor-last4=Меннинг|editor-first4=Брюс|editor-last5=Чейсти|editor-first5=Пол|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119070219/http://www.iarex.ru/books/book30.pdf |archive-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> The fortress was described as a strategic stronghold in one of the Eastern Armenian military districts, called ''sghnakhs'', playing a key role in the Armenian commander [[Avan Yuzbashi]]'s campaign against Ottoman forces during their incursion into of the South Caucasus in the 1720s and 1730s.<ref>Bournoutian, George A. ''Armenians and Russia, 1626-1796: A Documentary Record''. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2001, Armenian Military Activities in Karabakh and Ghapan, pages 402-413</ref> Armenian historian and Shusha native [[Ashot Hovhannisian]] wrote that the fortress walls must have been built by Avan Yuzbashi in 1724, if not earlier.<ref name="Shahen" /> |
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Kehva Chelebi, an early Armenian national activist who maintained correspondence between the [[meliks]] of [[Nagorno Karabakh|Karabakh]] and the Russian authorities, in a 1725 report describes Shusha as a town and a fort: |
Kehva Chelebi, an early Armenian national activist who maintained correspondence between the [[meliks]] of [[Nagorno Karabakh|Karabakh]] and the Russian authorities, in a 1725 report describes Shusha as a town and a fort: |
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{{Cquote| … ''The nearest Armenian stronghold … was Shushi. Shushi is four days' distance from Shemakhi. Armed Armenians under the command of Avan Yuzbashi guard it. After meeting with the Armenian leaders, including the Patriarch, they returned to Derbent via Shemakhi. Rocky mountains surround the town of Shushi. The number of the armed Armenians has not been determined. There are rumors that the Armenians have defeated the Turks in a number of skirmishes in Karabagh'' …<ref name="Bournoutian, George A 2001, page 133"/>}} |
{{Cquote| … ''The nearest Armenian stronghold … was Shushi. Shushi is four days' distance from Shemakhi. Armed Armenians under the command of Avan Yuzbashi guard it. After meeting with the Armenian leaders, including the Patriarch, they returned to Derbent via Shemakhi. Rocky mountains surround the town of Shushi. The number of the armed Armenians has not been determined. There are rumors that the Armenians have defeated the Turks in a number of skirmishes in Karabagh'' …<ref name="Bournoutian, George A 2001, page 133">{{Cite book|last=Bournoutian|first=George A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45136635|title=Armenians and Russia, 1626-1796 : a documentary record|date=2001|publisher=Mazda Publishers|isbn=1-56859-132-2|location=Costa Mesa, Calif.|pages=133|chapter=Kekhva Chelebi's Report to the Collegium of [Russian] Foreign Affairs (17 December 1725)|oclc=45136635|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907165519/https://www.worldcat.org/title/armenians-and-russia-1626-1796-a-documentary-record/oclc/45136635|url-status=live}}</ref>}} |
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19th-century Georgian scholar [[Alexander von Zagareli|Alexander Tsagareli's]] work ''Letters and other historical documents of the 18th century regarding Georgia, Vol. 1'' contains a 1769 letter by Georgian king [[Erekle II]] to Russian diplomat [[Petr Ivanovich Panin|Count P. Panin]], which states that there was "an ancient fortress in the realm of the [[Melikdoms of Karabakh|Khamsa]] [melikdoms]" which was "conquered, through deceit" by "one Muslim man from the [[Javanshir clan|Jevanshir]] tribe."<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The same information about the ancient fortress is confirmed by the Russian field marshal [[Alexander Suvorov]] in a letter to Prince [[Grigory Potemkin]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Нерсисян|first=М. Г.|url=http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XVIII/1760-1780/Suvorov_arm/text.phtml?id=3016|title=А.В. Суворов и русско-армянские отношения в 1770-1780-х годах|publisher=Айастан|year=1981|location=Yerevan|pages=130|trans-title=A. V. Suvorov and Russian-Armenian relations in the 1770s-1780s|chapter=II. Бумаги А. В. Суворова об Армении, Закавказье и Персии - Рапорты А. В. Суворова князю Г. А. Потемкину|trans-chapter=II. A. V. Suvorov's papers about Armenia, Transcaucasian and Persia - A. V. Suvorov's reports to Prince G. A. Potemkin|quote=Мелик Шах-Назар может собрать войска близ 1000 человек; сей предатель своего отечества призвал Панахана, бывшего прежде начальником не знатной части кочующих магометан близ границ карабагских, отдал ему в руки свой крепкий замок Шушикала и учинился ему с его сигнагом покорным.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228232500/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XVIII/1760-1780/Suvorov_arm/text.phtml?id=3016|archive-date=28 February 2009}}</ref><ref>Bournoutian, George A. ''Armenians and Russia, 1626-1796: A Documentary Record''. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2001, pp. 134, 269.</ref> Suvorov writes that the Armenian prince Melik Shahnazar of Varanda surrendered his fortress Shushikala to "certain [[Panah Ali Khan|Panah]]", whom he called a chief of nomadic Muslims living near the Karabakh borders.<ref name=":0" /> When discussing Karabakh and Shusha in the 18th century, the Russian diplomat and historian S. M. Bronevskiy writes in his ''Historical Notes'' that Shusha fortress was a possession of the Melik-Shahnazarian clan, which was given to [[Panah Ali Khan]] in return for aid against the other Armenian [[Melikdoms of Karabakh|meliks]] of Karabakh.<ref>S.M.Bronesvskiy. [http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus9/Bronevskij/frametext32.htm Historical Notes...] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212205415/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus9/Bronevskij/frametext32.htm |date=2009-02-12 }} St. Petersburg,1996. Исторические выписки о сношениях России с Персиею, Грузиею и вообще с горскими народами, в Кавказе обитающими, со времён Ивана Васильевича доныне». СПб. 1996, секция "'''Карабаг'''". Bronesvskiy writes: "Мелик Шахназор призвал к себе на помощь владетеля кочующаго чавонширскаго народа Фона хана и здал ему крепость Шуши."</ref> Russian historian P. G. Butkov (1775–1857) writes that "Shushi village" was given to Panah Ali Khan by the Melik-Shahnazarian prince after they entered into an alliance, and that Panah Ali Khan fortified the village.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Бутков|first=П. Г.|title=Материалы для новой истории Кавказа с 1722 по 1803 год|year=1869|location=Saint Petersburg|pages=|chapter=}} ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ М. к стр. 236. {{cite web|title=Приложение И|url=http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/Butkov1/pril2.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019084130/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/Butkov1/pril2.htm|archive-date=2013-10-19|access-date=2013-11-04}}</ref><ref>Also see Walker Christopher "The Armenian Presence in Mountainous Karabakh" in "Transcaucasian Boundaries" (SOAS/GRC Geopolitics) edited by John Wright, Richard Schofield, Suzanne Goldenberg, 1995 p. 93 ''"South of Khachen lay the small territory of Varanda, originally part of its southern neighbour, Dizak, and only given a separate identity in the early sixteenth century. The ruling family, confirmed in that capacity by Shah Abbas I, was that of the Melik Shahnazarians. In the territory of Varanda lies the modern town of Shushi (or Shusha)"''</ref> The missionary [[Joseph Wolff]] (1795–1862), during his mission in the Middle East, visited "Shushee, in the province of Carabagh, in Armenia Major".<ref>Joseph Wolff. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BdBzJZly7wAC&pg=PA226 Travels and Adventures of the Rev. Joseph Wolff] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907165529/https://books.google.com/books?id=BdBzJZly7wAC&pg=PA226 |date=7 September 2021 }}''. London: Saunders, Otley, and Co., 1861, p. 226.</ref> |
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[[File:Шушинский Ханский Дворец Дочери Хана.jpg|thumb|left|The [[House of Khurshidbanu Natavan|Palace of Khurshidbanu Natavan]], the daughter of the last ruler of [[Karabakh Khanate]], late 19th-early 20th centuries]] |
[[File:Шушинский Ханский Дворец Дочери Хана.jpg|thumb|left|The [[House of Khurshidbanu Natavan|Palace of Khurshidbanu Natavan]], the daughter of the last ruler of [[Karabakh Khanate]], late 19th-early 20th centuries]] |
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[[File:oudSjoesji.jpg|thumb|The Armenian quarters of Shusha – with the [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]] in the background – in the early 20th century, before their [[Shusha pogrom|destruction by Azerbaijani military units in 1920]]]] |
[[File:oudSjoesji.jpg|thumb|The Armenian quarters of Shusha – with the [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]] in the background – in the early 20th century, before their [[Shusha pogrom|destruction by Azerbaijani military units in 1920]]]] |
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Some sources, including [[Mirza Jamal Javanshir]], [[Mirza Adigozal bey]], [[Abbasgulu Bakikhanov]] and [[Mirza Yusuf Nersesov]], attest to the foundation of the town in 1750–1752 (according to other sources, 1756–1757) by Panah Ali Khan ({{reign|1748|1763}}), the founder and the first ruler of the [[Karabakh Khanate]] (1748–1822), which comprised both Lowland and [[Nagorno-Karabakh|Highland Karabakh]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-129462/Azerbaijan|title=Azerbaijan - History, People, & Facts|website=britannica.com|access-date=3 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118105319/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-129462/Azerbaijan|archive-date=18 November 2008|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Atlas">[[Robert H. Hewsen|Hewsen, Robert H.]], ''Armenia: A Historical Atlas''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 155.</ref> The mid-18th century foundation is supported by the second edition of the ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'',<ref name="Islam, Ḳarā Bāg̲h̲, p. 573"/> and the ''Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary''.<ref name="Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary 1890–1907"/> |
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According to Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi (1773–1853), the author of the Persian-language text ''[[Tarikh-e Qarabagh|History of Karabakh]]'',<ref name="Bournoutian George A 1994, p. 72">Bournoutian George A. ''A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-E Qarabagh''. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1994, p. 72. The original text by Mirza Jamal Javanshir calls the village "Shoshi."</ref> one of the most significant chronicles on the history of Karabakh in 18th-19th centuries, the Karabakh nobility assembled to discuss the danger of invasion from Iran and told Panah Ali Khan, "We must build among the impassable mountains such an inviolable and inaccessible fort, so that no strong enemy could take it." Melik Shahnazar of Varanda, who was the first of the Armenian ''meliks'' (dukes) to accept the suzerainty of Panah Ali Khan and who would remain his loyal supporter, suggested a location for the new fortress. Thus, Panahabad-Shusha was founded. |
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According to Mirza Jamal Javanshir, the author of the Persian-language text ''[[Tarikh-e Qarabagh|History of Karabakh]]'',<ref name="Bournoutian George A 1994, p. 72">Bournoutian George A. ''A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-E Qarabagh''. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1994, p. 72. The original text by Mirza Jamal Javanshir calls the village "Shoshi."</ref> one of the most significant chronicles on the history of Karabakh in 18th-19th centuries, the Karabakh nobility assembled to discuss the danger of invasion from Iran and told Panah Ali Khan, "We must build among the impassable mountains such an inviolable and inaccessible fort, so that no strong enemy could take it." Melik Shahnazar of Varanda, who was the first of the Armenian ''meliks'' (dukes) to accept the suzerainty of Panah Ali Khan and who would remain his loyal supporter, suggested a location for the new fortress. Thus, Panahabad-Shusha was founded. |
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According to Mirza Jamal Javanshir, before Panah Ali khan constructed the fortress there were no buildings there and it was used as cropland and pasture by the people of the nearby village of Shoshi.<ref name="Bournoutian George A 1994, p. 72"/><ref name="Mirza Jamal">{{in lang|ru}} [http://zerrspiegel.orientphil.uni-halle.de/t1154.html Mirza Jamal Javanshir Karabagi. The History of Karabakh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070127171633/http://zerrspiegel.orientphil.uni-halle.de/t1154.html |date=2007-01-27 }}.</ref> Panah khan resettled to Shusha the population of Shahbulag and some nearby villages and built strong [[fortifications]].<ref name="Mirza Jamal"/> |
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According to Mirza Jamal Javanshir, before Panah Ali Khan constructed the fortress there were no buildings there and it was used as cropland and pasture by the people of the nearby village of Shoshi.<ref name="Bournoutian George A 1994, p. 72"/><ref name="Mirza Jamal">{{in lang|ru}} [http://zerrspiegel.orientphil.uni-halle.de/t1154.html Mirza Jamal Javanshir Karabagi. The History of Karabakh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070127171633/http://zerrspiegel.orientphil.uni-halle.de/t1154.html |date=2007-01-27 }}.</ref> Panah khan resettled to Shusha the population of Shahbulag and some nearby villages and built strong [[fortifications]].<ref name="Mirza Jamal"/> |
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Another account is presented by [[Raffi (novelist)|Raffi]], an Armenian novelist and historian, in his work ''The Princedoms of Khamsa'', who asserts that the place which Shushi was built on was desolate and uninhabited before Panah-Ali Khan's arrival. He states, "[Panah-Ali Khan and Melik-Shahnazar of Varanda] soon completed the construction (1762) [of the fortress] and moved the Armenian population of the nearby village of Shosh (Շոշ), called also Shoshi, or Shushi into the fortress.″<ref>[[Raffi (novelist)|Raffi]]. ''[http://www.armenianhouse.org/raffi/novels-ru/khamsa/meliks1_14.html The Princedoms of Khamsa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125213914/http://www.armenianhouse.org/raffi/novels-ru/khamsa/meliks1_14.html |date=2009-11-25 }}''.</ref> |
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Another account is presented by [[Raffi (novelist)|Raffi]] (1835–1888), an Armenian novelist and historian, in his work ''The Princedoms of Khamsa'', which asserts that the place where Shushi was built was desolate and uninhabited before Panah Ali Khan's arrival. He states, "[Panah-Ali Khan and Melik-Shahnazar of Varanda] soon completed the construction (1762) [of the fortress] and moved the Armenian population of the nearby village of Shosh (Շոշ), called also Shoshi, or Shushi into the fortress.″<ref>[[Raffi (novelist)|Raffi]]. ''[http://www.armenianhouse.org/raffi/novels-ru/khamsa/meliks1_14.html The Princedoms of Khamsa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125213914/http://www.armenianhouse.org/raffi/novels-ru/khamsa/meliks1_14.html |date=2009-11-25 }}''.</ref> |
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The town was initially named Panahabad, after its founder.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/008/079/682.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930135809/http://www.cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/008/079/682.htm|title=Great Soviet Encyclopedia, "Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast", 3rd edition, Moscow, 1970|archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref><ref name="Bakikhanov">{{Cite web|url=http://vostlit.info/Texts/rus2/Bakihanov/frametext5.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220125707/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus2/Bakihanov/frametext5.htm|title=АББАС-КУЛИ-АГА БАКИХАНОВ->ГЮЛИСТАН-И ИРАМ->ПЕРИОД V|archive-date=20 February 2007|website=vostlit.info}}</ref> During the rule of [[Ibrahim-Khalil khan Javanshir|Ibrahim-Khalil khan]] ({{reign|1763|1806}}), the son of Panah Ali khan, the town received its present name from a nearby village called ''Shushikent'' (literally translating to "village of Shushi" from [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]) or ''Shosh''.<ref name="Atlas"/> |
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===Conflict with the Qajars=== |
===Conflict with the Qajars=== |
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{{See also|Battle of Krtsanisi}} |
{{See also|Battle of Krtsanisi}} |
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[[File: |
[[File:Shusha-genplan.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|19th-century map]] |
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Although Panah Ali |
Although Panah Ali Khan had been in conflict with [[Nader Shah]], the new ruler of Persia, [[Adil Shah]], issued a ''[[firman (decree)]]'' recognizing Panah Ali as the Khan of Karabakh.<ref name="adigozel">Mirza Adigozel-bek, Karabakh-name (1845), Baku, 1950, p. 54</ref> Less than a year after Shusha was founded, the Karabakh Khanate was attacked by [[Mohammad Hassan Khan Qajar]], one of the major claimants to the Iranian throne. During the [[Safavids|Safavid Empire]] Karabakh was for almost two centuries ruled by Ziyad-oglu family of the clan of [[Qajars]] (of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin),<ref>[[Encyclopædia Britannica]], [http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9062092 Qajar Dynasty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907165527/https://academic.eb.com/ |date=7 September 2021 }}, Online Academic Edition, 2007.</ref> and therefore, Muhammed Hassan Khan considered Karabakh his hereditary estate.<ref name="Mirza Jamal"/><ref name="Bakikhanov">{{Cite web |title=АББАС-КУЛИ-АГА БАКИХАНОВ->ГЮЛИСТАН-И ИРАМ->ПЕРИОД V |url=http://vostlit.info/Texts/rus2/Bakihanov/frametext5.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220125707/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus2/Bakihanov/frametext5.htm |archive-date=20 February 2007 |website=vostlit.info}}</ref><ref name="Adigezal">{{Cite web|url=http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus14/Karabag_name/text1.phtml?id=945|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821124203/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus14/Karabag_name/text1.phtml?id=945|title=МИРЗА АДИГЕЗАЛЬ-БЕК->КАРАБАГ-НАМЕ->ГЛАВЫ 1-6|archive-date=21 August 2010|website=www.vostlit.info}}</ref><ref>[http://www.iranica.com/articles/v10f3/v10f372.html Encyclopedia Iranica. C. Edmund Bosworth. Ganja.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311021034/http://www.iranica.com/articles/v10f3/v10f372.html |date=2007-03-11 }}</ref>{{verification needed|date=November 2017}} |
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Muhammed Hassan |
Muhammed Hassan Khan besieged Shusha (Panahabad at that time) but soon had to retreat because of the attack on his territory by his major opponent, [[Karim Khan|Karim Khan Zand]]. His retreat was so hasty that he even left his cannons under the walls of Shusha fortress. Panah Ali Khan counterattacked the retreating troops of Mohammad Hassan khan and even briefly took [[Ardabil]] across the [[Aras River]]. |
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In 1756 (or 1759), Shusha and the Karabakh Khanate underwent a new attack from [[Fath-Ali Khan Afshar]], ruler of [[Urmia]]. With his 30,000 strong army, |
In 1756 (or 1759), Shusha and the Karabakh Khanate underwent a new attack from [[Fath-Ali Khan Afshar]], ruler of [[Urmia]]. With his 30,000 strong army, Fath-Ali Khan also managed to gain support from the ''meliks'' of Jraberd and Talish (Gulistan), however, Melik Shahnazar of Varanda continued to support Panah Ali Khan. The Siege of Shusha lasted for six months and Fath-Ali Khan eventually had to retreat. |
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When |
When Karim Khan Zand took control of much of Iran, he forced Panah Ali Khan to come to [[Shiraz]] (capital of Zand-ruled Iran), where he died as a hostage.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Bournoutian |first=George |title=EBRAHÈM KHALÈL KHAN JAVANSHER |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica |access-date=2011-11-04 |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ebrahim-kalil-khan-javansir |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117023256/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ebrahim-kalil-khan-javansir |archive-date=2011-11-17 |url-status=live }}</ref> Panah Ali Khan's son Ibrahim Khalil Khan was sent back to Karabakh as governor.<ref name="tapper114">{{cite book |last=[[Richard Tapper|Tapper]] |first=Richard|title=Frontier Nomads of Iran: A Political and Social History of the Shahsevan |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1997 |pages=114–115 |isbn=0-521-47340-3}}</ref> Under him, the Karabakh Khanate became one of the strongest state formations{{Clarify|date=December 2021}} and Shusha grew. According to travellers who visited Shusha at the end of 18th-early 19th centuries the town had about 2,000 houses and approximately 10,000 population.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} |
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[[File: |
[[File:Fortress of Shusha.jpg|thumb|left|Shusha fortress in 2021]] |
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In summer 1795, Shusha was subjected to a major attack by [[Mohammad Khan Qajar|Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar]], son of Mohammad Hassan |
In summer 1795, Shusha was subjected to a major attack by [[Mohammad Khan Qajar|Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar]], son of Mohammad Hassan Khan who had attacked Shusha in 1752. Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar's goal was to end with the feudal fragmentation and to restore the old Safavid State in Iran.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} By early 1795, he had already secured mainland Iran and was directly afterwards poised to bring the entire [[Caucasus]] region back within the Iranian domains.{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2011|p=409}} For this purpose he also wanted to proclaim himself Shah of Iran. However, according to the Safavid tradition, the shah had to take control over the whole of South Caucasus and [[Dagestan]] before his coronation.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} Therefore, the Karabakh Khanate and its fortified capital Shusha were the first and major obstacle to achieve these ends. |
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Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar besieged Shusha with the centre part of a 70,000-strong army, after having crossed the [[Aras River]].<ref name="ReferenceW">Donald Rayfield. [https://books.google. |
Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar besieged Shusha with the centre part of a 70,000-strong army, after having crossed the [[Aras River]].<ref name="ReferenceW">Donald Rayfield. [https://books.google.com/books?id=PxQpmg_JIpwC&dq=agha+mohammad+khan+conquer+georgia&pg=PA255 ''Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706185522/https://books.google.nl/books?id=PxQpmg_JIpwC&pg=PA255&dq=agha+mohammad+khan+conquer+georgia&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=uxRYVe67HaWQ7AbL_YOADw&ved=0CEYQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=agha%20mohammad%20khan%20conquer%20georgia&f=false |date=2015-07-06 }} Reaktion Books, 15 feb. 2013 {{ISBN|1780230702}} p 255</ref> The right and left wings were sent to resubjugate [[Shirvan Khanate|Shirvan]]-[[Derbent khanate|Dagestan]] and [[Erivan Khanate|Erivan]] respectively. Agha Mohammad Khan himself led the centre part of the main army, besieging Shusha between 8 July and 9 August 1795.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=128}} Ibrahim Khalil khan mobilized the population for a long-term defense. The number of militia in Shusha reached 15,000.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Women fought together with men.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} The Armenian population of Karabakh also actively participated in this struggle against the Iranians and fought side by side with the Muslim population, jointly organizing ambushes in the mountains and forests.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} |
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The siege lasted for 33 days. Not being able to capture Shusha, Agha Mohammad Khan |
The siege lasted for 33 days. Not being able to capture Shusha, Agha Mohammad Khan ceased the siege{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=126}} [[Battle of Krtsanisi|and advanced to Tiflis]] (present-day [[Tbilisi]]), which despite desperate resistance was occupied and exposed to unprecedented destruction. Ibrahim Khalil Khan eventually surrendered to Mohammad Khan after negotiations, including the paying of regular tribute and to surrender hostages, although the Qajar forces were still denied entrance to Shusha.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=126}} Since the main objective was Georgia, Mohammad Khan was willing to have Karabakh secured by this agreement for now, for he and his army subsequently moved further.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=126}} |
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In 1797, Agha Mohammad Shah Qajar, having successfully resubjugated Georgia and the wider Caucasus and having declared himself shah, decided to carry out a second attack on Karabakh. |
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In 1797, Agha Mohammad Shah Qajar, having successfully re-subjugated Georgia and the wider Caucasus, and had by that time already managed to declare himself shah conform the same traditions [[Nader Shah]] had done as well in the nearby [[Mughan plain]],<ref name="books.google.nl">[[Michael Axworthy]]. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=k9HyyYrPIGgC&pg=PT192&dq=agha+mohammad+khan+conquer+georgia&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=SghYVajbGbKQ7AbrloPADQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAzgU#v=onepage&q=agha%20mohammad%20khan%20conquer%20georgia&f=false ''Iran: Empire of the Mind: A History from Zoroaster to the Present Day''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610090124/https://books.google.nl/books?id=k9HyyYrPIGgC&pg=PT192&dq=agha+mohammad+khan+conquer+georgia&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=SghYVajbGbKQ7AbrloPADQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAzgU#v=onepage&q=agha%20mohammad%20khan%20conquer%20georgia&f=false |date=2015-06-10 }} Penguin UK, 6 nov. 2008 {{ISBN|0141903414}}</ref> (nowadays shared between the Republic of Azerbaijan and Iran) decided to carry out a second attack on Karabakh. |
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Trying to avenge |
Trying to avenge his previous humiliating defeat, Agha Mohammad Shah devastated the surrounding villages near Shusha. The population had not recovered from the previous 1795 attack and also suffered from a serious drought which lasted for three years. The artillery of the attackers also inflicted serious losses on the city defenders. Thus, in 1797 Agha Mohammad Shah succeeded in seizing Shusha and Ibrahim Khalil Khan had to flee to [[Dagestan]]. |
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However, several days after the seizure of Shusha, Agha Mohammad Khan was killed in mysterious circumstances by his bodyguards in the town.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=329}} Ibrahim Khalil |
However, several days after the seizure of Shusha, Agha Mohammad Khan was killed in mysterious circumstances by his bodyguards in the town.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=329}} Ibrahim Khalil Khan returned to Shusha and ordered that the shah's body be honourably buried until further instructions from the nephew and heir of Agha Mohammad Shah, Baba Khan, who soon assumed the title of [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|Fath-Ali Shah]].<ref name="Encyclopædia Iranica 1997">{{cite web | title=EBRĀHĪM ḴALĪL KHAN JAVĀNŠĪR – Encyclopaedia Iranica | website=Encyclopædia Iranica | date=1997-12-15 | url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ebrahim-kalil-khan-javansir | access-date=2016-03-15 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000830/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ebrahim-kalil-khan-javansir | archive-date=2016-03-04 | url-status=live }}</ref> Ibrahim Khan, in order to maintain peaceful relations with Tehran and retain his position as the Khan of Karabakh, gave his daughter Agha Begom, known as Aghabaji, as one of the wives of the new shah.<ref name="Encyclopædia Iranica 1997" /> |
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===Within the Russian Empire=== |
===Within the Russian Empire=== |
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From the early 19th century, [[Russian Empire|Russian]] ambitions in the [[Caucasus]] to increase its territories at the expense of neighbouring [[Qajar Iran]] and [[Ottoman Turkey]] began to rise. Following the annexation of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] in 1801, some of the khanates |
From the early 19th century, [[Russian Empire|Russian]] ambitions in the [[Caucasus]] to increase its territories at the expense of neighbouring [[Qajar Iran]] and [[Ottoman Turkey]] began to rise. Following the annexation of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] in 1801, some of the khanates agreed to become Russian protectorates in the immediate years afterwards.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} In 1804, the Russian general [[Pavel Tsitsianov]] directly [[Battle of Ganja (1804)|invaded]] [[Qajar Iran]], initiating the [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813]]. Amidst the war, in 1805, an agreement was made between the [[Karabakh Khanate]] and the Russian Empire on the transfer of the Karabakh Khanate to Russia during the war, but was not fully realized, as both parties were still at war and the Russians were unable to consolidate any effective control over Karabakh.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} |
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[[File:Ruins of the Govheraga Mosque, XVIII c..jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Ashaghi Govhar Agha Mosque]], opened in 1876]] |
[[File:Ruins of the Govheraga Mosque, XVIII c..jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Ashaghi Govhar Agha Mosque]], opened in 1876]] |
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The Russian Empire consolidated its power in the Karabakh Khanate following the [[Treaty of Gulistan]] in 1813, when Iran was forced to recognize |
The Russian Empire consolidated its power in the Karabakh Khanate following the [[Treaty of Gulistan]] in 1813, when Iran was forced to recognize the Karabakh Khanate,<ref>[[Arif Yunus|Yunus, Arif]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=kD4jAQAAIAAJ&q=treaty+of+gulistan+1813+karabakh ''Karabakh: past and present''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304132455/https://books.google.nl/books?id=kD4jAQAAIAAJ&q=treaty+of+gulistan+1813+karabakh&dq=treaty+of+gulistan+1813+karabakh&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBDgeahUKEwin1JjGtfPIAhVGXg8KHcN3Deg |date=2016-03-04 }} Turan Information Agency, 2005. page 29</ref> along most of the other khanates they possessed in the [[Caucasus]], as belonging to [[Russian Empire|Russia]], comprising present-day [[Dagestan]] and most of the modern-day [[Azerbaijan|Republic of Azerbaijan]], while officially ceding Georgia as well, thus irrevocably losing the greater part of its Caucasian territories.<ref>Allen F. Chew. "An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders". Yale University Press, 1967. pp 74.</ref> Absolute consolidation of Russian power over Karabakh and the recently conquered parts of the Caucasus from Iran were confirmed with the outcome of the [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828]] and the ensuing [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] of 1828.<ref>Timothy C. Dowling [https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&dq=russo+persian+war+1804-1813&pg=PA728 ''Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626144341/https://books.google.nl/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728&dq=russo+persian+war+1804-1813&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=QnOXVJXpCcz7UPevhPAK&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=russo%20persian%20war%201804-1813&f=false |date=2015-06-26 }} pp 729-730 ABC-CLIO, 2 dec. 2014. {{ISBN|978-1598849486}}</ref> |
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[[File:Ghazanchetsots |
[[File:Ghazanchetsots Cathedral, Shushi, Armenia.jpg|thumb|[[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]], opened in 1887]] |
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During the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828, the citadel at Shusha held out for several months and never fell. After this Shusha ceased to be a capital of a khanate, which was dissolved in 1822, and instead became an administrative capital of |
During the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828, the citadel at Shusha held out for several months and never fell. After this Shusha ceased to be a capital of a khanate, which was dissolved in 1822, and instead became an administrative capital first of the Karabakh province (1822–1840), and then of the [[Shusha Uyezd]] of the [[Elisabethpol Governorate]] (1840–1923). Shusha grew and developed, with successive waves of migrants moving to the city, particularly Armenians, who formed a demographic majority in the surrounding highlands.<ref name="penny">[https://books.google.com/books?id=lD97QrsCTIMC&dq=Penny+cyclopaedia+karabagh&pg=PA175 ''The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610105524/https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC02041456&id=lD97QrsCTIMC&pg=PA175&lpg=PA175&dq=Penny+cyclopaedia+karabagh |date=2016-06-10 }}. 1833.</ref><ref name="Tbilisi 1866">''The 1823 Russian Survey of the Karabagh Province: A Primary Source on the Demography and Economy of Karabagh in the Early 19th Century'', trans. George A. Bournoutian. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2011.</ref><ref name="Bournoutian, George A 1994, page 18">Bournoutian, George A. A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-E Qarabagh. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1994, page 18</ref> |
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Beginning from the 1830s the town was divided into two parts: Turkic-speaking Muslims lived in the eastern lower quarters, while Armenian Christians settled in the relatively new western upper quarters of the town. The Muslim part of the town was divided into seventeen quarters. Each quarter had its own [[mosque]], [[Turkish bath]], water-spring and also a quarter representative, who would be elected among the elders (aksakals) |
Beginning from the 1830s the town was divided into two parts: Turkic-speaking Muslims lived in the eastern lower quarters, while Armenian Christians settled in the relatively new western upper quarters of the town. The Muslim part of the town was divided into seventeen quarters. Each quarter had its own [[mosque]], [[Turkish bath]], water-spring and also a quarter representative, who would be elected from among the elders (''aksakals'') and would function similarly to the head of a modern-day municipality. The Armenian part of the town consisted of 12 quarters, five churches, a town and district school and a girls' seminary. |
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The population of the town primarily dealt with trade, horse-breeding, carpet-weaving and wine and vodka production. Shusha was also the biggest centre of silk production in the Caucasus. Most of the Muslim population of the town and of Karabakh, in general, was engaged in sheep and horse-breeding and therefore, had a semi-nomadic lifestyle, spending wintertime in lowland Karabakh in wintering pastures and spring and summer in summering pastures in Shusha and other mountainous parts. |
The population of the town primarily dealt with trade, horse-breeding, carpet-weaving and wine and vodka production. Shusha was also the biggest centre of silk production in the Caucasus. Most of the Muslim population of the town and of Karabakh, in general, was engaged in sheep and horse-breeding and therefore, had a semi-nomadic lifestyle, spending wintertime in lowland Karabakh in wintering pastures and spring and summer in summering pastures in Shusha and other mountainous parts.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} |
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In the 19th century, Shusha was one of the great cities of the Caucasus, larger and more prosperous than either [[Baku]] or [[Yerevan]].<ref name="Waal 2013 p 201">[[Thomas de Waal|Waal, Thomas de]] (2013). [https://books.google. |
In the 19th century, Shusha was one of the great cities of the Caucasus, larger and more prosperous than either [[Baku]] or [[Yerevan]].<ref name="Waal 2013 p 201">[[Thomas de Waal|Waal, Thomas de]] (2013). [https://books.google.com/books?id=XHR-t0gWGJUC&dq=karabakh+khanate+persian+language+official&pg=PA201 ''Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123082509/https://books.google.nl/books?id=XHR-t0gWGJUC&pg=PA201&dq=karabakh+khanate+persian+language+official&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4t5SEqaXJAhXLECwKHQVJAy4Q6AEIRjAH#v=onepage&q=karabakh%20khanate%20persian%20language%20official&f=false |date=2015-11-23 }} NYU Press. {{ISBN|978-0814760321}} p 201</ref> Standing in the middle of a net of caravan routes, it had ten [[caravanserais]].<ref name="Waal 2013 p 201"/> It was well known for its silk trade, its paved roads, brightly coloured carpets, big stone houses, and fine-bred horses.<ref name="Waal 2013 p 201"/> In 1824, George Keppel, the Earl of Albemarle, passed through the city.<ref name="Waal 2013 p 201"/> He found two thousand houses in the town, with three-quarters of the inhabitants Azerbaijanis and one-quarter Armenian.<ref name="Waal 2013 p 201"/> He furthermore noted regarding the town;<ref name="Waal 2013 p 201"/> |
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{{ |
{{Blockquote|(...) The language is a dialect of the Turkish; but its inhabitants, with the exception of the Armenians, generally read and write Persian. The trade is carried on principally by the Armenians, between the towns of [[Shaki, Azerbaijan|Sheki]], [[Nakhchivan (city)|Nakshevan]], [[Khoy|Khoi]] and [[Tabriz]]."}} |
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===Early 20th century=== |
===Early 20th century=== |
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{{Main|Shusha massacre|Armenian–Azerbaijani |
{{Main|Shusha massacre|Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)#Fight for Karabakh, early 1920}} |
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[[File:Karabakh |
[[File:Karabakh reconciliation.jpg|thumb|right|Karabakh reconciliation commission, composed of religious leaders and elders of both Armenian and Azerbaijani communities in Shusha in 1906–07]] |
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[[File:Armenian boroughs of city of Shusha destroyed by Azerbaijani armed forces in 1920 with defiled cathedral of Holy Savior on background.jpg|thumb|right |
[[File:Armenian boroughs of city of Shusha destroyed by Azerbaijani armed forces in 1920 with defiled cathedral of Holy Savior on background.jpg|thumb|right|Armenian half of Shusha destroyed by Azerbaijani armed forces in 1920, with the defiled cathedral of the Holy Savior and Aguletsots church on the background]] |
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[[File:Ruins of Armenian part of Shusha after 1920 pogrom 2.jpg|thumb|right |
[[File:Ruins of Armenian part of Shusha after 1920 pogrom 2.jpg|thumb|right|Ruins of the Armenian part of Shusha after the [[Shusha pogrom|1920 pogrom]] with the church of the Holy Mother of God "Kanach Zham" in the background]] |
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The beginning of the 20th century marked the first Armenian-Tartar clashes throughout [[Azerbaijan]]. This new phenomenon had two |
The beginning of the 20th century marked the first Armenian-Tartar clashes throughout [[Azerbaijan]]. This new phenomenon had two causes. Firstly, it was the result of increased tensions between the local Muslim population and Armenians, whose numbers increased throughout the 19th century as a result of Russian resettlement policies.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} Secondly, by the beginning of the 20th-century, the peoples of the Caucasus, similar to other non-Russian peoples in the periphery of the Russian Empire, began to seek cultural and territorial autonomy. Political instability within Russia, particularly the [[1905 Russian Revolution|1905 Revolution]] and [[Russian Revolution|1917 Revolutions]], caused these social movements to acquire the character of national liberation movements. |
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The initial clashes between ethnic Armenians and Azerbaijanis took place in [[Baku]] in February 1905. Soon, the |
The initial [[Armenian–Tatar massacres of 1905–1907|clashes between ethnic Armenians and Azerbaijanis]] took place in [[Baku]] in February 1905. Soon, the conflict spilled over to other parts of the [[Caucasus]], and on August 5, 1905, first conflict between the Armenian and Azerbaijani inhabitants of Shusha took place. As a result of the mutual pogroms and killings, hundreds of people died and more than 200 houses were burned.<ref>Mkrtchyan, Shahen. ''Historical-Architectural Monuments of Nagorno Karabagh''. Yerevan, 1989, p. 341.</ref> |
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After [[World War I]] and subsequent collapse of the [[Russian Empire]], Karabakh was claimed by Azerbaijan to be part of the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]], a decision hotly disputed by neighbouring Armenia and by Karabakh's Armenian population, which claimed Karabakh as part of the [[First Republic of Armenia]]. After the defeat of [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[World War I]], Armenian forces under [[Andranik Ozanian]] defeated Azerbaijani forces under [[Khosrov bey Sultanov]] in [[Lachin |
After [[World War I]] and subsequent collapse of the [[Russian Empire]], Karabakh was claimed by Azerbaijan to be part of the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]], a decision hotly disputed by neighbouring Armenia and by Karabakh's Armenian population, which claimed Karabakh as part of the [[First Republic of Armenia]]. With the capture of Baku, a small force of Turkish troops entered Shusha on 7 October 1918, also occupying the road to [[Aghdam]]. Whilst the Armenians of Shusha did not resist the Turks to avoid violence, the Turks with their limited troops were unable to seize the countryside of Karabakh which was held by an armed milita of local Armenians.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saparov |first=Arsène |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1124532887 |title=From conflict to autonomy in the Caucasus: the Soviet Union and the making of Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Nagorno Karabakh |date=27 August 2014 |isbn=978-1-317-63783-7 |pages=91 |publisher=Routledge |oclc=1124532887}}</ref> After the defeat of [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[World War I]], Armenian forces under [[Andranik Ozanian]] defeated Azerbaijani forces under [[Khosrov bey Sultanov]] in Abdallyar ([[Lachin]]), and began heading down the [[Lachin corridor]] towards Shusha. Shortly before Andranik could arrive, [[United Kingdom|British]] troops under General [[William Montgomery Thomson|W. M. Thomson]] encouraged him to retreat, out of concerns that Armenian military activity could have an adverse effect on the region's status, which was to be decided at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|1919 Paris Peace Conference]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Hovannisian|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Hovannisian|title=The Republic of Armenia: Volume 1, The First Years, 1918–1919|year=1971|publisher=University of California Press|location=Los Angeles|pages=[https://archive.org/details/republicofarmeni0000hova/page/89 89–90]|isbn=0-520-01805-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/republicofarmeni0000hova/page/89}}</ref> Trusting Thomson, Andranik left, and British troops occupied Karabakh. The British command provisionally affirmed Sultanov (appointed by the Azerbaijani government) as the governor-general of Karabakh and [[Kapan|Zangezur]], pending the final decision by the Paris Peace Conference.<ref>[[Tadeusz Swietochowski]]. ''Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition''. {{ISBN|0-231-07068-3}}</ref> |
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Ethnic conflict began to erupt in the region. Оn 5 June 1919, 600 Armenian inhabitants of the villages surrounding Shusha were [[Khaibalikend Massacre|massacred]] by Azerbaijani and Kurdish irregulars. Sultanov stated that the irregulars were not under his control.<ref name=Croissant>Michael P. Croissant. ''The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: Causes and Implications''. {{ISBN|0-275-96241-5}} p. 16</ref> In August 1919, the Karabakh National Council was forced to enter into a provisional treaty agreement with the Azerbaijani government, recognizing the authority of the Azerbaijan government until the issue of the mountainous part of Karabakh was settled at the Paris Peace Conference. Despite signing the agreement, the Azerbaijani government continuously violated the terms of the treaty,<ref name="nesl">{{Cite web|title=The Nagorno-Karabagh Crisis: A Blueprint for Resolution |work=[[Public International Law & Policy Group]] and the [[New England School of Law]] |date=June 2000 |url=http://www.nesl.edu/center/pubs/nagorno.pdf |access-date=11 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040428072933/http://www.nesl.edu/center/pubs/nagorno.pdf |archive-date=28 April 2004 |url-status=dead |page=3 |quote=In August 1919, the Karabagh National Council entered into a provisional treaty agreement with the Azerbaijani government. Despite signing the Agreement, the Azerbaijani government continuously violated the terms of the treaty. This culminated in March 1920 with the Azerbaijanis' massacre of Armenians in Karabagh's former capital, Shushi, in which it is estimated that more than 20,000 Armenians were killed.}}</ref><ref name="Mutafian">{{cite book |last=Mutafian |first=Claude |date=1994 |chapter=Karabagh in the Twentieth Century |title=The Caucasian Knot: the History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabakh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OUlnYdOHJ3wC&q=shushi |location=London |publisher=Zed Books |pages=124–126 |isbn=1856492885 |editor1-last=Chorbajian |editor1-first=Levon |editor1-link=Levon Chorbajian |editor2-last=Donabedian |editor2-first=Patrick |editor3-last=Mutafian |editor3-first=Claude |quote=In November the Karabagh Armenians rejected proposals for further submission presented by an Azerbaijani governmental delegation which demonstrated the weakness of the August accords... Sultanov took control of the Karkar Valley while massacring the Armenian population of several villages on 22 February, including Khankend (present-day Stepanakert). |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907165521/https://books.google.com/books?id=OUlnYdOHJ3wC&q=shushi |url-status=live }}</ref> and Sultanov employed severe measures against them, such as terror, blockade and famine.<ref name=Croissant/><ref>Mutafyan Claude (1994) "Karabagh in the twentieth century." In Chorbajyan Levon, Donabedian Patrick and Mutafian Claude (eds.) ''The Caucasian Knot: The History and geo-politics of Nagorno-Karabakh''. London: Zed Books, pp. 109–170.</ref><ref>Walker J. Christopher (ed.) (1991) ''Armenia and Karabakh: The Struggle for Unity''. London: Minority Rights Group.</ref> Sultanov gathered troops in the region and on 19 February 1920 issued an ultimatum to the Armenians, demanding they accept unconditional unification with Azerbaijan, and then massacred the population of several Armenian villages, including Khankendi ([[Stepanakert]]).<ref name="Mutafian"/> A minority of [[Karabakh Council|Karabagh National Council]] representatives gathered in Shusha to accept Sultanov's demands, while the rest met in nearby [[Shushikend]] to reject the ultimatum.<ref name="Mutafian"/> The strife culminated in an Armenian uprising,<ref>Benjamin Lieberman. ''Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe''. {{ISBN|1-56663-646-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/nagorny-karabakh/chronology.php|title=Chronology: Accord Nagorny Karabakh|date=17 February 2012|website=c-r.org|access-date=3 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207124923/http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/nagorny-karabakh/chronology.php|archive-date=7 February 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> which was suppressed by the Azerbaijani army. In late March 1920, the Armenian half of the police forces was reported by a British journalist to have murdered the Azerbaijani half during the latter's traditional [[Nowruz|Novruz Bayram]] holiday celebrations. The Armenian surprise attack was organised and coordinated by the forces of the Armenian Republic.<ref name="ReferenceB">Richard G. Hovannisian. ''The Republic of Armenia'', Vol. III: From London to Sèvres, February–August 1920</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=sZVN2MwWZVAC&q=Azerbaijani+Turks:+Power+and+Identity+Under+Russian+Rule] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307010036/https://books.google.nl/books?id=sZVN2MwWZVAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Azerbaijani+Turks:+Power+and+Identity+Under+Russian+Rule&hl=nl&ei=xNCvTvW1HsbpOcbu5YMC&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA|date=2016-03-07}} Audrey L. Altstadt. ''Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity Under Russian Rule''. Hoover Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-8179-9182-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8179-9182-1}}, p. 103</ref> Azerbaijani outrage for this surprise attack ultimately led to the [[Shusha massacre|massacre and expulsion of the Armenian population]] in March 1920, in which 500<ref>Thomas de Waal. ''Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan through Peace and War''. {{ISBN|0-8147-1944-9}}</ref>–8,000<ref name="baberovski" /> to 20,000<ref name="nesl" /> Armenians were killed, others were forced to flee, and the Armenian half of the city, 1,675 of 1,700 homes, were destroyed.<ref name="baberovski">{{Cite book |last=Baberovski |first=Yorg |url=http://test8.dlibrary.org/ru/nodes/1045-vrag-est-vezde-stalinizm-na-kavkaze |title=Враг есть везде. Сталинизм на Кавказе |publisher=Rossiyskaya politicheskaya entsiklopediya (ROSSPEN) Fond «Prezidentskiy tsentr B. N. Yeltsina» |year=2010 |isbn=978-5-8243-1435-9 |location=Moscow |pages=171 |language=ru |trans-title=The enemy is everywhere. Stalinism in the Caucasus |author-link=Jörg Baberowski |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008172127/http://test8.dlibrary.org/ru/nodes/1045-vrag-est-vezde-stalinizm-na-kavkaze |archive-date=8 October 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> A report from [[Dashnak]] archives states that 8,000 Armenians escaped from the city, whilst 5,000–6,000 remained behind.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> |
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To make the local Armenians surrender to the Azerbaijani rule Sultanov employed most severe measures against them such as terror, blockade and famine.<ref>Mutafyan Claude (1994) "Karabagh in the twentieth century." In Chorbajyan Levon, Donabedian Patrick and Mutafian Claude (eds.) ''The Caucasian Knot: The History and geo-politics of Nagorno-Karabakh''. London: Zed Books, pp. 109–170.</ref><ref name=Croissant/><ref>Walker J. Christopher (ed.) (1991) ''Armenia and Karabakh: The Struggle for Unity''. London: Minority Rights Group.</ref> |
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The ethnic conflict began to erupt in the region. Оn 5 June 1919, 600 Armenian inhabitants of the villages surrounding Shusha were [[Khaibalikend Massacre|killed]] by Azerbaijani and Kurdish irregulars. Sultanov stated that those irregulars were not under his control.<ref name=Croissant>Michael P. Croissant. ''The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: Causes and Implications''. {{ISBN|0-275-96241-5}} p. 16</ref> In August 1919, the Karabakh National Council was forced to enter into a provisional treaty agreement with the Azerbaijani government, recognizing the authority of the Azerbaijan government until the issue of the mountainous part of Karabakh would be settled at the Paris Peace Conference. Despite signing the Agreement, the Azerbaijani government continuously violated the terms of the treaty, employing even more severe measures against the Armenian population.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nagorno-Karabagh Crisis: A Blueprint for Resolution |work=[[Public International Law & Policy Group]] and the [[New England School of Law]] |date=June 2000 |page=3 |url=http://www.nesl.edu/center/pubs/nagorno.pdf |access-date=2007-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040428072933/http://www.nesl.edu/center/pubs/nagorno.pdf |archive-date=2004-04-28 |url-status=live|quote=In August 1919, the [[Karabakh Council|Karabagh National Council]] entered into a provisional treaty agreement with the Azerbaijani government. Despite signing the Agreement, the Azerbaijani government continuously violated the terms of the treaty.}}</ref><ref name="Mutafian">{{cite book |last=Mutafian |first=Claude |date=1994 |chapter=Karabagh in the Twentieth Century |title=The Caucasian Knot: the History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabakh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OUlnYdOHJ3wC&q=shushi |location=London |publisher=Zed Books |pages=124–126 |isbn=1856492885 |editor1-last=Chorbajian |editor1-first=Levon |editor1-link=Levon Chorbajian |editor2-last=Donabedian |editor2-first=Patrick |editor3-last=Mutafian |editor3-first=Claude |quote=In November the Karabagh Armenians rejected proposals for further submission presented by an Azerbaijani governmental delegation which demonstrated the weakness of the August accords... Sultanov took control of the Karkar Valley while massacring the Armenian population of several villages on 22 February, including Khankend (present-day Stepanakert). |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907165521/https://books.google.com/books?id=OUlnYdOHJ3wC&q=shushi |url-status=live }}</ref> Governor-General Sultanov accumulated troops in the region and on 19 February 1920 issued an ultimatum to the Armenians to accept unconditional unification with Azerbaijan, then massacred the population of several Armenian villages including [[Stepanakert|Khankendi]].<ref name="Mutafian"/> A minority of [[Karabakh Council|Karabagh National Council]] representatives gathered in Shusha to accept Sultanov's demands, while the rest met in nearby [[Shushikend]] to reject the ultimatum.<ref name="Mutafian"/> The strife culminated in an Armenian uprising,<ref>Tim Potier. Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal</ref><ref>Benjamin Lieberman. ''Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe''. {{ISBN|1-56663-646-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/nagorny-karabakh/chronology.php|title=Chronology: Accord Nagorny Karabakh|date=17 February 2012|website=c-r.org|access-date=3 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207124923/http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/nagorny-karabakh/chronology.php|archive-date=7 February 2012|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> which was suppressed by the Azerbaijani army. In late March 1920, the Armenian half of the police forces was reported by a British journalist to have murdered the Azerbaijani half during the latter's traditional [[Nowruz|Novruz Bayram]] holiday celebrations. The Armenian surprise attack was organised and coordinated by the forces of the Armenian Republic.<ref name="ReferenceB">Richard G. Hovannisian. ''The Republic of Armenia'', Vol. III: From London to Sèvres, February–August 1920</ref><ref>[https://books.google.nl/books?id=sZVN2MwWZVAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Azerbaijani+Turks:+Power+and+Identity+Under+Russian+Rule&hl=nl&ei=xNCvTvW1HsbpOcbu5YMC&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307010036/https://books.google.nl/books?id=sZVN2MwWZVAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Azerbaijani+Turks:+Power+and+Identity+Under+Russian+Rule&hl=nl&ei=xNCvTvW1HsbpOcbu5YMC&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=2016-03-07 }} Audrey L. Altstadt. ''Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity Under Russian Rule''. Hoover Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-8179-9182-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8179-9182-1}}, p. 103</ref> Azerbaijani outrage for this surprise attack ultimately led to the [[Shusha massacre|massacre and expulsion of the entire Armenian population in March 1920]], in which between 500<ref>Thomas de Waal. ''Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan through Peace and War''. {{ISBN|0-8147-1944-9}}</ref> to 20,000<ref name="nesl">{{Cite web|date=June 2000|title=The Nagorno-Karabagh Crisis: A Blueprint for Resolution|url=http://www.deutscharmenischegesellschaft.de/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/The-Nagorno-Karabagh-Crisis.pdf|work=[[Public International Law & Policy Group]] and the [[New England School of Law|New England]] Center for International Law & Policy|page=3|quote=In August 1919, the Karabagh National Council entered into a provisional treaty agreement with the Azerbaijani government. Despite signing the Agreement, the Azerbaijani government continuously violated the terms of the treaty. This culminated in March 1920 with the Azerbaijanis' massacre of Armenians in Karabagh's former capital, Shushi, in which it is estimated that more than 20,000 Armenians were killed.|access-date=31 December 2020|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101055547/http://www.deutscharmenischegesellschaft.de/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/The-Nagorno-Karabagh-Crisis.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> of the Armenian population of Shusha was killed, and many forced to flee and the Armenian half of the city destroyed. |
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According to the description of an Azerbaijani communist Ojahkuli Musaev: |
According to the description of an Azerbaijani communist Ojahkuli Musaev: |
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{{ |
{{Blockquote|… the ruthless destruction of defenceless women, children, old women, old men, etc has begun. Armenians were exposed to mass slaughter. … beautiful Armenian girls were raped, then shot. … By the order of … Khosrov-bek Sultanov; the pogroms proceeded for more than six days. Houses in the Armenian part have been partially demolished, plundered and reduced all to ashes, everyone led away women to submit to the wishes of executioner musavatists. During these historically artful forms of punishment, Khosrov-bek Sultanov, spoke about holy war (jihad) in his speeches to the Moslems, and called on them to finally finish the Armenians of the city of Shusha, not sparing women, children, etc.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} Институт Истории АН Армении, Главное архивное управление при СМ Республики Армения, Кафедра истории армянского народла Ереванского Государственного Университета. Нагорный Карабах в 1918-1923 гг. Сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992. Документ No.443: из письма члена компартии Азербайджана Оджахкули Мусаева правительству РСФСР. стр. 638-639 (Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of Armenia, the Main archival department at Ministerial council of Republic Armenia, Faculty of history of Armenian people of the Yerevan State University. Nagorny Karabakh per 1918–1923. Collection of documents and materials. Yerevan, 1992. The document №443: from the letter of a member of the communist party of Azerbaijan Ojahkuli Musaev to the government of RSFSR. рр. 638–639)</ref>{{Verify source|date=October 2011}}}} |
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[[Nadezhda Mandelstam]] wrote about Shusha in the |
[[Nadezhda Mandelstam]] wrote about Shusha in the 1930s, "in this town, which formerly of course was healthy and with every amenity, the picture of catastrophe and massacres was terribly visual. ... They say after the massacres all the wells were full of dead bodies. ... We didn't see anyone in the streets on the mountain. Only in downtown—in the market-square, there were a lot of people, but there wasn't any Armenian among them; all were Muslims".<ref>{{in lang|ru}} Н. Я. Мандельштам. Книга третья. Париж, YMCA-Ргess, 1987, с.162–164.</ref> |
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===Soviet era=== |
===Soviet era=== |
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[[File:Shushi029.JPG|thumb|View from the town]] |
[[File:Shushi029.JPG|thumb|View from the town]] |
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In 1920, the Bolshevik [[11th Army (RSFSR)|11th]] [[Red Army]] invaded Azerbaijan and then Armenia and put an end to the national de facto governments that existed in those two countries. Thereafter, the conflict for the control of Karabakh entered the diplomatic sphere. To attract Armenian public support,{{citation needed|date=January 2008}} the Bolsheviks promised to resolve the issue of the disputed territories, including Karabakh, in favour of Armenia. However, on July 5, 1921, the [[Kavbiuro]] of the Communist Party adopted the following decision regarding the future status of Karabakh: "Proceeding from the necessity of national peace among Muslims and Armenians and of the economic ties between upper (mountainous) and lower Karabakh, of its permanent ties with Azerbaijan, mountainous Karabakh is to remain within AzSSR, receiving wide regional autonomy with the administrative centre in Shusha, which is to be included in the autonomous region." As a result, the Mountainous Karabakh Autonomous Region was established within the Azerbaijan SSR in 1923. |
In 1920, the Bolshevik [[11th Army (RSFSR)|11th]] [[Red Army]] invaded Azerbaijan and then Armenia and put an end to the national de facto governments that existed in those two countries. Thereafter, the conflict for the control of Karabakh entered the diplomatic sphere. To attract Armenian public support,{{citation needed|date=January 2008}} the Bolsheviks promised to resolve the issue of the disputed territories, including Karabakh, in favour of Armenia. However, on July 5, 1921, the [[Kavbiuro]] of the Communist Party adopted the following decision regarding the future status of Karabakh: "Proceeding from the necessity of national peace among Muslims and Armenians and of the economic ties between upper (mountainous) and lower Karabakh, of its permanent ties with Azerbaijan, mountainous Karabakh is to remain within AzSSR, receiving wide regional autonomy with the administrative centre in Shusha, which is to be included in the autonomous region." As a result, the Mountainous Karabakh Autonomous Region was established within the Azerbaijan SSR in 1923. A few years later, [[Stepanakert]], named after the Armenian communist leader [[Stepan Shaumyan]], became the new regional capital of the [[Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast]] and soon became its largest town. |
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[[File: |
[[File:Shusha tank former memorial 02.jpg|thumb|A [[T-72]] tank that stood as a memorial commemorating the [[Capture of Shusha (1992)|capture of Shusha]] by the Armenian forces until it was removed in 2023]] |
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The decision |
The decision make Nagorno-Karabakh an autonomous region within Azerbaijan is frequently attributed to [[Joseph Stalin]], who was [[Commissar of Nationalities]] at the time, purportedly with the purpose of ensuring Moscow's position as power broker between the Armenian and Azerbaijani SSRs.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks25/chap1_25.html |title=Nagorno-Karabakh Searching for a Solution, ''US Institute for Peace'' report |access-date=2008-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080110054651/http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks25/chap1_25.html |archive-date=2008-01-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nupi.no/cgi-win/Russland/etnisk_b.exe?Ethnic|title=Groups: Azerbaijanian, Centre for Russian Studies|website=nupi.no|access-date=3 April 2018}}{{Dead link|date=April 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Stalin participated in the Kavbiuro's meetings on the issue of Nagorno-Karabakh but did not vote.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saparov|first=Arsène|date=2012-03-01|title=Why Autonomy? The Making of Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region 1918–1925|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09668136.2011.642583|journal=Europe-Asia Studies|volume=64|issue=2|pages=281–323|doi=10.1080/09668136.2011.642583|s2cid=154783461|issn=0966-8136|access-date=24 December 2021|archive-date=23 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923063747/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09668136.2011.642583|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The town remained half-ruined until the 1960s when the town began to gradually revive due to its recreational potential. In 1977 the |
The town remained half-ruined until the 1960s when the town began to gradually revive due to its recreational potential. In 1977 the Shusha State Historical and Architectural Reserve was established and the town became one of the major resort-towns in the former USSR. |
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The Armenian quarter continued to lie in ruins until the beginning of the 1960s. In 1961, Baku's communist leadership finally passed a decision to clear away much of the ruins, even though many old buildings still could have been renovated. Three Armenian and one Russian church were demolished and the Armenian part of the town was built up with plain buildings typical of the Khrushchev era.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} |
The Armenian quarter continued to lie in ruins until the beginning of the 1960s. In 1961, Baku's communist leadership finally passed a decision to clear away much of the ruins, even though many old buildings still could have been renovated. Three Armenian and one Russian church were demolished and the Armenian part of the town was built up with plain buildings typical of the Khrushchev era.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} |
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===Nagorno-Karabakh |
===Nagorno-Karabakh conflict=== |
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==== 1988–1994 Nagorno-Karabakh |
==== 1988–1994 Nagorno-Karabakh war ==== |
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{{main|Battle of Shusha (1992)}} |
{{main|Battle of Shusha (1992)}} |
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[[File:Shusha 2010.jpg|thumb|Part of Shusha in ruins in 2010]]With the start of the [[First Nagorno-Karabakh War]] in 1988 Shusha became the most important Azerbaijani stronghold in Karabakh, from where Azerbaijani forces [[Shelling of Stepanakert|constantly shelled]] the capital Stepanakert. On May 9, 1992, the town [[Capture of Shusha (1992)|was captured]] by Armenian forces and the Azerbaijani population fled.<ref name="firstcapture">{{Cite web|date=7 November 2020|title=Шуша - цитадель Карабаха: почему она важна для азербайджанцев и армян|trans-title=Shusha is the citadel of Karabakh: why is it important for Azerbaijanis and Armenians|url=https://www.bbc.com/russian/features-54796981|archive-url=https://archive.today/20201109161012/https://www.bbc.com/russian/features-54796981|archive-date=9 |
[[File:Shusha 2010.jpg|thumb|Part of Shusha in ruins in 2010]]With the start of the [[First Nagorno-Karabakh War]] in 1988 Shusha became the most important Azerbaijani stronghold in Karabakh, from where Azerbaijani forces [[Shelling of Stepanakert|constantly shelled]] the capital Stepanakert for half a year, leading to hundreds of Armenian civilian casualties and causing mass destruction in Stepanakert. On May 9, 1992, the town [[Capture of Shusha (1992)|was captured]] by Armenian forces in an operation to lift the siege of Stepanakert and the Azerbaijani population fled.<ref name="firstcapture">{{Cite web|date=7 November 2020|title=Шуша - цитадель Карабаха: почему она важна для азербайджанцев и армян|trans-title=Shusha is the citadel of Karabakh: why is it important for Azerbaijanis and Armenians|url=https://www.bbc.com/russian/features-54796981|access-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20201109161012/https://www.bbc.com/russian/features-54796981|archive-date=9 November 2020|work=[[BBC Russian Service]]|language=ru|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Armenian commander [[Arkady Ter-Tadevosyan]], the city was looted and burnt by Armenian citizens from nearby [[Stepanakert]], who had endured [[Siege of Stepanakert|months of bombing and shelling]] from Azerbaijani forces. He also noted it was part of a Karabakh Armenian superstition of burning houses to prevent the enemy from returning.<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 May 2002|title=Shusha Armenians recall their bittersweet victory |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/armenia/shusha-armenians-recall-their-bittersweet-victory|access-date=19 April 2021|work=[[Institute for War and Peace Reporting|IWPR]]|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418233715/https://reliefweb.int/report/armenia/shusha-armenians-recall-their-bittersweet-victory|url-status=live}}</ref> A British journalist witnessed Armenian soldiers using minarets of a mosque in Shusha as shooting targets.<ref name="guardian">{{cite news |last1=Steele |first1=Jonathan |title=Eyewitness: Armenia's looters follow its troops into Azerbaijan - Tit-for-tat pillage of deserted Lachin succeeds a war that may not yet be over |agency=The Guardian |date=25 May 1992}}</ref> As of 2002, ten years later after the city's capture by the Armenian forces, some 80% of the town was in ruins.<ref>{{cite news|last1=de Waal|first1=Thomas |author-link1=Thomas de Waal|title=Shusha Armenians Recall Their Bittersweet Victory|url=https://iwpr.net/global-voices/shusha-armenians-recall-their-bittersweet|publisher=[[Institute for War and Peace Reporting]]|date=10 May 2002|access-date=5 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005214539/https://iwpr.net/global-voices/shusha-armenians-recall-their-bittersweet|archive-date=5 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Armenians also dismantled and sold off historic dark bronze busts of three Azerbaijani musicians and poets from Shusha.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=190}} Another British journalist who visited Shusha in 1997 reported that the gravestones in the Azerbaijani cemetery on the edge of town were "methodically smashed and vandalised".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Meek |first1=James |title=To the victor the spoils: Ethnic cleansing in Azerbaijan: James Meek reports from Lachin on the Armenian refugee takeover of Azeri homes and farms in the Nagorno-Karabakh enclave and adjoining districts |agency=The Guardian |date=June 9, 1997 |page=11}}</ref> |
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After the end of the war, the town was repopulated by Armenians, mostly refugees from Azerbaijan and other parts of Karabakh, as well as members of the Armenian diaspora. The population of the town was |
After the end of the war, the town was repopulated by Armenians, mostly refugees from Azerbaijan and other parts of Karabakh, as well as members of the Armenian diaspora. The population of the town was significantly less than the pre-war number, and the demographic of the town had changed from mostly Azerbaijani to completely Armenian. The [[Goris]]-[[Stepanakert]] Highway passes through the town and is a transit and tourist destination for many. There were some hotels in the city, and cultural monuments such as the [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]] and the [[Yukhari Govhar Agha Mosque]] were restored by Armenian authorities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Karabakh's contentious mosque restoration {{!}} Eurasianet|url=https://eurasianet.org/karabakhs-contentious-mosque-restoration|access-date=2022-01-08|website=eurasianet.org|language=en|archive-date=2 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102024938/https://eurasianet.org/karabakhs-contentious-mosque-restoration|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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After the war, a T-72 tank commanded by the Karabakhi Armenian Gagik Avsharian was placed as a memorial. The tank had been hit during the town's capture, killing the driver and gun operator, but Avsharian jumped free from the hatch. The tank was restored and its number, 442, repainted in white on the side.<ref>de Waal, Thomas (2003, 2013). ''Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan through Peace And War''. |
After the war, a T-72 tank commanded by the Karabakhi Armenian Gagik Avsharian was placed as a memorial. The tank had been hit during the town's capture, killing the driver and gun operator, but Avsharian jumped free from the hatch. The tank was restored and its number, 442, repainted in white on the side.<ref>de Waal, Thomas (2003, 2013). ''Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan through Peace And War''. New York University Press, pp. 196-197.</ref> After the [[2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh|Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh]] in September 2023 the tank was removed by the Azerbaijani authorities and transferred to the [[Military Trophy Park (Baku)|Military Trophy Park]] in Baku.<ref>{{cite news |title=So-called "symbol of Armenian victory" tank displayed at Baku War Trophy Park (PHOTO) |url=https://en.trend.az/azerbaijan/society/3801982.html |access-date=6 March 2024 |work=Trend.Az |date=23 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> |
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====2020 Nagorno-Karabakh |
====2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war==== |
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{{main|Battle of Shusha (2020)}} |
{{main|Battle of Shusha (2020)}} |
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[[File:Celebrations in Baku over the victory in Shusha 22 (edited).jpg |
[[File:Celebrations in Baku over the victory in Shusha 22 (edited).jpg|thumb|right|Celebrations in [[Baku]], Azerbaijan on 8 November.]] |
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During the [[2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war]], Armenia accused the Azerbaijani army of shelling civilian areas and the city's [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]]. Three journalists were wounded while they were inside the cathedral to film the destruction of a previous shelling on the same day.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Война в Карабахе: Азербайджан и Армения заявляют о новых боях и обстрелах - Новости на русском языке|url=https://www.bbc.com/russian/live/news-54317944/page/10|access-date=2020-10-15|website=BBC News Русская служба|language=ru-RU|archive-date=17 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017185006/https://www.bbc.com/russian/live/news-54317944/page/10|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Ministry of Defence (Azerbaijan)|Azerbaijani Ministry of Defence]] |
During the [[2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war]], Armenia accused the Azerbaijani army of shelling civilian areas and the city's [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]]. Three journalists were wounded while they were inside the cathedral to film the destruction of a previous shelling on the same day.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Война в Карабахе: Азербайджан и Армения заявляют о новых боях и обстрелах - Новости на русском языке|url=https://www.bbc.com/russian/live/news-54317944/page/10|access-date=2020-10-15|website=BBC News Русская служба|language=ru-RU|archive-date=17 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017185006/https://www.bbc.com/russian/live/news-54317944/page/10|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Ministry of Defence (Azerbaijan)|Azerbaijani Ministry of Defence]] denied the shelling of the cathedral by stating that "destruction of the church in Shusha has nothing to do with the activities of the Army of Azerbaijan"<ref>{{cite tweet |user=cavidaga |number=1314186544027250688 |date=8 October 2020 |title=AzMOD on Ghazanchetsots}}</ref> The House of Culture was also badly damaged in the fighting.<ref>{{cite news |last=Troianovski|first=Anton|author-link=Anton Troianovski|date=October 18, 2020|title=At Front Lines of a Brutal War: Death and Despair in Nagorno-Karabakh|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=Stepanakert |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/18/world/europe/Nagorno-Karabakh-war-Armenia-Azerbaijan.html|url-status=live|url-access=limited|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019122506/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/18/world/europe/Nagorno-Karabakh-war-Armenia-Azerbaijan.html|archive-date=October 19, 2020|quote=Manushak Titanyan, an architect in Nagorno-Karabakh, has already lost one of her buildings to the violence: the House of Culture in the hilltop town of Shusha, its roof gone, a piece of it stuck in a tree across the street, the plush red seats coated in dust, the stage curtain tangled amid the rubble.}}</ref> |
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On November 8, 2020, Azerbaijani President [[Ilham Aliyev]] announced that the Azerbaijani army took control of the city of Shusha.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/europe-ilham-aliyev-azerbaijan-armenia-a8b4ec50d393a05820c9048d1d95ab5d |title=Azerbaijani leader: Forces seize key Nagorno-Karabakh city |date=8 November 2020 |access-date=9 November 2020 |work=[[Associated Press]] |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20201109172111/https://apnews.com/article/europe-ilham-aliyev-azerbaijan-armenia-a8b4ec50d393a05820c9048d1d95ab5d |url-status=live }}</ref> The next day, the Azerbaijani Ministry of Defence released a video from the city, confirming full Azerbaijani control.<ref name="confirmation"/> On the same day, Artsakh authorities confirmed that they had lost control of Shusha.<ref name="armeniaconfirm">{{Cite web |title=Нагорный Карабах заявил о потере контроля над городом Шуши |url=https://www.rbc.ru/politics/09/11/2020/5fa942f89a7947e504d5b0af |access-date=9 November 2020 |date=9 November 2020 |work=RBK |language=ru |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109133140/https://www.rbc.ru/politics/09/11/2020/5fa942f89a7947e504d5b0af |url-status=live }}</ref> A ceasefire signed two days later reaffirmed Azerbaijan's gains, resulting in the city staying under its control. The Armenian government and the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] subsequently claimed that Azerbaijani soldiers had vandalised Armenian churches and cultural landmarks, including [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Узел|first=Кавказский|title=Армянская церковь заявила об осквернении собора в Шуши|url=https://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/356487/|access-date=2020-11-16|website=Кавказский Узел|archive-date=14 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114205731/https://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/356487/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Армянская церковь обвинила азербайджанцев в осквернении собора в Шуши|url=https://www.rbc.ru/rbcfreenews/5fb0418a9a7947b0222acd5b|access-date=2020-11-16|website=РБК|language=ru|archive-date=16 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116021443/https://www.rbc.ru/rbcfreenews/5fb0418a9a7947b0222acd5b|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Kanach Zham]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maranci|first=Christina|title=Armenians displaced from Nagorno-Karabakh fear their medieval churches will be destroyed|url=http://theconversation.com/armenians-displaced-from-nagorno-karabakh-fear-their-medieval-churches-will-be-destroyed-149141|access-date=2021-01-24|website=The Conversation|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122065235/https://theconversation.com/armenians-displaced-from-nagorno-karabakh-fear-their-medieval-churches-will-be-destroyed-149141|url-status=live}}</ref> |
On November 8, 2020, Azerbaijani President [[Ilham Aliyev]] announced that the Azerbaijani army took control of the city of Shusha.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/europe-ilham-aliyev-azerbaijan-armenia-a8b4ec50d393a05820c9048d1d95ab5d |title=Azerbaijani leader: Forces seize key Nagorno-Karabakh city |date=8 November 2020 |access-date=9 November 2020 |work=[[Associated Press]] |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20201109172111/https://apnews.com/article/europe-ilham-aliyev-azerbaijan-armenia-a8b4ec50d393a05820c9048d1d95ab5d |url-status=live }}</ref> The next day, the Azerbaijani Ministry of Defence released a video from the city, confirming full Azerbaijani control.<ref name="confirmation"/> On the same day, Artsakh authorities confirmed that they had lost control of Shusha.<ref name="armeniaconfirm">{{Cite web |title=Нагорный Карабах заявил о потере контроля над городом Шуши |url=https://www.rbc.ru/politics/09/11/2020/5fa942f89a7947e504d5b0af |access-date=9 November 2020 |date=9 November 2020 |work=RBK |language=ru |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109133140/https://www.rbc.ru/politics/09/11/2020/5fa942f89a7947e504d5b0af |url-status=live }}</ref> A ceasefire signed two days later reaffirmed Azerbaijan's gains, resulting in the city staying under its control. The Armenian government and the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] subsequently claimed that Azerbaijani soldiers had vandalised Armenian churches and cultural landmarks, including [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Узел|first=Кавказский|title=Армянская церковь заявила об осквернении собора в Шуши|url=https://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/356487/|access-date=2020-11-16|website=Кавказский Узел|archive-date=14 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114205731/https://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/356487/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Армянская церковь обвинила азербайджанцев в осквернении собора в Шуши|url=https://www.rbc.ru/rbcfreenews/5fb0418a9a7947b0222acd5b|access-date=2020-11-16|website=РБК|date=15 November 2020 |language=ru|archive-date=16 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116021443/https://www.rbc.ru/rbcfreenews/5fb0418a9a7947b0222acd5b|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Kanach Zham]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maranci|first=Christina|title=Armenians displaced from Nagorno-Karabakh fear their medieval churches will be destroyed|url=http://theconversation.com/armenians-displaced-from-nagorno-karabakh-fear-their-medieval-churches-will-be-destroyed-149141|access-date=2021-01-24|website=The Conversation|date=15 December 2020 |archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122065235/https://theconversation.com/armenians-displaced-from-nagorno-karabakh-fear-their-medieval-churches-will-be-destroyed-149141|url-status=live}}</ref> which was supported by reports from [[Freedom House|FreedomHouse]] and CaucasusHeritageWatch.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nagorno-Karabakh: Freedom in the World 2021 Country Report|url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/nagorno-karabakh/freedom-world/2021|access-date=2022-01-08|website=Freedom House|language=en|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108034605/https://freedomhouse.org/country/nagorno-karabakh/freedom-world/2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Khatchadouran, L., I. Lindsay, A. T. Smith. 2021. |
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Caucasus Heritage Watch Monitoring Report #1, June 2021. Ithaca: Caucasus Heritage Watch</ref> Azerbaijani officials claimed that the [[Mamayi Mosque]] and a nearby fountain was vandalised by Armenian forces.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://news.milli.az/society/916536.html |title=Mosque and fountain in Mamay district of Shusha were vandalized by Armenians - PHOTO |date=25 January 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210127062213/https://news.milli.az/society/916536.html |archive-date=27 January 2021 |access-date=27 January 2021 |work=[[Day.az|Milli.az]] |language=az |url-status=live }}</ref> In August 2023, a mass grave was found in Shusha prison. In total 17 corpses with signs of torture were exhumed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-17 |title=L'Azerbaigian denuncia: un'altra fossa comune a Shusha |url=https://it.euronews.com/2023/08/17/lazerbaigian-denuncia-unaltra-fossa-comune-a-shusha |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=euronews |language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Barouk |first=Rabbi Israel |date=2023-08-30 |title=Mass Graves in Azerbaijan. Where is the outrage? |url=https://jewishjournal.com/commentary/blogs/362149/mass-graves-in-azerbaijan-where-is-the-outrage/ |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=Jewish Journal |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tekingunduz |first=Alican |title=Azerbaijan finds new mass grave in area liberated from Armenia |url=https://www.trtworld.com/asia/azerbaijan-finds-new-mass-grave-in-area-liberated-from-armenia-14497420 |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=Azerbaijan reveals new mass grave in Shusha |language=en}}</ref> |
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==Culture== |
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[[File:Uzeir Hajibeyov's family (Uzeir is on the top, left side), Shusha, 1915.jpg|thumb|150px|Azerbaijani composer [[Uzeyir Hajibeyov]] (top left) with his family in Shusha, 1915]] |
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==Culture== |
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[[File:Uzeir Hajibeyov's family (Uzeir is on the top, left side), Shusha, 1915.jpg|thumb|upright|Azerbaijani composer [[Uzeyir Hajibeyov]] (top left) with his family in Shusha, 1915]] |
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Shusha contains both Armenian and Azerbaijani cultural monuments, while the surrounding territories also include many ancient Armenian villages.<ref name="Central Asia p. 297">''Crossroads and Conflict: Security and Foreign Policy in the Caucasus and Central Asia'', by Gary K. Bertsch - 2000 - 316 pages, p. 297</ref> |
Shusha contains both Armenian and Azerbaijani cultural monuments, while the surrounding territories also include many ancient Armenian villages.<ref name="Central Asia p. 297">''Crossroads and Conflict: Security and Foreign Policy in the Caucasus and Central Asia'', by Gary K. Bertsch - 2000 - 316 pages, p. 297</ref> |
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Shusha is often considered the cradle of Azerbaijan's music and poetry and one of the leading centres of the [[Culture of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijani culture]],{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p= 189}}<ref |
Shusha is often considered the cradle of Azerbaijan's music and poetry and one of the leading centres of the [[Culture of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijani culture]],{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p= 189}}<ref name="Mattew O 2004"/> having been declared the cultural capital of Azerbaijan in January 2021.<ref name="cultural capital">{{Cite web|last=Aliyev|first=Jeyhun|date=5 January 2021|title=Azerbaijan declares city of Shusha 'cultural capital'|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/azerbaijan-front-line/azerbaijan-declares-city-of-shusha-cultural-capital/2099432|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210105203952/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/azerbaijan-front-line/azerbaijan-declares-city-of-shusha-cultural-capital/2099432|archive-date=5 January 2021|access-date=5 January 2021|work=[[Anadolu Agency]]}}</ref> The city is particularly renowned for its traditional Azerbaijani genre of vocal and instrumental arts called [[mugham]].<ref>''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', "Azerbaijan": [http://search.eb.com/eb/article-44296 Cultural life] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206211604/https://academic.eb.com/ |date=6 February 2021 }}, Online Academic Edition, 2007.</ref> For the Azerbaijanis, Shusha is the "[[Music school|conservatoire]] of the Caucasus". [[Khurshidbanu Natavan]], Azerbaijan's most famous woman poet, composer [[Uzeyir Hajibeyov]], opera singer [[Bulbul (singer)|Bulbul]] and one of Azerbaijan's first twentieth-century novelists, [[Yusif Vezir Chemenzeminli]], were born here.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p= 189}} [[Molla Panah Vagif]], a prominent Azerbaijani poet and vizier of the Karabakh khanate, lived and died in Shusha. Vagif Poetry Days were held in Shusha annually since 1982. The tradition was resumed in 2021.<ref>{{cite news |title=Days of Vagif Poetry again in Shusha after 39 years |url=https://www.azernews.az/nation/182775.html |access-date=4 November 2021 |agency=AzerNews |date=31 August 2021 |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223200056/https://www.azernews.az/nation/182775.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Shusha is also a historical Armenian religious and cultural center.<ref>''Looking toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History'', by [[Ronald Grigor Suny]] - 1993 - 289 pages, p. 195</ref><ref>''A Typographical Gazetteer'', by Henry Cotton - 2008 - p. 206</ref> The Armenian population of the town historically had four main churches, each named after the place of origin of the Armenian inhabitants: [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral|Ghazanchetsots]] (after [[Qazançı, Nakhchivan|Qazançı]]; officially named Holy Savior Cathedral), Aguletsos Holy Mother of God Church (after [[Yuxarı Əylis|Agulis]]), Meghretsots Holy Mother of God Church (after [[Meghri]]), and [[Kanach Zham|Gharabakhtsots]] (after the region of Karabakh; the church is better known as [[Kanach Zham]]).<ref name="Makar">{{cite book |last=Barkhudaryan |first=Makar |date=1895 |title=Artsakh |url=https://artsakhlib.am/en/2019/02/25/%D5%A1%D6%80%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%AD-2/ |location=Baku |publisher="Aror" Publishing House |pages=137–138 |language=hy |access-date=27 January 2021 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121221917/https://artsakhlib.am/en/2019/02/25/%D5%A1%D6%80%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%AD-2/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Shusha was also home to a monastery complex called Kusanats Vank ("Virgins' Monastery") or Anapat Kusanats ("Virgins' Hermitage")․<ref name="Makar"/> In 1989, [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]] was made the seat of the newly reestablished [[Diocese of Artsakh]] of the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Diocese of Artsakh of the Armenian Apostolic Church|url=http://www.gandzasar.com/diocese-of-artsakh.htm|publisher=Gandzasar.com|access-date=25 May 2013|archive-date=28 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528142817/http://gandzasar.com/diocese-of-artsakh.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> |
Shusha is also a historical Armenian religious and cultural center.<ref>''Looking toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History'', by [[Ronald Grigor Suny]] - 1993 - 289 pages, p. 195</ref><ref>''A Typographical Gazetteer'', by Henry Cotton - 2008 - p. 206</ref> The Armenian population of the town historically had four main churches, each named after the place of origin of the Armenian inhabitants: [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral|Ghazanchetsots]] (after [[Qazançı, Nakhchivan|Qazançı]]; officially named Holy Savior Cathedral), Aguletsos Holy Mother of God Church (after [[Yuxarı Əylis|Agulis]]), Meghretsots Holy Mother of God Church (after [[Meghri]]), and [[Kanach Zham|Gharabakhtsots]] (after the region of Karabakh; the church is better known as [[Kanach Zham]]).<ref name="Makar">{{cite book |last=Barkhudaryan |first=Makar |date=1895 |title=Artsakh |url=https://artsakhlib.am/en/2019/02/25/%D5%A1%D6%80%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%AD-2/ |location=Baku |publisher="Aror" Publishing House |pages=137–138 |language=hy |access-date=27 January 2021 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121221917/https://artsakhlib.am/en/2019/02/25/%D5%A1%D6%80%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%AD-2/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Shusha was also home to a monastery complex called Kusanats Vank ("Virgins' Monastery") or Anapat Kusanats ("Virgins' Hermitage")․<ref name="Makar"/> In 1989, [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]] was made the seat of the newly reestablished [[Diocese of Artsakh]] of the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Diocese of Artsakh of the Armenian Apostolic Church|url=http://www.gandzasar.com/diocese-of-artsakh.htm|publisher=Gandzasar.com|access-date=25 May 2013|archive-date=28 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528142817/http://gandzasar.com/diocese-of-artsakh.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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[[File:Grikor Mirzayan Suni Сhorus at Shushi in 1902.png|thumb|Armenian composer [[Grikor Mirzaian Suni]] with his chorus in Shushi (1902)]] |
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Shusha serves an important role in the history of [[Armenian music]], being the hometown and headquarters of Armenian composer [[Grikor Suni]] and his chorus.<ref>{{cite book|author= Ṛuben Tʻerlemezyan|title= Haykakan zhoghovrdakan yerger[Armenian folk songs]|location= Yerevan|publisher= Petakan Hratarakchʻutʻyun|year= 1935|oclc= 62180596|url= http://suniproject.org/grigor-suni-mirzayan-armenian-folk-songs-haikakan-zhoghovrdakan-yerger-1935-yerevan/|quote= His hometown of Shushi ( a.k.a. Shusha) is in Karabakh (Gharabagh) the easternmost region of Historic Armenia.|access-date= 5 October 2021|archive-date= 5 October 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211005183704/http://suniproject.org/grigor-suni-mirzayan-armenian-folk-songs-haikakan-zhoghovrdakan-yerger-1935-yerevan/|url-status= live}}</ref> Suni was an instrumental figure in establishing the national identity of Armenian music and considered one of the many founders of modern Armenian music.<ref name= suni>{{cite magazine|author= Karine Vann|title= Why This Composer Made Melodies Out of Mountainsides|magazine= Smithsonian (Serial)|publisher= [[Smithsonian Magazine]]|date= June 30, 2017|issn= 0037-7333|url= https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/why-composer-made-melodies-out-mountainsides-180963889/|access-date= October 5, 2021|archive-date= 5 October 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211005183700/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/why-composer-made-melodies-out-mountainsides-180963889/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author= Burcu Yıldız|title= Construction of 'national identity in Armenian music historiography [Ermeni müziği tarih yazımında 'milli kimlik'kurgusu]|journal= Journal of Human Sciences|volume= 10|number= 1|pages= 1524–1536|year= 2013|publisher= [[Sakarya University]]|issn= 2458-9489|url= https://www.j-humansciences.com/ojs/index.php/IJHS/article/view/2587|access-date= 5 October 2021|archive-date= 5 October 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211005183704/https://www.j-humansciences.com/ojs/index.php/IJHS/article/view/2587|url-status= live}}</ref> In addition, the Khandamirian or Shushi theater which opened in 1891 would become regionally famous for its important contributions to the Armenian cultural arts, especially music.<ref>{{cite book|title= Treasures of Artsakh-Karabagh|author= Shahen Mkrtchyan|author-link= :hy:Շահեն Մկրտչյան|date= 2002|location= Yerevan|publisher= Tigran Mets Publishing House|pages= 3–6|isbn= 9789993052678|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NYslAQAAMAAJ|access-date= 5 October 2021|archive-date= 5 October 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211005183702/https://books.google.com/books/about/Treasures_of_Artsakh_Karabagh.html?id=NYslAQAAMAAJ|url-status= live}}</ref> In the Khandamirian theater, Suni gave his first ever performance. By 1902, Suni had organized his Oriental Cultural Ensemble in Shusha and had their first big concert which would get them in trouble with Russian authorities forcing the ensemble out of Shusha where they went on to spread Armenian cultural music around the world.<ref>{{cite book|author= Grikor Suni|editor= Henrik Bakhchinyan|translator= Dickran and Anahit Toumajan|title= Armenian Music|url= http://tert.nla.am/archive/HAY%20GIRQ/Ardy/2001-2011/suwni_2005.pdf|location= Yerevan|publisher= Museum of Literature and Art|year= 2005|pages= 126–128|isbn= 99930-60-59-3|access-date= 5 October 2021|archive-date= 5 October 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211005183707/http://tert.nla.am/archive/HAY%20GIRQ/Ardy/2001-2011/suwni_2005.pdf|url-status= live}}</ref> Shusha was also the hometown of [[Arev Baghdasaryan]], the prominent Armenian singer, dancer, and [[People's Artist of the Armenian SSR]].<ref>{{cite news|title= Arev Bagdasaryan|work= Illustrated Weekly of Pakistan|volume= 17|year= 1965|pages= 31–33|location= Karachi|publisher= Pakistan Herald Publications|issn= 0019-2449}}</ref> |
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Shusha is also well known for sileh rugs, floor coverings from the [[South Caucasus]]. Those from the Caucasus may have been woven in the vicinity of Shusha. A similar [[Eastern Anatolia]]n type usually shows a different range of colours.<ref>[[Encyclopædia Britannica]], "[http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9001272 sileh rug] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907165523/https://academic.eb.com/ |date=7 September 2021 }}", Online Academic Edition, 2007.</ref> |
Shusha is also well known for sileh rugs, floor coverings from the [[South Caucasus]]. Those from the Caucasus may have been woven in the vicinity of Shusha. A similar [[Eastern Anatolia]]n type usually shows a different range of colours.<ref>[[Encyclopædia Britannica]], "[http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9001272 sileh rug] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907165523/https://academic.eb.com/ |date=7 September 2021 }}", Online Academic Edition, 2007.</ref> |
||
In November 2020, the organizers of the [[Turkvision Song Contest]] stated that they were exploring the possibility of holding the contest's |
In November 2020, the organizers of the [[Turkvision Song Contest]] stated that they were exploring the possibility of holding the contest's 2021 version in Shusha,<ref name="nazimgizi">{{Cite web |first=Shafiga |last=Nazimgizi |url=https://report.az/en/cultural-policy/shusha-may-host-turkvision-song-contest/ |title=Shusha may host Turkvision Song Contest |date=18 November 2020 |access-date=17 January 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210117224418/https://report.az/en/cultural-policy/shusha-may-host-turkvision-song-contest/ |archive-date=17 January 2021 |work=Report Information Agency |url-status=live }}</ref> and in January 2021, the [[Ministry of Culture (Azerbaijan)|Azerbaijani Ministry of Culture]] started preparatory activities on the [[Khari Bulbul Music Festival|Khari Bulbul Festival]] and Days of the Poetry of Vagif.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.news.az/news/azerbaijan-launches-preparation-for-khari-bulbul-festival-days-of-vagifs-poetry-in-shusha-span-classred-highlightphotospan |title=Azerbaijan launches preparation for Khari Bulbul festival, Days of Vagif's Poetry in Shusha (PHOTO) |date=21 January 2021 |access-date=27 January 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210127062048/https://www.news.az/news/azerbaijan-launches-preparation-for-khari-bulbul-festival-days-of-vagifs-poetry-in-shusha-span-classred-highlightphotospan |archive-date=27 January 2021 |work=International News.az |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===Museums=== |
===Museums=== |
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Line 207: | Line 202: | ||
While the city was under Armenian control, a number of museums were operated there: the State Museum of Fine Arts, G. A. Gabrielyants State Geological Museum, the Shushi History Museum, the [[Shushi Carpet Museum]] and the Shushi Art Gallery.<ref name="hetq">{{cite news |last=Petrosyan |first=Sara |date=25 January 2021 |title=Shushi's Museums: Most Collections Now in Azerbaijani Hands |url=https://hetq.am/en/article/126646 |work=hetq.am |access-date=27 January 2021 |archive-date=27 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127012331/https://hetq.am/en/article/126646 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
While the city was under Armenian control, a number of museums were operated there: the State Museum of Fine Arts, G. A. Gabrielyants State Geological Museum, the Shushi History Museum, the [[Shushi Carpet Museum]] and the Shushi Art Gallery.<ref name="hetq">{{cite news |last=Petrosyan |first=Sara |date=25 January 2021 |title=Shushi's Museums: Most Collections Now in Azerbaijani Hands |url=https://hetq.am/en/article/126646 |work=hetq.am |access-date=27 January 2021 |archive-date=27 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127012331/https://hetq.am/en/article/126646 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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The Shushi History Museum is located in a 19th-century mansion, in the centre of the historical quarter, and had a collection of artefacts related to Shusha from ancient to modern times.<ref name="hetq"/> The collection of the museum contains many ethnographic materials, including the goods of local masters. The museum contains household articles, photographs, and reproductions illustrating life of 19th-century inhabitants of Shusha. There are also sections dedicated to the [[Shusha massacre|1920 Shusha Massacre]] and the [[Battle of Shusha (1992)|capture of Shusha]] by Armenian forces in 1992. The G. A. Gabrielyants State Geological Museum |
The Shushi History Museum is located in a 19th-century mansion, in the centre of the historical quarter, and had a collection of artefacts related to Shusha from ancient to modern times.<ref name="hetq"/> The collection of the museum contains many ethnographic materials, including the goods of local masters. The museum contains household articles, photographs, and reproductions illustrating life of 19th-century inhabitants of Shusha. There are also sections dedicated to the [[Shusha massacre|1920 Shusha Massacre]] and the [[Battle of Shusha (1992)|capture of Shusha]] by Armenian forces in 1992. The G. A. Gabrielyants State Geological Museum, named after and created by Armenian geologist Grigori Gabrielyants, was opened in the building of [[Taza Mahalla Mosque]] in Shusha in 2014. It contains 480 samples of ore and fossil from 47 countries of the world.<ref name="hetq"/> |
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Except for the rugs kept at the [[Shushi Carpet Museum]], which were removed, the collections of the museums in Shusha were left behind and remained in the city after the [[Battle of Shusha (2020)|capture of Shusha by Azerbaijani forces]] in 2020.<ref name="hetq"/> |
Except for the rugs kept at the [[Shushi Carpet Museum]], which were removed, the collections of the museums in Shusha were left behind and remained in the city after the [[Battle of Shusha (2020)|capture of Shusha by Azerbaijani forces]] in 2020.<ref name="hetq"/> |
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In August 2021, satellite images released by Caucasus Heritage Watch (a watchdog group of researchers from [[Purdue University|Purdue]] and [[Cornell University|Cornell]]) revealed that between April 10 and June 5, 51 sculptures in the park of the Museum of Fine Arts were removed and the area completely cleared: |
In August 2021, satellite images released by Caucasus Heritage Watch (a watchdog group of researchers from [[Purdue University|Purdue]] and [[Cornell University|Cornell]]) revealed that between April 10 and June 5, 51 sculptures in the park of the Museum of Fine Arts were removed and the area completely cleared: "CHW is concerned about the condition of these artworks, which are the property of that museum. CHW asks Azerbaijani authorities to disclose the location of the confiscated sculptures and plans for public access" read the Facebook page of the organization.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Azerbaijanis remove sculptures from the park of Shushi Museum of Fine Arts|url=https://armenpress.am/eng/news/1060755/|access-date=2021-08-14|website=armenpress.am|language=en|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814221609/https://armenpress.am/eng/news/1060755/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite tweet|number=1426236001794543623|user=CaucasusHW|title=Satellite imagery shows that between April 10 and June 5, the 51 sculptures in the park of the Shushi Museum of Fin…<!-- full text of tweet that Twitter returned to the bot (excluding links) added by TweetCiteBot. This may be better truncated or may need expanding (TW limits responses to 140 characters) or case changes. --> |access-date=2021-08-14|language=en|date=Aug 13, 2021}}</ref> |
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== Demographics == |
== Demographics == |
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Line 224: | Line 219: | ||
|- |
|- |
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| 1823<ref name="Tbilisi 1866"/> |
| 1823<ref name="Tbilisi 1866"/> |
||
| |
| {{center|421}} |
||
| |
| {{center|27.5%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|1,111}} |
||
| |
| {{center|72.5%}} |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
! |
! {{center|1,532}} |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| 1830<ref name="penny"/> |
| 1830<ref name="penny"/> |
||
| |
| {{center|762}} |
||
| |
| {{center|44.2%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|963}} |
||
| |
| {{center|55.8%}} |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
! |
! {{center|1,725}} |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| 1851<ref name="Caucasus Calendar"/> |
| 1851<ref name="Caucasus Calendar"/> |
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Line 248: | Line 243: | ||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
! |
! {{center|15,194}} |
||
|- |
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| 1885<ref name="calendar85">{{Cite book |url=https://www.prlib.ru/item/417298 |title=Кавказский календарь на 1886 год |publisher=Tipografiya kantselyarii Ye.I.V. na Kavkaze, kazenny dom |year=1886 |edition=41st |publication-place=Tiflis |pages=125 |language=Russian |trans-title=Caucasian calendar for 1886 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216020307/https://www.prlib.ru/item/417298 |archive-date=16 December 2021}}</ref> |
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| {{center|14,000}} |
|||
| {{center|46.7%}} |
|||
| {{center|16,000}} |
|||
| {{center|53.3%}} |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
! {{center|30,000}} |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
| 1886<ref name="ethno-kavkaz">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/rnkarabax.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916085723/http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/rnkarabax.html|title=население нагорно-карабахской республики|archive-date=16 September 2011|website=www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru}}</ref> |
| 1886<ref name="ethno-kavkaz">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/rnkarabax.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916085723/http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/rnkarabax.html|title=население нагорно-карабахской республики|archive-date=16 September 2011|website=www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru}}</ref> |
||
| |
| {{center|15,188}} |
||
| |
| {{center|56.7%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|11,595}} |
||
| |
| {{center|43.3%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|23}} |
||
| |
| {{center|0.1%}} |
||
! |
! {{center|26,806}} |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| 1897<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/emp_lan_97_uezd.php?reg=397 г. Шуша] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604053100/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/emp_lan_97_uezd.php?reg=397 |date=2011-06-04 }} Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. '''Демоскоп Weekly'''</ref> |
| 1897<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/emp_lan_97_uezd.php?reg=397 г. Шуша] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604053100/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/emp_lan_97_uezd.php?reg=397 |date=2011-06-04 }} Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. '''Демоскоп Weekly'''</ref> |
||
| |
| {{center|14,420}} |
||
| |
| {{center|55.7%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|10,778}} |
||
| |
| {{center|41.6%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|683}} |
||
| |
| {{center|2.6%}} |
||
! |
! {{center|25,881}} |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| 1904<ref>{{ВТ-ЭСБЕ|Шуша}}</ref> |
| 1904<ref>{{ВТ-ЭСБЕ|Шуша}}</ref> |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| {{center|56.5%}} |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| {{center|43.2%}} |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
! |
! {{center|25,656}} |
||
|- |
|||
|1908<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.prlib.ru/item/417314 |title=Кавказский календарь на 1910 год |publisher=Tipografiya kantselyarii Ye.I.V. na Kavkaze, kazenny dom |year=1910 |edition=65th |publication-place=Tiflis |pages=425 |language=Russian |trans-title=Caucasian calendar for 1910 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315211448/https://www.prlib.ru/item/417314 |archive-date=15 March 2022}}</ref> |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
!37,591 |
|||
|- |
|||
|1910<ref name="yelizavetpolguberniya1910" /> |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
!39,413 |
|||
|- |
|||
|1914<ref name="calendar15">{{Cite book |url=https://www.prlib.ru/item/417320 |title=Кавказский календарь на 1915 год |publisher=Tipografiya kantselyarii Ye.I.V. na Kavkaze, kazenny dom |year=1915 |edition=70th |publication-place=Tiflis |pages=212 & 230–233 |language=Russian |trans-title=Caucasian calendar for 1915 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104234033/https://www.prlib.ru/item/417320 |archive-date=4 November 2021}}</ref> |
|||
| {{center|22,416}} |
|||
| {{center|52.7%}} |
|||
| {{center|18,836}} |
|||
| {{center|44.3%}} |
|||
| {{center|1,316}} |
|||
| {{center|3.1%}} |
|||
! {{center|42,568{{efn|Also appears as 42,586 in the list of populated places in the Caucasus.<ref name="calendar15" />}}}} |
|||
|- |
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| 1916<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |url=https://www.prlib.ru/item/417322 |title=Кавказский календарь на 1917 год |publisher=Tipografiya kantselyarii Ye.I.V. na Kavkaze, kazenny dom |year=1917 |edition=72nd |publication-place=Tiflis |pages=190–197 |language=Russian |trans-title=Caucasian calendar for 1917 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104233151/https://www.prlib.ru/item/417322 |archive-date=4 November 2021}}</ref> |
|||
| {{center|23,396}} |
|||
| {{center|53.3%}} |
|||
| {{center|19,091}} |
|||
| {{center|43.5%}} |
|||
| {{center|1,382}} |
|||
| {{center|3.2%}} |
|||
! {{center|43,869}} |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
! colspan=8 | March 1920: [[Shusha massacre|Massacre and expulsion of Armenian population]] by Azerbaijan |
! colspan=8 | March 1920: [[Shusha massacre|Massacre and expulsion of Armenian population]] by Azerbaijan |
||
|- |
|||
|1921<ref>{{Cite web |title=Шуши |url=http://www.karabagh.am/8Shushi.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526181009/http://www.karabagh.am/8Shushi.htm |archive-date=26 May 2011 |access-date=6 July 2022 |website=Кarabagh}}</ref> |
|||
|289 |
|||
|3.1% |
|||
|8,894 |
|||
|96.4% |
|||
|40 |
|||
|0.4% |
|||
!9,223 |
|||
|- |
|||
|1923<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://files.preslib.az/projects/shusha/en/b1.pdf |title=The population of Shusha |publisher=Administrative Department of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan |location=Baku |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031103708/https://files.preslib.az/projects/shusha/en/b1.pdf |archive-date=31 October 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
|209 |
|||
|3.0% |
|||
|6,682 |
|||
|95.9% |
|||
|74 |
|||
|1.1% |
|||
!6,965 |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
| 1926<ref name="ethno-kavkaz"/> |
| 1926<ref name="ethno-kavkaz"/> |
||
| |
| {{center|93}} |
||
| |
| {{center|1.8%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|4,900}} |
||
| |
| {{center|96.4%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|111}} |
||
| |
| {{center|2.2%}} |
||
! |
! {{center|5,104}} |
||
|- |
|||
|1931<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://istmat.org/node/17630 |title=Административно-территориальное деление Союза ССР (на 1 января 1931 года) |publisher=Издательство "Власть Советов" при Президиуме ВЦИК |year=1931 |location=Moscow |pages=233 |language=ru |trans-title=Administrative-territorial divisions of the USSR (as of 1 January 1931) |chapter=Закавказкая ССР |trans-chapter=Transcaucasian SSR |chapter-url=https://istmat.org/files/uploads/17630/sssr_ad-ter_delenie_1931_zsfsr.pdf}}</ref> |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
!5,291 |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
| 1939<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha39.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328124753/http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha39.html|title=Шушинский район 1939|archive-date=28 March 2012|website=www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru}}</ref> |
| 1939<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha39.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328124753/http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha39.html|title=Шушинский район 1939|archive-date=28 March 2012|website=www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru}}</ref> |
||
| |
| {{center|1,476}} |
||
| |
| {{center|27.2%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|3,701}} |
||
| |
| {{center|68.2%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|247}} |
||
| |
| {{center|4.5%}} |
||
! |
! {{center|5,424}} |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| 1959<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha59.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328124758/http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha59.html|title=Шушинский район 1959|archive-date=28 March 2012|website=www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru}}</ref> |
| 1959<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha59.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328124758/http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha59.html|title=Шушинский район 1959|archive-date=28 March 2012|website=www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru}}</ref> |
||
| |
| {{center|1,428}} |
||
| |
| {{center|23.3%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|4,453}} |
||
| |
| {{center|72.8%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|236}} |
||
| |
| {{center|3.9%}} |
||
! |
! {{center|6,117}} |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| 1970<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha70.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328124807/http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha70.html|title=Шушинский район 1970|archive-date=28 March 2012|website=www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru}}</ref> |
| 1970<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha70.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328124807/http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha70.html|title=Шушинский район 1970|archive-date=28 March 2012|website=www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru}}</ref> |
||
| |
| {{center|1,540}} |
||
| |
| {{center|17.7%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|6,974}} |
||
| |
| {{center|80.2%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|179}} |
||
| |
| {{center|2.1%}} |
||
! |
! {{center|8,693}} |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| 1979<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha79.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328124820/http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha79.html|title=Шушинский район 1979|archive-date=28 March 2012|website=www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru}}</ref> |
| 1979<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha79.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328124820/http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/shusha79.html|title=Шушинский район 1979|archive-date=28 March 2012|website=www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru}}</ref> |
||
| |
| {{center|1,409}} |
||
| |
| {{center|13.1%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|9,216}} |
||
| |
| {{center|85.5%}} |
||
| |
| {{center|159}} |
||
| |
| {{center|1.5%}} |
||
! |
! {{center|10,784}} |
||
|- |
|- |
||
! colspan=8 | September 1988: Nagorno-Karabakh conflict: [[1988 violence in Shusha and Stepanakert|Expulsion of Armenian population]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=de Waal|first1=Thomas|author-link1=Thomas de Waal|title=Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War|date=2013|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=9780814785782|page=[https://books.google. |
! colspan=8 | September 1988: Nagorno-Karabakh conflict: [[1988 violence in Shusha and Stepanakert|Expulsion of Armenian population]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=de Waal|first1=Thomas|author-link1=Thomas de Waal|title=Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War|date=2013|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=9780814785782|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=A8Z2zB-ceSsC&dq=shusha+realschule&pg=PA47 47]}}</ref> |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| 1989<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng89_reg2.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118160411/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng89_reg2.php|title=Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей.|archive-date=18 January 2012|website=www.demoscope.ru}}</ref> |
| 1989<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng89_reg2.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118160411/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng89_reg2.php|title=Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей.|archive-date=18 January 2012|website=www.demoscope.ru}}</ref> |
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| |
| |
||
| |
| |
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| <center>100%</center> |
|||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
|||
! <center>15,039</center> |
|||
! {{center|15,039}} |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
! colspan=8 | May 1992: [[Capture of Shusha (1992)|Capture by Armenian forces]]. Expulsion of Azerbaijani population<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-14 |title=The Battle of Shusha City and the Missed Lessons of the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War |url=https://mwi.usma.edu/the-battle-of-shusha-city-and-the-missed-lessons-of-the-2020-nagorno-karabakh-war/ |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=[[United States Military Academy#Department of Military Instruction|Modern War Institute]] |language=en-US |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319034339/https://mwi.usma.edu/the-battle-of-shusha-city-and-the-missed-lessons-of-the-2020-nagorno-karabakh-war/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
|||
! colspan=8 | May 1992: [[Capture of Shusha (1992)|Capture by Armenian forces]]. Expulsion of Azerbaijani population |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
| 2005<ref>[http://census.stat-nkr.am/nkr/1-1.pdf De facto and De Jure Population by Administrative Territorial Distribution and Sex] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302100506/http://census.stat-nkr.am/nkr/1-1.pdf |date=2011-03-02 }} Census in NKR, 2005. THE NATIONAL STATISTICAL SERVICE OF NAGORNO-KARABAKH REPUBLIC</ref> |
| 2005<ref>[http://census.stat-nkr.am/nkr/1-1.pdf De facto and De Jure Population by Administrative Territorial Distribution and Sex] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302100506/http://census.stat-nkr.am/nkr/1-1.pdf |date=2011-03-02 }} Census in NKR, 2005. THE NATIONAL STATISTICAL SERVICE OF NAGORNO-KARABAKH REPUBLIC</ref> |
||
| |
| {{center|3,105}} |
||
| |
| {{center|100%}} |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
! |
! {{center|3,105}} |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| 2009<ref>{{cite web|title=Statistical yearbook of NKR 2003–2009|url=http://stat-nkr.am/files/yearbooks/2003_2009/8_Nasl_31-49.pdf|website=stat-nkr.am|publisher=National Statistical Service of Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|page=37|access-date=2011-09-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827224134/http://stat-nkr.am/files/yearbooks/2003_2009/8_Nasl_31-49.pdf|archive-date=2011-08-27|url-status=live}}</ref> |
| 2009<ref>{{cite web|title=Statistical yearbook of NKR 2003–2009|url=http://stat-nkr.am/files/yearbooks/2003_2009/8_Nasl_31-49.pdf|website=stat-nkr.am|publisher=National Statistical Service of Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|page=37|access-date=2011-09-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827224134/http://stat-nkr.am/files/yearbooks/2003_2009/8_Nasl_31-49.pdf|archive-date=2011-08-27|url-status=live}}</ref> |
||
| |
| {{center|3,900}} |
||
| |
| {{center|100%}} |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
! |
! {{center|3,900}} |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| 2015<ref name="2015 pop">{{cite web |title=Table 1.6 NKR urban and rural settlements grouping according to de jure population number |url=http://stat-nkr.am/files/publications/2016/Mardahamar_2015_eng/CHAPTER%20%202/1_6.pdf |website=stat-nkr.am |publisher=Population Census 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307091745/http://stat-nkr.am/files/publications/2016/Mardahamar_2015/MAS_2/1_6LXH.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2020}}</ref> |
| 2015<ref name="2015 pop">{{cite web |title=Table 1.6 NKR urban and rural settlements grouping according to de jure population number |url=http://stat-nkr.am/files/publications/2016/Mardahamar_2015_eng/CHAPTER%20%202/1_6.pdf |website=stat-nkr.am |publisher=Population Census 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307091745/http://stat-nkr.am/files/publications/2016/Mardahamar_2015/MAS_2/1_6LXH.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2020}}</ref> |
||
| |
| {{center|4,064}} |
||
| |
| {{center|100%}} |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
| |
| |
||
! |
! {{center|4,064}} |
||
|- |
|- |
||
! colspan="8" |November 2020: [[Battle of Shusha (2020)|Capture by Azerbaijani forces]]. |
! colspan="8" |November 2020: [[Battle of Shusha (2020)|Capture by Azerbaijani forces]]. Exodus of Armenian population |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|} |
|} |
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According to the first Russian-held census of 1823 conducted by Russian officials Yermolov and Mogilevsky, in Shusha were 1,111 (72.5%) Muslim families and 421 (27.5%) Armenian families.<ref name="Tbilisi 1866"/>{{Page needed|date=March 2021}} Seven years later, according to 1830 data, the number of Muslim families in Shusha decreased to 963 (55.8%) and the number of Armenian families increased to 762 (44.2%).<ref name="penny"/><ref name="ReviewofRussianpos">"Review of Russian possessions in Transcaucasus" (''"Obozreniye Rossiyskih vladeniy za Kavkazom"''), vol. III, St.-Petersburg, 1836, p. 308</ref> |
According to the first Russian-held census of 1823 conducted by Russian officials Yermolov and Mogilevsky, in Shusha were 1,111 (72.5%) Muslim families and 421 (27.5%) Armenian families.<ref name="Tbilisi 1866"/>{{Page needed|date=March 2021}} Seven years later, according to 1830 data, the number of Muslim families in Shusha decreased to 963 (55.8%) and the number of Armenian families increased to 762 (44.2%).<ref name="penny"/><ref name="ReviewofRussianpos">"Review of Russian possessions in Transcaucasus" (''"Obozreniye Rossiyskih vladeniy za Kavkazom"''), vol. III, St.-Petersburg, 1836, p. 308</ref> |
||
[[George Keppel, 6th Earl of Albemarle|George Keppel, the Earl of Albemarle]], who wrote on his way back to England from India arrived in Karabakh from Persia in 1824, wrote that “Sheesha contains two thousand houses: three parts of the inhabitants are Tartars, and the remainder Armenians”.<ref>George Thomas Keppel; earl of Albemarle. Personal Narrative of a Journey from India to England. {{ISBN|1-4021-9149-9}}.</ref> |
[[George Keppel, 6th Earl of Albemarle|George Keppel, the Earl of Albemarle]], who wrote on his way back to England from India arrived in Karabakh from Persia in 1824, wrote that “Sheesha contains two thousand houses: three parts of the inhabitants are Tartars (i.e. Azerbaijanis), and the remainder Armenians”.<ref>George Thomas Keppel; earl of Albemarle. Personal Narrative of a Journey from India to England. {{ISBN|1-4021-9149-9}}.</ref> |
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[[File:Shushi, NKR.jpg|thumb|left|Shusha in 2015]] |
[[File:Shushi, NKR.jpg|thumb|left|Shusha in 2015]] |
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The 19th century also brought some alterations to the ethnic demographics of the region. Following the invasions from Iran (Persia), Russo-Persian wars and subjection of Karabakh khanate to Russia, many Muslim families emigrated to Iran while many Armenians moved to Shusha.<ref name="penny"/> |
The 19th century also brought some alterations to the ethnic demographics of the region. Following the invasions from Iran (Persia), Russo-Persian wars and subjection of Karabakh khanate to Russia, many Muslim families emigrated to Iran while many Armenians moved to Shusha.<ref name="penny"/> |
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In 1851, the population of Shusha was 15,194 people,<ref name="Caucasus Calendar">{{in lang|ru}} Caucasian Calendar (Кавказский Календарь), 1853, p. 128</ref> in |
In 1851, the population of Shusha was 15,194 people,<ref name="Caucasus Calendar">{{in lang|ru}} Caucasian Calendar (Кавказский Календарь), 1853, p. 128</ref> in 1885 – 30,000,<ref name="calendar85" /> and in 1910 – 39,413.<ref name="yelizavetpolguberniya1910">{{Cite book |title=Обзор Елизаветпольской губернии за 1910 г. |year=1912 |location=Tiflis |pages=141 |trans-title=Overview of the Elizavetpol Governorate for 1910}}</ref> |
||
By the end of the 1880s, the percentage of the Muslim population living in the Shusha district (part of the earlier Karabakh province) decreased even further and constituted only 41.5%, while the percentage of the Armenian population living in the same district increased to 58.2% in 1886. |
By the end of the 1880s, the percentage of the Muslim population living in the Shusha district (part of the earlier Karabakh province) decreased even further and constituted only 41.5%, while the percentage of the Armenian population living in the same district increased to 58.2% in 1886. |
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By the second half of the 19th century, Shusha had become the largest town in the Karabakh region. However, after the [[Shusha pogrom (1920)|pogrom against the Armenian population]] in 1920 and the burning of the town, out-migration, and its decreasing economic importance in relation to other regional cities like Yerevan and Baku, Shusha was reduced to a small provincial town of some 10,000 people. Its population afterward progressively dropped year by year, reaching 5,104 by 1926.<ref>R. H. Ter-Gabrielian, "[https://arar.sci.am/dlibra/publication/120023/edition/109256/content Shushu bnakchutyune 18-rd darits minchev mer orere]" [Shushi's population from the 18th century to our times] ''Hasarakakan Gitutyunner'' 9 (1963): p. 75.</ref> Armenians did not begin to return until after [[World War II]]. It was not until the 1960s that the Armenian quarter began to be rebuilt. |
By the second half of the 19th century, Shusha had become the largest town in the Karabakh region. However, after the [[Shusha pogrom (1920)|pogrom against the Armenian population]] in 1920 and the burning of the town, out-migration, and its decreasing economic importance in relation to other regional cities like Yerevan and Baku, Shusha was reduced to a small provincial town of some 10,000 people. Its population afterward progressively dropped year by year, reaching 5,104 by 1926.<ref>R. H. Ter-Gabrielian, "[https://arar.sci.am/dlibra/publication/120023/edition/109256/content Shushu bnakchutyune 18-rd darits minchev mer orere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912151945/https://arar.sci.am/dlibra/publication/120023/edition/109256/content |date=12 September 2021 }}" [Shushi's population from the 18th century to our times] ''Hasarakakan Gitutyunner'' 9 (1963): p. 75.</ref> Armenians did not begin to return until after [[World War II]]. It was not until the 1960s that the Armenian quarter began to be rebuilt. |
||
According to the last population census in 1989, the town of Shusha had a population of 17,000 and [[Shusha District (NKAO)|Shusha district]] had a population of 23,000. 91.7% of the population of Shusha district and 98% of Shusha town were Azerbaijani.<ref name="Amirbayov">Amirbayov, Elchin. "Shusha's Pivotal Role in a Nagorno-Karabagh Settlement" in Dr. Brenda Shaffer (ed.), Policy Brief Number 6, Cambridge, MA: Caspian Studies Program, Harvard University, December 2001, {{cite web |url=http://bcsia.ksg.harvard.edu/publication.cfm?program=CORE&ctype=paper&item_id=124 |title= |
According to the last population census in 1989, the town of Shusha had a population of 17,000 and [[Shusha District (NKAO)|Shusha district]] had a population of 23,000. 91.7% of the population of Shusha district and 98% of Shusha town were Azerbaijani.<ref name="Amirbayov">Amirbayov, Elchin. "Shusha's Pivotal Role in a Nagorno-Karabagh Settlement" in Dr. Brenda Shaffer (ed.), Policy Brief Number 6, Cambridge, MA: Caspian Studies Program, Harvard University, December 2001, {{cite web |url=http://bcsia.ksg.harvard.edu/publication.cfm?program=CORE&ctype=paper&item_id=124 |title=BCSIA - Publication - Shusha's Pivotal Role in a Nagorno-Karabagh Settlement |access-date=2006-09-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901225059/http://bcsia.ksg.harvard.edu/publication.cfm?program=CORE&ctype=paper&item_id=124 |archive-date=2006-09-01 }}.</ref> |
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Following the capture of Shusha by the Armenian forces in 1992, the Azerbaijani population of the town, consisting of 15,000 people,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/russian/features-54796981 |title=Шуша - цитадель Карабаха: почему она важна для азербайджанцев и армян |trans-title=Shusha is the citadel of Karabakh: why is it important for Azerbaijanis and Armenians |date=7 November 2020 |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://archive. |
Following the capture of Shusha by the Armenian forces in 1992, the Azerbaijani population of the town, consisting of 15,000 people,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/russian/features-54796981 |title=Шуша - цитадель Карабаха: почему она важна для азербайджанцев и армян |trans-title=Shusha is the citadel of Karabakh: why is it important for Azerbaijanis and Armenians |date=7 November 2020 |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20201109161012/https://www.bbc.com/russian/features-54796981 |archive-date=9 November 2020 |work=[[BBC Russian Service]] |language=ru |url-status=live }}</ref> was killed and expulsed.<ref name="ANS Press">{{cite news|last=Rafiqoğlu|first=Aqşin|date=6 May 2010|title=Şuşanın işğalı ilə bağlı beynəlxalq təşkilatlara bəyanat ünvanlanıb|language=az|trans-title=A statement was made to international organizations on the occupation of Shusha|location=ANS Press|url=http://www.anspress.com/siyaset/06-05-2010/susanin-isgali-ile-bagli-beynelxalq-teskilatlara-beyanat-unvanlanib|url-status=dead|access-date=21 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044532/http://www.anspress.com/siyaset/06-05-2010/susanin-isgali-ile-bagli-beynelxalq-teskilatlara-beyanat-unvanlanib|archive-date=December 1, 2017}}</ref> Before the [[2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War]], the population consisted of over 4,000 Armenians,<ref name="2015 pop"/> mainly refugees from [[Armenians in Baku|Baku]],<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fatullayev|first1=Eynulla|author-link1=Eynulla Fatullayev|script-title=ru:"Карабахский дневник" азербайджанского журналиста|url=http://www.nv.am/archive-2012/17231-2012-01-19-09-00-08|date=19 January 2012|work=Novoye Vremya|language=ru|quote=Как ни странно, но Шушу в основном заселили бакинские армяне, и в целом город сохранил свой традиционно интеллигентный состав населения. Всюду в Шуше я встречал тепло и ностальгию бакинцев по старому Баку.|access-date=21 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208071824/http://www.nv.am/archive-2012/17231-2012-01-19-09-00-08|archive-date=8 December 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Antanesian|first1=Vahe |title=Շուշի [Shushi]|url=http://asbarez.com/arm/192562/%D5%B7%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B7%D5%AB-2/|work=[[Asbarez]]|date=8 May 2014|language=hy|quote=Շուշիում ներկայումս բնակւում է 3000 մարդ, որոնք հիմնականում փախստականներ են Բաքուից:|access-date=21 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208140438/http://asbarez.com/arm/192562/%D5%B7%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B7%D5%AB-2/|archive-date=8 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> and other parts of Karabakh and Azerbaijan.<ref>{{cite news|title=Armenian Karabakh Official Says Mosques Being Repaired |url=http://www.rferl.org/a/Armenian_Karabakh_Officials_Says_Mosques_Being_Repaired/2223517.html|agency=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|date=18 November 2010|quote=Town residents, many of them former Armenian refugees from Baku and other parts of Azerbaijan...|access-date=28 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001151242/https://www.rferl.org/a/Armenian_Karabakh_Officials_Says_Mosques_Being_Repaired/2223517.html|archive-date=1 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Beglarian|first1=Ashot|title=Karabakh: A Tale of Two Cities|url=https://iwpr.net/global-voices/karabakh-tale-two-cities|agency=[[Institute for War and Peace Reporting]]|date=15 June 2007|quote=Now Baku's Armenians are scattered all over the world, with many in Shusha. Saryan noted that Shusha is also home to Armenians who lost their homes in Mardakert and Hadrut...|access-date=21 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208184509/https://iwpr.net/global-voices/karabakh-tale-two-cities|archive-date=8 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> As a result of the first war, no Azerbaijanis live in Shusha today, although Azerbaijani authorities plan to repopulate it with Azerbaijani displaced persons who fled Shusha during the first war.<ref name="Amirbayov"/><ref>{{cite news|last1=Bardsley|first1=Daniel|title=Shusha breathes new life after years of strife |url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/europe/shusha-breathes-new-life-after-years-of-strife|work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]]|date=21 July 2009|location=Abu Dhabi|quote=Now, the only residents of Shusha are 4,000 Armenians; all of the Azeris fled during the fighting.|access-date=28 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301182042/http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/europe/shusha-breathes-new-life-after-years-of-strife|archive-date=1 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Azerbaijani residents to return to Shusha in Karabakh by next summer?|url=https://jam-news.net/shusha-resettlement-of-citizens-faig-ismayilov-azerbaijan-news/|work=JAMnews|date=21 December 2020|location=Baku|access-date=6 January 2021|archive-date=7 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107102708/https://jam-news.net/shusha-resettlement-of-citizens-faig-ismayilov-azerbaijan-news/|url-status=live}}</ref> Shusha's Armenian population fled shortly before the [[Capture of Shusha (2020)|city was recaptured]] by Azerbaijani forces during the [[2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Berberian|first1=Viken|date=21 December 2020|title=Armenia's Tragedy in Shushi |url=https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2020/12/21/armenias-tragedy-in-shushi/|work=The New York Review|access-date=6 January 2021 |archive-date=8 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108222145/https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2020/12/21/armenias-tragedy-in-shushi/|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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==Economy and tourism== |
==Economy and tourism== |
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[[File:Road leading to Shushi.JPG|thumb|Shusha as seen from the road approaching the town]] |
[[File:Road leading to Shushi.JPG|thumb|Shusha as seen from the road approaching the town]] |
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While the town was under Armenian control, there were efforts to revive the city's economy by the Shushi Revival Fund,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.shushi.org/en/index.php |title= |
While the town was under Armenian control, there were efforts to revive the city's economy by the Shushi Revival Fund,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.shushi.org/en/index.php |title=The "Shushi Revival" Fund |access-date=2012-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222165657/http://www.shushi.org/en/index.php |archive-date=2012-12-22 |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[ArmeniaFund]], and by the government of [[Republic of Artsakh|Artsakh]]. Investment in tourism led to the opening of the Shushi Hotel, the Avan Shushi Plaza Hotel and the Shushi Grand Hotel. A tourist information office was also opened,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.shushi.org/prog_proj_new.php |title=Շուշի Վերածնունդ» Հիմնադրամ |access-date=2012-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009025349/http://www.shushi.org/prog_proj_new.php |archive-date=2011-10-09 |url-status=live }}</ref> the first in the [[Republic of Artsakh]]. The two remaining Armenian churches ([[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral|Ghazanchetsots]] and [[Kanach Zham]]) were renovated, and schools, museums and the Naregatsi Arts Institute have opened. |
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After retaking the town, Azerbaijani authorities renovated and inaugurated Khari Bulbul<ref>{{cite news |title=Official web-site of President of Azerbaijan Republic |url=https://en.president.az/articles/51467 |access-date=4 November 2021 |agency=en.president.az |date=12 May 2021 |language=en |archive-date=4 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104171829/https://en.president.az/articles/51467 |url-status=live }}</ref> and Karabakh hotels.<ref>{{cite news |title=President Ilham Aliyev and First Lady Mehriban Aliyeva attended inauguration of "Qarabag" hotel in Shusha |url=https://azertag.az/en/xeber/President_Ilham_Aliyev_and_First_Lady_Mehriban_Aliyeva_attended_inauguration_of_Qarabag_hotel_in_Shusha_VIDEO-1863603 |access-date=4 November 2021 |agency=AZERTAC |date=29 August 2021 |language=en |archive-date=4 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104171835/https://azertag.az/en/xeber/President_Ilham_Aliyev_and_First_Lady_Mehriban_Aliyeva_attended_inauguration_of_Qarabag_hotel_in_Shusha_VIDEO-1863603 |url-status=live }}</ref> In August 2021, Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev laid foundation stone for Hotel and Conference Center in Shusha.<ref>{{cite news |title=President Ilham Aliyev laid foundation stone for Hotel and Conference Center in Shusha |url=https://apa.az/en/xeber/official-news/president-ilham-aliyev-laid-foundation-stone-for-hotel-and-conference-center-in-shusha-356724 |access-date=4 November 2021 |work=Apa.az |agency=Apa.az |language=en |archive-date=4 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104172916/https://apa.az/en/xeber/official-news/president-ilham-aliyev-laid-foundation-stone-for-hotel-and-conference-center-in-shusha-356724 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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==Twin towns – sister cities== |
==Twin towns – sister cities== |
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* {{flagicon|HUN}} [[Gyöngyös]], [[Hungary]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.apa.az/news/192611|title=Gyöngyös city of Hungary fraternize with Azerbaijan's occupied town of Shusha - PHOTOSESSION|first=APA Information Agency, APA|last=Holding|website=apa.az|access-date=3 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805044408/http://en.apa.az/news/192611 |
* {{flagicon|HUN}} [[Gyöngyös]], [[Hungary]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.apa.az/news/192611|title=Gyöngyös city of Hungary fraternize with Azerbaijan's occupied town of Shusha - PHOTOSESSION|first=APA Information Agency, APA |last=Holding|website=apa.az|access-date=3 April 2018|archive-date=5 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805044408/http://en.apa.az/news/192611|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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* {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Kayseri]], [[Turkey]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://interfax.az/view/831983|title=Шуша и Кайсери станут городами–побратимами|first=Interfax Азербайджан|last=Holding|website=interfax.az|access-date=13 April 2021|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413123233/http://interfax.az/view/831983|url-status=live}}</ref> |
* {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Kayseri]], [[Turkey]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://interfax.az/view/831983|title=Шуша и Кайсери станут городами–побратимами|first=Interfax Азербайджан|last=Holding|website=interfax.az|access-date=13 April 2021 |archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413123233/http://interfax.az/view/831983|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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* {{flagicon|KAZ}} [[Turkistan (city)|Turkistan]], [[Kazakhstan]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Токаев и Алиев подписали декларацию об «укреплении стратегических отношений» между Казахстаном и Азербайджаном |url=https://rus.azattyq.org/a/32002556.html/ |website=Радио Азаттык |access-date=26 August 2022 |language=ru |date=24 August 2022 |archive-date=25 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825234132/https://rus.azattyq.org/a/32002556.html/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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* {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Erzurum]], [[Turkey]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Между Шушой и Эрзурумом подписан протокол о побратимстве - ФОТО |url=https://ru.baku.ws/politika/162853 |website=Baku.ws |access-date=4 October 2022 |language=ru |date=21 September 2022 |archive-date=23 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923063747/https://ru.baku.ws/politika/162853 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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* {{flagicon|BUL}} [[Veliko Tarnovo]], [[Bulgaria]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Шуша и Велико-Тырново стали побратимами (Фото) |url=https://www.kaspiy.az/goroda-shusha-i-veliko-tyrnovo-stali-pobratimami-foto |website=Газета Каспий |access-date=4 October 2022 |language=ru |date=30 September 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001050050/https://www.kaspiy.az/goroda-shusha-i-veliko-tyrnovo-stali-pobratimami-foto |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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== Notable natives == |
== Notable natives == |
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{{clear}} |
{{clear}} |
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== Notes == |
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{{Notelist}} |
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== References == |
== References == |
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===Sources=== |
===Sources=== |
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* {{cite encyclopedia |title= |
* {{cite encyclopedia |title= Georgia v. Linguistic Contacts With Iranian Languages |last= Chkeidze |first= Thea |url= http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/georgia-v- |encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. X, Fasc. 5 |pages= 486–490 |year= 2001 }} |
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* {{cite book|last=De Waal|first=Thomas|author-link=Thomas de Waal|title=Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War|date=2003|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=9780814785782}} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia |last1= Everett-Heath |first1= John | article = Shusha | title=The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0191866326 |edition=4|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191866326.001.0001/acref-9780191866326-e-6841?rskey=8RFr1f&result=2}} |
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1= Everett-Heath |first1= John | article = Shusha | title=The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0191866326 |edition=4|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191866326.001.0001/acref-9780191866326-e-6841?rskey=8RFr1f&result=2}} |
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* {{cite book |last1= Fisher |first1= William Bayne |last2= Avery |first2= P. |last3= Hambly |first3= G. R. G. |last4= Melville |first4= C. |title= The Cambridge History of Iran |volume= 7 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=H20Xt157iYUC&q=agha+muhammad+khan+invade+georgia |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location= Cambridge |year= 1991 |isbn= 0521200954 }} |
* {{cite book |last1= Fisher |first1= William Bayne |last2= Avery |first2= P. |last3= Hambly |first3= G. R. G. |last4= Melville |first4= C. |title= The Cambridge History of Iran |volume= 7 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=H20Xt157iYUC&q=agha+muhammad+khan+invade+georgia |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location= Cambridge |year= 1991 |isbn= 0521200954 }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Mikaberidze |first=Alexander |title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia |volume=1 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2011 |isbn=978-1598843361}} |
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* {{cite book|last= Walker|first= Christopher J.|author-link= Christopher J. Walker|chapter= The Armenian presence in mountainous Karabakh|title= Transcaucasian Boundaries|editor1= John Wright|editor2= Richard Schofield|editor3= [[Suzanne Goldenberg]]|location= London|publisher= [[Taylor & Francis]]|year= 2000|isbn= 9781135368500}} |
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== External links == |
== External links == |
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* [http://www.armeniapedia.org/index.php?title=Shushi_Town Armeniapedia entry on Shushi] |
* [http://www.armeniapedia.org/index.php?title=Shushi_Town Armeniapedia entry on Shushi] |
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* [http://randbild.photoshelter.com/gallery/Shushi-The-Twentieth-Spring/G0000.6aUitqt6d4/ "The Twentieth Spring"] – A photo essay on Shushi 20 years after it was taken over by Armenian forces (randbild | 2011) |
* [http://randbild.photoshelter.com/gallery/Shushi-The-Twentieth-Spring/G0000.6aUitqt6d4/ "The Twentieth Spring"] – A photo essay on Shushi 20 years after it was taken over by Armenian forces (randbild | 2011) |
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* [http://www.karabakhfoundation.org/pages/history-and-culture/karabakh-region/districts-of-karabakh/shusha/ Historical neighborhoods of Shusha]{{Dead link|date=February 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} |
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{{Shusha District}} |
{{Shusha District}} |
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{{Shushi Region}} |
{{Shushi Region}} |
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{{Administrative divisions of Artsakh}} |
{{Administrative divisions of Artsakh}} |
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{{Turkic Capital of Culture}} |
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{{Shusha State Historical and Architectural Reserve}} |
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{{Portal bar|Geography}} |
{{Portal bar|Geography}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category:Shusha]] |
[[Category:Shusha]] |
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[[Category:Populated places in Azerbaijan]] |
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[[Category:Populated places in the Republic of Artsakh]] |
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[[Category:Districts of Azerbaijan]] |
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[[Category:Elisabethpol Governorate]] |
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[[Category:Populated places in Shusha District]] |
[[Category:Populated places in Shusha District]] |
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[[Category:Populated places in Shushi |
[[Category:Populated places in Shushi Province]] |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:Districts of Azerbaijan]] |
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[[Category:Elizavetpol Governorate]] |
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[[Category:1752 establishments]] |
[[Category:1752 establishments]] |
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[[Category:Former Armenian inhabited settlements]] |
Latest revision as of 18:19, 15 March 2024
Shusha / Shushi
| |
---|---|
Coordinates: 39°45′30″N 46°44′54″E / 39.75833°N 46.74833°E | |
Country | Azerbaijan |
Region | Karabakh |
District | Shusha |
Government | |
• Mayor | Bayram Safarov |
• Special representative | Aydin Karimov[1] |
Area | |
• Total | 5.5 km2 (2.1 sq mi) |
Highest elevation | 1,800 m (5,900 ft) |
Lowest elevation | 1,400 m (4,600 ft) |
Population (2015)[2] | |
• Total | 4,064 |
Demonym(s) | Şuşalı ("Shushaly"; in Azerbaijani
) Շուշեցի ("Shushets'i"; in Armenian) |
Time zone | UTC+4 (AZT) |
ISO 3166 code | AZ-SUS |
Vehicle registration | 58 AZ |
Website | shusha-ih |
Shusha (Azerbaijani: Şuşa, ) or Shushi (Armenian: Շուշի) is a city in Azerbaijan, in the region of Nagorno-Karabakh. Situated at an altitude of 1,400–1,800 metres (4,600–5,900 ft) in the Karabakh mountains, the city was a mountain resort in the Soviet era.
Most sources date Shusha's establishment to the 1750s by Panah Ali Khan,[3] founder of the Karabakh Khanate, coinciding with the foundation of the fortress of Shusha. Some attribute this to an alliance between Panah Ali Khan and Melik Shahnazar, the local Armenian prince (melik) of Varanda.[4] In these accounts, the name of the town originated from a nearby Armenian village called Shosh or Shushikent (see § Etymology for alternative explanations).[5] Conversely, some sources describe Shusha as an important center within the self-governing Armenian melikdoms of Karabakh in the 1720s,[6] and others say the plateau was already the site of an Armenian fortification.[7] From the mid-18th century to 1822, Shusha was the capital of the Karabakh Khanate. The town became one of the cultural centers of the South Caucasus after the Russian conquest of the Caucasus region from Qajar Iran in the first half of the 19th century.[8] Over the course of the 19th century, the town grew in size to become a city, and was home to many Armenian and Azerbaijani intellectuals, poets, writers and musicians (including Azerbaijani ashiks, mugham singers and kobuz players).[9][10]
The town has religious, cultural and strategic importance to both groups. Shusha is often considered the cradle of Azerbaijan's music and poetry, and one of the leading centres of the Azerbaijani culture.[11][12] Shusha also contains a number of Armenian Apostolic churches, including Ghazanchetsots Cathedral and Kanach Zham, and serves as a land link between Nagorno-Karabakh and Armenia, via the Lachin corridor to the west.[13] Throughout modern history, the city fostered a mixed Armenian–Azerbaijani population. The first available demographic information about the city in 1823 suggests the city had an Azerbaijani majority.[14] The Armenian inhabitants of the city steadily grew over time to constitute a majority of the city's population until the Shusha massacre in 1920, in which the Armenian half of the city was destroyed by Azerbaijani forces, resulting in the death or expulsion of the Armenian population, up to 20,000 people.[15][16][17]
The city has suffered significant destruction and depopulation during the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. After the capture of Shusha in 1992 by Armenian forces during First Nagorno-Karabakh War, the city's Azerbaijani population fled, and most of the city was destroyed.[18] Between May 1992 and November 2020, Shusha was under the de facto control of the breakaway Republic of Artsakh and administered as the centre of its Shushi Province. On 8 November 2020, Azerbaijani forces retook the city during the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War following a three-day long battle.[19][20] The Armenian population of the city fled, and multiple reports emerged that the Armenian cultural heritage of the city was being destroyed.[21][22][23] The Azerbaijani government opened the city to tourists from Azerbaijan in 2022 and plans to start resettling the city in 2023.[24]
Etymology
Several historians believe Shusha derives from the New Persian Shīsha ("glass, vessel, bottle, flask").[25][26] According to the Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names, when Iranian ruler Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar approached the town with his army, he reportedly told the ruler of Karabakh Ibrahim Khalil Khan:
God is pouring stones on thy head. Sit ye not then in thy fortress of glass.[25]
Panahabad ("City of Panah"), Shusha's previous name, was a tribute to Panah Ali Khan, the first ruler of the Karabakh Khanate.[25]
According to the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, published in the final decades of the Russian Empire, the town's name comes from the nearby village Shushikent[27] (called Shosh in Armenian), which literally means "Shusha village" in the Azerbaijani language. Conversely, the Armenian historian Leo (1860–1932) considered it more likely that the village Shosh received its name from the fortress, which he considered the older settlement.[28]
According to Armenian sources, the name Shusha most likely derives from the dialectal Armenian word shosh/shush (Armenian: շոշ/շուշ), meaning tree sprout or, figuratively, a high place, first applied either to the adjacent village Shosh or to Shusha itself.[29][30] The form Shusha can also be explained as the genitive form of shosh/shush, as -a or -ay is a common declensional ending for placenames in pre-modern and dialectal Armenian.[30]
In the first written reference to the settlement in a 15th-century Armenian manuscript, the name is rendered as Shushu.[31] Besides the common Armenian name Shushi, the town has historically been referred to in Armenian by various names, including Shoshi/Shushva Berd, Shoshi Sghnakh, Shoshvaghala, which all mean "Shosh/Shushi Fortress".[32]
History
Foundation
A settlement at Shusha is first recorded in a 15th-century illustrated Armenian gospel kept on display at Yerevan's Matenadaran (archival number 8211), which mentions a "Shushu village". The gospel was written by the scribe and artist Ter-Manuel in 1428, and is the earliest known artifact from the town.[33][34][35][36][31][37]
Some Armenian sources identify Shusha with a fortress called Shikakʻar or Kʻaraglukh, where the 9th-century Armenian prince Sahl Smbatean is said to have defeated an invading Arab army.[32][38] According to several sources, a settlement called Shosh served as an ancient fortress in the Armenian principality of Varanda, and had traditionally belonged to the Melik-Shahnazarian princely dynasty.[7][39][40] The fortress was described as a strategic stronghold in one of the Eastern Armenian military districts, called sghnakhs, playing a key role in the Armenian commander Avan Yuzbashi's campaign against Ottoman forces during their incursion into of the South Caucasus in the 1720s and 1730s.[41] Armenian historian and Shusha native Ashot Hovhannisian wrote that the fortress walls must have been built by Avan Yuzbashi in 1724, if not earlier.[28]
Kehva Chelebi, an early Armenian national activist who maintained correspondence between the meliks of Karabakh and the Russian authorities, in a 1725 report describes Shusha as a town and a fort:
… The nearest Armenian stronghold … was Shushi. Shushi is four days' distance from Shemakhi. Armed Armenians under the command of Avan Yuzbashi guard it. After meeting with the Armenian leaders, including the Patriarch, they returned to Derbent via Shemakhi. Rocky mountains surround the town of Shushi. The number of the armed Armenians has not been determined. There are rumors that the Armenians have defeated the Turks in a number of skirmishes in Karabagh …[42]
19th-century Georgian scholar Alexander Tsagareli's work Letters and other historical documents of the 18th century regarding Georgia, Vol. 1 contains a 1769 letter by Georgian king Erekle II to Russian diplomat Count P. Panin, which states that there was "an ancient fortress in the realm of the Khamsa [melikdoms]" which was "conquered, through deceit" by "one Muslim man from the Jevanshir tribe."[39] The same information about the ancient fortress is confirmed by the Russian field marshal Alexander Suvorov in a letter to Prince Grigory Potemkin.[43][44] Suvorov writes that the Armenian prince Melik Shahnazar of Varanda surrendered his fortress Shushikala to "certain Panah", whom he called a chief of nomadic Muslims living near the Karabakh borders.[43] When discussing Karabakh and Shusha in the 18th century, the Russian diplomat and historian S. M. Bronevskiy writes in his Historical Notes that Shusha fortress was a possession of the Melik-Shahnazarian clan, which was given to Panah Ali Khan in return for aid against the other Armenian meliks of Karabakh.[45] Russian historian P. G. Butkov (1775–1857) writes that "Shushi village" was given to Panah Ali Khan by the Melik-Shahnazarian prince after they entered into an alliance, and that Panah Ali Khan fortified the village.[46][47] The missionary Joseph Wolff (1795–1862), during his mission in the Middle East, visited "Shushee, in the province of Carabagh, in Armenia Major".[48]
Some sources, including Mirza Jamal Javanshir, Mirza Adigozal bey, Abbasgulu Bakikhanov and Mirza Yusuf Nersesov, attest to the foundation of the town in 1750–1752 (according to other sources, 1756–1757) by Panah Ali Khan (r. 1748–1763), the founder and the first ruler of the Karabakh Khanate (1748–1822), which comprised both Lowland and Highland Karabakh.[49][50] The mid-18th century foundation is supported by the second edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam,[3] and the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary.[5]
According to Mirza Jamal Javanshir, the author of the Persian-language text History of Karabakh,[51] one of the most significant chronicles on the history of Karabakh in 18th-19th centuries, the Karabakh nobility assembled to discuss the danger of invasion from Iran and told Panah Ali Khan, "We must build among the impassable mountains such an inviolable and inaccessible fort, so that no strong enemy could take it." Melik Shahnazar of Varanda, who was the first of the Armenian meliks (dukes) to accept the suzerainty of Panah Ali Khan and who would remain his loyal supporter, suggested a location for the new fortress. Thus, Panahabad-Shusha was founded.
According to Mirza Jamal Javanshir, before Panah Ali Khan constructed the fortress there were no buildings there and it was used as cropland and pasture by the people of the nearby village of Shoshi.[51][52] Panah khan resettled to Shusha the population of Shahbulag and some nearby villages and built strong fortifications.[52]
Another account is presented by Raffi (1835–1888), an Armenian novelist and historian, in his work The Princedoms of Khamsa, which asserts that the place where Shushi was built was desolate and uninhabited before Panah Ali Khan's arrival. He states, "[Panah-Ali Khan and Melik-Shahnazar of Varanda] soon completed the construction (1762) [of the fortress] and moved the Armenian population of the nearby village of Shosh (Շոշ), called also Shoshi, or Shushi into the fortress.″[53]
Conflict with the Qajars
Although Panah Ali Khan had been in conflict with Nader Shah, the new ruler of Persia, Adil Shah, issued a firman (decree) recognizing Panah Ali as the Khan of Karabakh.[54] Less than a year after Shusha was founded, the Karabakh Khanate was attacked by Mohammad Hassan Khan Qajar, one of the major claimants to the Iranian throne. During the Safavid Empire Karabakh was for almost two centuries ruled by Ziyad-oglu family of the clan of Qajars (of Turkic origin),[55] and therefore, Muhammed Hassan Khan considered Karabakh his hereditary estate.[52][56][57][58][verification needed]
Muhammed Hassan Khan besieged Shusha (Panahabad at that time) but soon had to retreat because of the attack on his territory by his major opponent, Karim Khan Zand. His retreat was so hasty that he even left his cannons under the walls of Shusha fortress. Panah Ali Khan counterattacked the retreating troops of Mohammad Hassan khan and even briefly took Ardabil across the Aras River.
In 1756 (or 1759), Shusha and the Karabakh Khanate underwent a new attack from Fath-Ali Khan Afshar, ruler of Urmia. With his 30,000 strong army, Fath-Ali Khan also managed to gain support from the meliks of Jraberd and Talish (Gulistan), however, Melik Shahnazar of Varanda continued to support Panah Ali Khan. The Siege of Shusha lasted for six months and Fath-Ali Khan eventually had to retreat.
When Karim Khan Zand took control of much of Iran, he forced Panah Ali Khan to come to Shiraz (capital of Zand-ruled Iran), where he died as a hostage.[59] Panah Ali Khan's son Ibrahim Khalil Khan was sent back to Karabakh as governor.[60] Under him, the Karabakh Khanate became one of the strongest state formations[clarification needed] and Shusha grew. According to travellers who visited Shusha at the end of 18th-early 19th centuries the town had about 2,000 houses and approximately 10,000 population.[citation needed]
In summer 1795, Shusha was subjected to a major attack by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, son of Mohammad Hassan Khan who had attacked Shusha in 1752. Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar's goal was to end with the feudal fragmentation and to restore the old Safavid State in Iran.[citation needed] By early 1795, he had already secured mainland Iran and was directly afterwards poised to bring the entire Caucasus region back within the Iranian domains.[61] For this purpose he also wanted to proclaim himself Shah of Iran. However, according to the Safavid tradition, the shah had to take control over the whole of South Caucasus and Dagestan before his coronation.[citation needed] Therefore, the Karabakh Khanate and its fortified capital Shusha were the first and major obstacle to achieve these ends.
Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar besieged Shusha with the centre part of a 70,000-strong army, after having crossed the Aras River.[62] The right and left wings were sent to resubjugate Shirvan-Dagestan and Erivan respectively. Agha Mohammad Khan himself led the centre part of the main army, besieging Shusha between 8 July and 9 August 1795.[63] Ibrahim Khalil khan mobilized the population for a long-term defense. The number of militia in Shusha reached 15,000.[citation needed] Women fought together with men.[citation needed] The Armenian population of Karabakh also actively participated in this struggle against the Iranians and fought side by side with the Muslim population, jointly organizing ambushes in the mountains and forests.[citation needed]
The siege lasted for 33 days. Not being able to capture Shusha, Agha Mohammad Khan ceased the siege[64] and advanced to Tiflis (present-day Tbilisi), which despite desperate resistance was occupied and exposed to unprecedented destruction. Ibrahim Khalil Khan eventually surrendered to Mohammad Khan after negotiations, including the paying of regular tribute and to surrender hostages, although the Qajar forces were still denied entrance to Shusha.[64] Since the main objective was Georgia, Mohammad Khan was willing to have Karabakh secured by this agreement for now, for he and his army subsequently moved further.[64]
In 1797, Agha Mohammad Shah Qajar, having successfully resubjugated Georgia and the wider Caucasus and having declared himself shah, decided to carry out a second attack on Karabakh.
Trying to avenge his previous humiliating defeat, Agha Mohammad Shah devastated the surrounding villages near Shusha. The population had not recovered from the previous 1795 attack and also suffered from a serious drought which lasted for three years. The artillery of the attackers also inflicted serious losses on the city defenders. Thus, in 1797 Agha Mohammad Shah succeeded in seizing Shusha and Ibrahim Khalil Khan had to flee to Dagestan.
However, several days after the seizure of Shusha, Agha Mohammad Khan was killed in mysterious circumstances by his bodyguards in the town.[65] Ibrahim Khalil Khan returned to Shusha and ordered that the shah's body be honourably buried until further instructions from the nephew and heir of Agha Mohammad Shah, Baba Khan, who soon assumed the title of Fath-Ali Shah.[66] Ibrahim Khan, in order to maintain peaceful relations with Tehran and retain his position as the Khan of Karabakh, gave his daughter Agha Begom, known as Aghabaji, as one of the wives of the new shah.[66]
Within the Russian Empire
From the early 19th century, Russian ambitions in the Caucasus to increase its territories at the expense of neighbouring Qajar Iran and Ottoman Turkey began to rise. Following the annexation of Georgia in 1801, some of the khanates agreed to become Russian protectorates in the immediate years afterwards.[citation needed] In 1804, the Russian general Pavel Tsitsianov directly invaded Qajar Iran, initiating the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813. Amidst the war, in 1805, an agreement was made between the Karabakh Khanate and the Russian Empire on the transfer of the Karabakh Khanate to Russia during the war, but was not fully realized, as both parties were still at war and the Russians were unable to consolidate any effective control over Karabakh.[citation needed]
The Russian Empire consolidated its power in the Karabakh Khanate following the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, when Iran was forced to recognize the Karabakh Khanate,[67] along most of the other khanates they possessed in the Caucasus, as belonging to Russia, comprising present-day Dagestan and most of the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan, while officially ceding Georgia as well, thus irrevocably losing the greater part of its Caucasian territories.[68] Absolute consolidation of Russian power over Karabakh and the recently conquered parts of the Caucasus from Iran were confirmed with the outcome of the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828 and the ensuing Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828.[69]
During the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828, the citadel at Shusha held out for several months and never fell. After this Shusha ceased to be a capital of a khanate, which was dissolved in 1822, and instead became an administrative capital first of the Karabakh province (1822–1840), and then of the Shusha Uyezd of the Elisabethpol Governorate (1840–1923). Shusha grew and developed, with successive waves of migrants moving to the city, particularly Armenians, who formed a demographic majority in the surrounding highlands.[70][14][71]
Beginning from the 1830s the town was divided into two parts: Turkic-speaking Muslims lived in the eastern lower quarters, while Armenian Christians settled in the relatively new western upper quarters of the town. The Muslim part of the town was divided into seventeen quarters. Each quarter had its own mosque, Turkish bath, water-spring and also a quarter representative, who would be elected from among the elders (aksakals) and would function similarly to the head of a modern-day municipality. The Armenian part of the town consisted of 12 quarters, five churches, a town and district school and a girls' seminary.
The population of the town primarily dealt with trade, horse-breeding, carpet-weaving and wine and vodka production. Shusha was also the biggest centre of silk production in the Caucasus. Most of the Muslim population of the town and of Karabakh, in general, was engaged in sheep and horse-breeding and therefore, had a semi-nomadic lifestyle, spending wintertime in lowland Karabakh in wintering pastures and spring and summer in summering pastures in Shusha and other mountainous parts.[citation needed]
In the 19th century, Shusha was one of the great cities of the Caucasus, larger and more prosperous than either Baku or Yerevan.[72] Standing in the middle of a net of caravan routes, it had ten caravanserais.[72] It was well known for its silk trade, its paved roads, brightly coloured carpets, big stone houses, and fine-bred horses.[72] In 1824, George Keppel, the Earl of Albemarle, passed through the city.[72] He found two thousand houses in the town, with three-quarters of the inhabitants Azerbaijanis and one-quarter Armenian.[72] He furthermore noted regarding the town;[72]
(...) The language is a dialect of the Turkish; but its inhabitants, with the exception of the Armenians, generally read and write Persian. The trade is carried on principally by the Armenians, between the towns of Sheki, Nakshevan, Khoi and Tabriz."
Early 20th century
The beginning of the 20th century marked the first Armenian-Tartar clashes throughout Azerbaijan. This new phenomenon had two causes. Firstly, it was the result of increased tensions between the local Muslim population and Armenians, whose numbers increased throughout the 19th century as a result of Russian resettlement policies.[citation needed] Secondly, by the beginning of the 20th-century, the peoples of the Caucasus, similar to other non-Russian peoples in the periphery of the Russian Empire, began to seek cultural and territorial autonomy. Political instability within Russia, particularly the 1905 Revolution and 1917 Revolutions, caused these social movements to acquire the character of national liberation movements.
The initial clashes between ethnic Armenians and Azerbaijanis took place in Baku in February 1905. Soon, the conflict spilled over to other parts of the Caucasus, and on August 5, 1905, first conflict between the Armenian and Azerbaijani inhabitants of Shusha took place. As a result of the mutual pogroms and killings, hundreds of people died and more than 200 houses were burned.[73]
After World War I and subsequent collapse of the Russian Empire, Karabakh was claimed by Azerbaijan to be part of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, a decision hotly disputed by neighbouring Armenia and by Karabakh's Armenian population, which claimed Karabakh as part of the First Republic of Armenia. With the capture of Baku, a small force of Turkish troops entered Shusha on 7 October 1918, also occupying the road to Aghdam. Whilst the Armenians of Shusha did not resist the Turks to avoid violence, the Turks with their limited troops were unable to seize the countryside of Karabakh which was held by an armed milita of local Armenians.[74] After the defeat of Ottoman Empire in the World War I, Armenian forces under Andranik Ozanian defeated Azerbaijani forces under Khosrov bey Sultanov in Abdallyar (Lachin), and began heading down the Lachin corridor towards Shusha. Shortly before Andranik could arrive, British troops under General W. M. Thomson encouraged him to retreat, out of concerns that Armenian military activity could have an adverse effect on the region's status, which was to be decided at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference.[75] Trusting Thomson, Andranik left, and British troops occupied Karabakh. The British command provisionally affirmed Sultanov (appointed by the Azerbaijani government) as the governor-general of Karabakh and Zangezur, pending the final decision by the Paris Peace Conference.[76]
Ethnic conflict began to erupt in the region. Оn 5 June 1919, 600 Armenian inhabitants of the villages surrounding Shusha were massacred by Azerbaijani and Kurdish irregulars. Sultanov stated that the irregulars were not under his control.[77] In August 1919, the Karabakh National Council was forced to enter into a provisional treaty agreement with the Azerbaijani government, recognizing the authority of the Azerbaijan government until the issue of the mountainous part of Karabakh was settled at the Paris Peace Conference. Despite signing the agreement, the Azerbaijani government continuously violated the terms of the treaty,[17][78] and Sultanov employed severe measures against them, such as terror, blockade and famine.[77][79][80] Sultanov gathered troops in the region and on 19 February 1920 issued an ultimatum to the Armenians, demanding they accept unconditional unification with Azerbaijan, and then massacred the population of several Armenian villages, including Khankendi (Stepanakert).[78] A minority of Karabagh National Council representatives gathered in Shusha to accept Sultanov's demands, while the rest met in nearby Shushikend to reject the ultimatum.[78] The strife culminated in an Armenian uprising,[81][82] which was suppressed by the Azerbaijani army. In late March 1920, the Armenian half of the police forces was reported by a British journalist to have murdered the Azerbaijani half during the latter's traditional Novruz Bayram holiday celebrations. The Armenian surprise attack was organised and coordinated by the forces of the Armenian Republic.[83][84] Azerbaijani outrage for this surprise attack ultimately led to the massacre and expulsion of the Armenian population in March 1920, in which 500[85]–8,000[86] to 20,000[17] Armenians were killed, others were forced to flee, and the Armenian half of the city, 1,675 of 1,700 homes, were destroyed.[86] A report from Dashnak archives states that 8,000 Armenians escaped from the city, whilst 5,000–6,000 remained behind.[83]
According to the description of an Azerbaijani communist Ojahkuli Musaev:
… the ruthless destruction of defenceless women, children, old women, old men, etc has begun. Armenians were exposed to mass slaughter. … beautiful Armenian girls were raped, then shot. … By the order of … Khosrov-bek Sultanov; the pogroms proceeded for more than six days. Houses in the Armenian part have been partially demolished, plundered and reduced all to ashes, everyone led away women to submit to the wishes of executioner musavatists. During these historically artful forms of punishment, Khosrov-bek Sultanov, spoke about holy war (jihad) in his speeches to the Moslems, and called on them to finally finish the Armenians of the city of Shusha, not sparing women, children, etc.[87][verification needed]
Nadezhda Mandelstam wrote about Shusha in the 1930s, "in this town, which formerly of course was healthy and with every amenity, the picture of catastrophe and massacres was terribly visual. ... They say after the massacres all the wells were full of dead bodies. ... We didn't see anyone in the streets on the mountain. Only in downtown—in the market-square, there were a lot of people, but there wasn't any Armenian among them; all were Muslims".[88]
Soviet era
In 1920, the Bolshevik 11th Red Army invaded Azerbaijan and then Armenia and put an end to the national de facto governments that existed in those two countries. Thereafter, the conflict for the control of Karabakh entered the diplomatic sphere. To attract Armenian public support,[citation needed] the Bolsheviks promised to resolve the issue of the disputed territories, including Karabakh, in favour of Armenia. However, on July 5, 1921, the Kavbiuro of the Communist Party adopted the following decision regarding the future status of Karabakh: "Proceeding from the necessity of national peace among Muslims and Armenians and of the economic ties between upper (mountainous) and lower Karabakh, of its permanent ties with Azerbaijan, mountainous Karabakh is to remain within AzSSR, receiving wide regional autonomy with the administrative centre in Shusha, which is to be included in the autonomous region." As a result, the Mountainous Karabakh Autonomous Region was established within the Azerbaijan SSR in 1923. A few years later, Stepanakert, named after the Armenian communist leader Stepan Shaumyan, became the new regional capital of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast and soon became its largest town.
The decision make Nagorno-Karabakh an autonomous region within Azerbaijan is frequently attributed to Joseph Stalin, who was Commissar of Nationalities at the time, purportedly with the purpose of ensuring Moscow's position as power broker between the Armenian and Azerbaijani SSRs.[89][90] Stalin participated in the Kavbiuro's meetings on the issue of Nagorno-Karabakh but did not vote.[91]
The town remained half-ruined until the 1960s when the town began to gradually revive due to its recreational potential. In 1977 the Shusha State Historical and Architectural Reserve was established and the town became one of the major resort-towns in the former USSR.
The Armenian quarter continued to lie in ruins until the beginning of the 1960s. In 1961, Baku's communist leadership finally passed a decision to clear away much of the ruins, even though many old buildings still could have been renovated. Three Armenian and one Russian church were demolished and the Armenian part of the town was built up with plain buildings typical of the Khrushchev era.[citation needed]
Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
1988–1994 Nagorno-Karabakh war
With the start of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1988 Shusha became the most important Azerbaijani stronghold in Karabakh, from where Azerbaijani forces constantly shelled the capital Stepanakert for half a year, leading to hundreds of Armenian civilian casualties and causing mass destruction in Stepanakert. On May 9, 1992, the town was captured by Armenian forces in an operation to lift the siege of Stepanakert and the Azerbaijani population fled.[92] According to Armenian commander Arkady Ter-Tadevosyan, the city was looted and burnt by Armenian citizens from nearby Stepanakert, who had endured months of bombing and shelling from Azerbaijani forces. He also noted it was part of a Karabakh Armenian superstition of burning houses to prevent the enemy from returning.[93] A British journalist witnessed Armenian soldiers using minarets of a mosque in Shusha as shooting targets.[94] As of 2002, ten years later after the city's capture by the Armenian forces, some 80% of the town was in ruins.[95] Armenians also dismantled and sold off historic dark bronze busts of three Azerbaijani musicians and poets from Shusha.[96] Another British journalist who visited Shusha in 1997 reported that the gravestones in the Azerbaijani cemetery on the edge of town were "methodically smashed and vandalised".[97]
After the end of the war, the town was repopulated by Armenians, mostly refugees from Azerbaijan and other parts of Karabakh, as well as members of the Armenian diaspora. The population of the town was significantly less than the pre-war number, and the demographic of the town had changed from mostly Azerbaijani to completely Armenian. The Goris-Stepanakert Highway passes through the town and is a transit and tourist destination for many. There were some hotels in the city, and cultural monuments such as the Ghazanchetsots Cathedral and the Yukhari Govhar Agha Mosque were restored by Armenian authorities.[98]
After the war, a T-72 tank commanded by the Karabakhi Armenian Gagik Avsharian was placed as a memorial. The tank had been hit during the town's capture, killing the driver and gun operator, but Avsharian jumped free from the hatch. The tank was restored and its number, 442, repainted in white on the side.[99] After the Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh in September 2023 the tank was removed by the Azerbaijani authorities and transferred to the Military Trophy Park in Baku.[100]
2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war
During the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, Armenia accused the Azerbaijani army of shelling civilian areas and the city's Ghazanchetsots Cathedral. Three journalists were wounded while they were inside the cathedral to film the destruction of a previous shelling on the same day.[101] The Azerbaijani Ministry of Defence denied the shelling of the cathedral by stating that "destruction of the church in Shusha has nothing to do with the activities of the Army of Azerbaijan"[102] The House of Culture was also badly damaged in the fighting.[103]
On November 8, 2020, Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev announced that the Azerbaijani army took control of the city of Shusha.[104] The next day, the Azerbaijani Ministry of Defence released a video from the city, confirming full Azerbaijani control.[19] On the same day, Artsakh authorities confirmed that they had lost control of Shusha.[105] A ceasefire signed two days later reaffirmed Azerbaijan's gains, resulting in the city staying under its control. The Armenian government and the Armenian Apostolic Church subsequently claimed that Azerbaijani soldiers had vandalised Armenian churches and cultural landmarks, including Ghazanchetsots Cathedral[106][107] and Kanach Zham,[108] which was supported by reports from FreedomHouse and CaucasusHeritageWatch.[109][110] Azerbaijani officials claimed that the Mamayi Mosque and a nearby fountain was vandalised by Armenian forces.[111] In August 2023, a mass grave was found in Shusha prison. In total 17 corpses with signs of torture were exhumed.[112][113][114]
Culture
Shusha contains both Armenian and Azerbaijani cultural monuments, while the surrounding territories also include many ancient Armenian villages.[115]
Shusha is often considered the cradle of Azerbaijan's music and poetry and one of the leading centres of the Azerbaijani culture,[11][12] having been declared the cultural capital of Azerbaijan in January 2021.[116] The city is particularly renowned for its traditional Azerbaijani genre of vocal and instrumental arts called mugham.[117] For the Azerbaijanis, Shusha is the "conservatoire of the Caucasus". Khurshidbanu Natavan, Azerbaijan's most famous woman poet, composer Uzeyir Hajibeyov, opera singer Bulbul and one of Azerbaijan's first twentieth-century novelists, Yusif Vezir Chemenzeminli, were born here.[11] Molla Panah Vagif, a prominent Azerbaijani poet and vizier of the Karabakh khanate, lived and died in Shusha. Vagif Poetry Days were held in Shusha annually since 1982. The tradition was resumed in 2021.[118]
Shusha is also a historical Armenian religious and cultural center.[119][120] The Armenian population of the town historically had four main churches, each named after the place of origin of the Armenian inhabitants: Ghazanchetsots (after Qazançı; officially named Holy Savior Cathedral), Aguletsos Holy Mother of God Church (after Agulis), Meghretsots Holy Mother of God Church (after Meghri), and Gharabakhtsots (after the region of Karabakh; the church is better known as Kanach Zham).[121] Shusha was also home to a monastery complex called Kusanats Vank ("Virgins' Monastery") or Anapat Kusanats ("Virgins' Hermitage")․[121] In 1989, Ghazanchetsots Cathedral was made the seat of the newly reestablished Diocese of Artsakh of the Armenian Apostolic Church.[122]
Shusha serves an important role in the history of Armenian music, being the hometown and headquarters of Armenian composer Grikor Suni and his chorus.[123] Suni was an instrumental figure in establishing the national identity of Armenian music and considered one of the many founders of modern Armenian music.[124][125] In addition, the Khandamirian or Shushi theater which opened in 1891 would become regionally famous for its important contributions to the Armenian cultural arts, especially music.[126] In the Khandamirian theater, Suni gave his first ever performance. By 1902, Suni had organized his Oriental Cultural Ensemble in Shusha and had their first big concert which would get them in trouble with Russian authorities forcing the ensemble out of Shusha where they went on to spread Armenian cultural music around the world.[127] Shusha was also the hometown of Arev Baghdasaryan, the prominent Armenian singer, dancer, and People's Artist of the Armenian SSR.[128]
Shusha is also well known for sileh rugs, floor coverings from the South Caucasus. Those from the Caucasus may have been woven in the vicinity of Shusha. A similar Eastern Anatolian type usually shows a different range of colours.[129]
In November 2020, the organizers of the Turkvision Song Contest stated that they were exploring the possibility of holding the contest's 2021 version in Shusha,[130] and in January 2021, the Azerbaijani Ministry of Culture started preparatory activities on the Khari Bulbul Festival and Days of the Poetry of Vagif.[131]
Museums
During the Soviet period, Shusha was home to museums such as the Shusha Museum of History, the house museum of Azerbaijani composer Uzeyir Hajibeyov, the house museum of the Azerbaijani singer Bulbul, and the Shusha Carpet Museum.[132] The Azerbaijan State Museum of History of Karabakh was founded in Shusha in 1991 shortly before the outbreak of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War.
While the city was under Armenian control, a number of museums were operated there: the State Museum of Fine Arts, G. A. Gabrielyants State Geological Museum, the Shushi History Museum, the Shushi Carpet Museum and the Shushi Art Gallery.[133]
The Shushi History Museum is located in a 19th-century mansion, in the centre of the historical quarter, and had a collection of artefacts related to Shusha from ancient to modern times.[133] The collection of the museum contains many ethnographic materials, including the goods of local masters. The museum contains household articles, photographs, and reproductions illustrating life of 19th-century inhabitants of Shusha. There are also sections dedicated to the 1920 Shusha Massacre and the capture of Shusha by Armenian forces in 1992. The G. A. Gabrielyants State Geological Museum, named after and created by Armenian geologist Grigori Gabrielyants, was opened in the building of Taza Mahalla Mosque in Shusha in 2014. It contains 480 samples of ore and fossil from 47 countries of the world.[133]
Except for the rugs kept at the Shushi Carpet Museum, which were removed, the collections of the museums in Shusha were left behind and remained in the city after the capture of Shusha by Azerbaijani forces in 2020.[133]
In August 2021, satellite images released by Caucasus Heritage Watch (a watchdog group of researchers from Purdue and Cornell) revealed that between April 10 and June 5, 51 sculptures in the park of the Museum of Fine Arts were removed and the area completely cleared: "CHW is concerned about the condition of these artworks, which are the property of that museum. CHW asks Azerbaijani authorities to disclose the location of the confiscated sculptures and plans for public access" read the Facebook page of the organization.[134][135]
Demographics
Year | Armenians | Azerbaijanis | Others | Total | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1823[14] | 421
|
27.5%
|
1,111
|
72.5%
|
1,532
| ||
1830[70] | 762
|
44.2%
|
963
|
55.8%
|
1,725
| ||
1851[136] | 15,194
| ||||||
1885[137] | 14,000
|
46.7%
|
16,000
|
53.3%
|
30,000
| ||
1886[138] | 15,188
|
56.7%
|
11,595
|
43.3%
|
23
|
0.1%
|
26,806
|
1897[139] | 14,420
|
55.7%
|
10,778
|
41.6%
|
683
|
2.6%
|
25,881
|
1904[140] | 56.5%
|
43.2%
|
25,656
| ||||
1908[141] | 37,591 | ||||||
1910[142] | 39,413 | ||||||
1914[143] | 22,416
|
52.7%
|
18,836
|
44.3%
|
1,316
|
3.1%
|
42,568[a]
|
1916[144] | 23,396
|
53.3%
|
19,091
|
43.5%
|
1,382
|
3.2%
|
43,869
|
March 1920: Massacre and expulsion of Armenian population by Azerbaijan | |||||||
1921[145] | 289 | 3.1% | 8,894 | 96.4% | 40 | 0.4% | 9,223 |
1923[146] | 209 | 3.0% | 6,682 | 95.9% | 74 | 1.1% | 6,965 |
1926[138] | 93
|
1.8%
|
4,900
|
96.4%
|
111
|
2.2%
|
5,104
|
1931[147] | 5,291 | ||||||
1939[148] | 1,476
|
27.2%
|
3,701
|
68.2%
|
247
|
4.5%
|
5,424
|
1959[149] | 1,428
|
23.3%
|
4,453
|
72.8%
|
236
|
3.9%
|
6,117
|
1970[150] | 1,540
|
17.7%
|
6,974
|
80.2%
|
179
|
2.1%
|
8,693
|
1979[151] | 1,409
|
13.1%
|
9,216
|
85.5%
|
159
|
1.5%
|
10,784
|
September 1988: Nagorno-Karabakh conflict: Expulsion of Armenian population[152] | |||||||
1989[153] | 15,039
| ||||||
May 1992: Capture by Armenian forces. Expulsion of Azerbaijani population[154] | |||||||
2005[155] | 3,105
|
100%
|
3,105
| ||||
2009[156] | 3,900
|
100%
|
3,900
| ||||
2015[2] | 4,064
|
100%
|
4,064
| ||||
November 2020: Capture by Azerbaijani forces. Exodus of Armenian population |
According to the first Russian-held census of 1823 conducted by Russian officials Yermolov and Mogilevsky, in Shusha were 1,111 (72.5%) Muslim families and 421 (27.5%) Armenian families.[14][page needed] Seven years later, according to 1830 data, the number of Muslim families in Shusha decreased to 963 (55.8%) and the number of Armenian families increased to 762 (44.2%).[70][157]
George Keppel, the Earl of Albemarle, who wrote on his way back to England from India arrived in Karabakh from Persia in 1824, wrote that “Sheesha contains two thousand houses: three parts of the inhabitants are Tartars (i.e. Azerbaijanis), and the remainder Armenians”.[158]
A survey prepared by the Russian imperial authorities in 1823 shows that all Armenians of Karabakh compactly resided in its highland portion, i.e. on the territory of the five traditional Armenian principalities, and constituted an absolute demographic majority on those lands. The survey's more than 260 pages recorded that the five districts had 57 Armenian villages and seven Tatar villages.[71][159]
The 19th century also brought some alterations to the ethnic demographics of the region. Following the invasions from Iran (Persia), Russo-Persian wars and subjection of Karabakh khanate to Russia, many Muslim families emigrated to Iran while many Armenians moved to Shusha.[70]
In 1851, the population of Shusha was 15,194 people,[136] in 1885 – 30,000,[137] and in 1910 – 39,413.[142]
By the end of the 1880s, the percentage of the Muslim population living in the Shusha district (part of the earlier Karabakh province) decreased even further and constituted only 41.5%, while the percentage of the Armenian population living in the same district increased to 58.2% in 1886.
By the second half of the 19th century, Shusha had become the largest town in the Karabakh region. However, after the pogrom against the Armenian population in 1920 and the burning of the town, out-migration, and its decreasing economic importance in relation to other regional cities like Yerevan and Baku, Shusha was reduced to a small provincial town of some 10,000 people. Its population afterward progressively dropped year by year, reaching 5,104 by 1926.[160] Armenians did not begin to return until after World War II. It was not until the 1960s that the Armenian quarter began to be rebuilt.
According to the last population census in 1989, the town of Shusha had a population of 17,000 and Shusha district had a population of 23,000. 91.7% of the population of Shusha district and 98% of Shusha town were Azerbaijani.[161]
Following the capture of Shusha by the Armenian forces in 1992, the Azerbaijani population of the town, consisting of 15,000 people,[162] was killed and expulsed.[163] Before the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War, the population consisted of over 4,000 Armenians,[2] mainly refugees from Baku,[164][165] and other parts of Karabakh and Azerbaijan.[166][167] As a result of the first war, no Azerbaijanis live in Shusha today, although Azerbaijani authorities plan to repopulate it with Azerbaijani displaced persons who fled Shusha during the first war.[161][168][169] Shusha's Armenian population fled shortly before the city was recaptured by Azerbaijani forces during the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War.[170]
Economy and tourism
While the town was under Armenian control, there were efforts to revive the city's economy by the Shushi Revival Fund,[171] the ArmeniaFund, and by the government of Artsakh. Investment in tourism led to the opening of the Shushi Hotel, the Avan Shushi Plaza Hotel and the Shushi Grand Hotel. A tourist information office was also opened,[172] the first in the Republic of Artsakh. The two remaining Armenian churches (Ghazanchetsots and Kanach Zham) were renovated, and schools, museums and the Naregatsi Arts Institute have opened.
After retaking the town, Azerbaijani authorities renovated and inaugurated Khari Bulbul[173] and Karabakh hotels.[174] In August 2021, Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev laid foundation stone for Hotel and Conference Center in Shusha.[175]
Twin towns – sister cities
- Gyöngyös, Hungary[176]
- Kayseri, Turkey[177]
- Turkistan, Kazakhstan[178]
- Erzurum, Turkey[179]
- Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria[180]
Notable natives
- Ibrahim Khalil Khan (1732-1806), Azerbaijani khan of the Karabakh Khanate.
- Gasim bey Zakir (1784–1857), Azerbaijani poet.
- Jafargulu agha Javanshir (1787–1867), Azerbaijani poet and major general of the Imperial Russian Army.
- Abbasqoli Mo'tamad-dawla Javanshir (1804-1862), Azerbaijani statesman and first minister of justice of Iran.
- Karbalayi Safikhan Karabakhi (1820–1879), Azerbaijani architect and one of the representatives of Karabakh architecture schools.
- Ivan Davidovich Lazarev (1820–1879), Armenian lieutenant-general of the Imperial Russian Army.
- Usta Gambar Karabakhi (1830–1905), Azerbaijani ornamentalist painter.
- Khurshidbanu Natavan (1832–1897), one of the best lyrical poets of Azerbaijan.
- Sadigjan (1846–1902), Azerbaijani musician.
- Muratsan (1854–1908), Armenian writer and novelist.
- Karim bey Mehmandarov (1854-1929), Azerbaijani physician, founder of the Russian-Azerbaijani Shusha girls school.
- Amanullah Mirza Qajar (1857–1937), prince of Iran's Qajar dynasty. Major general in the Russian Empire and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, later military figure and politician in Iran.
- Leo (1860–1932), Armenian historian.
- Stepan Aghajanian (1863–1940), Armenian painter.
- Hambardzum Arakelian (1865–1918), Armenian journalist and public activist.
- Alexander Atabekian (1868–1933), prominent Armenian anarchist.
- Ahmet Ağaoğlu (1869–1939), Azerbaijani politician and journalist.
- Abdurrahim bey Hagverdiyev (1870–1933), Azerbaijani playwright, stage director, politician and public figure.
- Feyzullah Mirza Qajar (1872–1920), prince of Iran's Qajar dynasty. Major general in the Russian Empire and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, later military figure and politician in Iran.
- Suleyman Sani Akhundov (1875–1939), Azerbaijani playwright and journalist.
- Vartan Sarkisov (1875–1955), Soviet-Armenian architect.
- Freidun Aghalyan (1876–1944), Armenian architect.
- Tuman Tumanian (1879–1906), Armenian liberation movement leader.
- Zulfugar Hajibeyov (1884–1950), Soviet-Azerbaijani composer.
- Ahmed Agdamski (1884–1954), Soviet-Azerbaijani opera singer.
- Arsen Terteryan (1882–1953), Soviet-Armenian scientist.
- Artashes Babalian (1886–1959), a politician of the First Republic of Armenia.
- Sahak Ter-Gabrielyan (1886–1937), Soviet-Armenian statesman.
- Hayk Gyulikekhvyan (1886–1951), Armenian literary critic.
- Ashot Hovhannisyan (1887–1972), Soviet-Armenian statesman and historian.
- Yusif Vazir Chamanzaminli (1887–1943), Soviet-Azerbaijani and writer.
- Nariman bey Narimanbeyov (1889–1937), Azerbaijani lawyer and statesman.
- Mikael Arutchian (1897–1961), Soviet-Armenian painter.
- Bulbul (1897–1961), Soviet-Azerbaijani opera tenor and folk music performer, father of Polad Bülbüloğlu, Azerbaijani singer, actor and diplomat.
- Ivan Tevosian (1902–1958), Soviet-Armenian statesman.
- Khan Shushinski (1901–1979), was an Azerbaijani khananda folk singer.
- Süreyya Ağaoğlu (1903–1989), Turkish Azerbaijani origin writer, jurist, and the first female lawyer in Turkish history.
- Ivan Knunyants (1906–1990), Soviet-Armenian chemist.
- Latif Karimov (1906–1991), Azerbaijani carpet designer known for his contributions to a variety of artistic fields, as well as for a number of books classifying and describing various designs of Azerbaijani rugs.
- Gevork Kotiantz (1909–1996), Soviet-Armenian painter.
- Shamsi Badalbeyli (1911–1987), Soviet-Azerbaijani actor and theatre director.
- Nelson Stepanyan (1913–1944), Soviet-Armenian pilot and Lieutenant–Colonel of the Red Army.
- Barat Shakinskaya (1914–1999), Soviet-Azerbaijani actress.
- Gurgen Boryan (1915–1971), Soviet-Armenian poet and playwright.
- Soltan Hajibeyov (1919–1974), Soviet-Azerbaijani composer.
- Seyran Ohanyan (born 1962), Armenian politician and military commander.
See also
Notes
References
- ^ "Айдын Керимов назначен спецпредставителем Президента Азербайджана в Шушинском районе - Распоряжение". Trend News Agency (in Russian). 27 January 2021. Archived from the original on 31 January 2021. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
- ^ a b c "Table 1.6 NKR urban and rural settlements grouping according to de jure population number" (PDF). stat-nkr.am. Population Census 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2020.
- ^ a b Bosworth, C.E. (1978). "Ḳarā Bāg̲h̲". In van Donzel, E.; Lewis, B.; Pellat, Ch. & Bosworth, C. E. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume IV: Iran–Kha. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 573. OCLC 758278456.
- ^ Raffi (1918). "The Five Melikdoms of Karabagh". The Adventures of Hovsep Emin. Calcutta. p. 335. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
Shahnazar needed an ally, and he found one ready to his hand in the Jevanshir ... the two constructed a fort on the banks of the river Karkar as quickly as they could in the intervals of fighting the four Meliks. Shahnazar laid the foundation stone, and the fortress was completed in 1752, the people of the village of Shoshi were brought to live there, and it was named Shoshi or Shushi fortress
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary (1890–1907). Shusha. St Petersburg. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
Shusha was founded in 1752 by Panakh-Ali-bek and got its name from the village of Shushikent, located not far away and existing to this day.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Walker 2000, p. 297.
- ^ a b Krunk Hayots Ashkharhin. 8 (1863): p. 622, cited in Магалян, Артак (2010). "Арцахские меликства и возникновение Карабахского ханства" [The melikates of Artsakh and the emergence of the Karabakh Khanate]. In Айрапетов, О. Р.; Йованович, Мирослав; Колеров, М. А.; Меннинг, Брюс; Чейсти, Пол (eds.). Русский Сборник Исследования По Истории России (PDF). Vol. VIII. Модест Колеров. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-5-91150-034-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 November 2012.
Shahnazar, Melik of Varanda, fearing the alliance between the Melik of Charaberd Adam and the Melik of Gyulistan Hovsep, became friends with Panah Khan and gave him his settlement, the fortress of Shusha, as well as his daughter as wife.
- ^ Timothy C. Dowling Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond Archived 2015-06-26 at the Wayback Machine pp 728 ABC-CLIO, 2 dec. 2014 ISBN 1598849484
- ^ "Azerbaijan" (2007) In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 3, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-44296 Archived 2006-06-14 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Suny, Ronald (1996). Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. DIANE Publishing. p. 108. ISBN 0788128132.
- ^ a b c De Waal 2003, p. 189.
- ^ a b Mattew O'Brien. Uzeir Hajibeyov and His Role in the Development of Musical Life in Azerbaijan. – Routledge, 2004. – С. 211. – ISBN 0-415-30219-6, 9780415302197
- ^ Walker 2000, pp. 167–171, 172–173, 297.
- ^ a b c d The 1823 Russian Survey of the Karabagh Province: A Primary Source on the Demography and Economy of Karabagh in the Early 19th Century, trans. George A. Bournoutian. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2011.
- ^ Hovannisian, Richard G. (1996). The Republic of Armenia, Volume III: From London to Sèvres, February - August 1920. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 152. ISBN 0520088034. Archived from the original on 27 September 2021. Retrieved 23 September 2021.
The chief of police, Avetis Ter-Ghukasian, was turned into a human torch, and many intellectuals, including Bolshevik Alexandre Dsaturian, were among the 500 Armenian victims.
- ^ De Waal 2003, p. 202.
- ^ a b c "The Nagorno-Karabagh Crisis: A Blueprint for Resolution" (PDF). Public International Law & Policy Group and the New England School of Law. June 2000. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 April 2004. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
In August 1919, the Karabagh National Council entered into a provisional treaty agreement with the Azerbaijani government. Despite signing the Agreement, the Azerbaijani government continuously violated the terms of the treaty. This culminated in March 1920 with the Azerbaijanis' massacre of Armenians in Karabagh's former capital, Shushi, in which it is estimated that more than 20,000 Armenians were killed.
- ^ Muth, Sebastian (2016). "Language Removal, Commodification and the Negotiation of Cultural Identity in Nagorno-Karabakh". Conflict, Exclusion and Dissent in the Linguistic Landscape. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-1-137-42627-7.
- ^ a b "Azerbaijan, Armenia and Russia sign peace deal over Nagorno-Karabakh". edition.cnn.com. CNN. 10 November 2020. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
- ^ "Президент Арцаха прокомментировал мир с Азербайджаном". www.mk.ru (in Russian). 10 November 2020. Archived from the original on 10 November 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2020.
- ^ Lori Khatchadourian; Ian Lindsay; Adam T. Smith (June 2021). "Caucasus Heritage Watch: Monitoring Report #1". Cornell Institute of Archaeology and Material Studies: Cornell University. p. 19. Archived from the original on 7 July 2021. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
In sum, there are real and present threats to the integrity of the heritage landscape of Nagorno Karabakh that result from a range of factors from development work undertaken without sufficient attention to heritage sites to intentional acts against Armenian monuments.
- ^ "Azerbaijan: Attack on Church Possible War Crime". Human Rights Watch. 16 December 2020. Archived from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 6 November 2021.
- ^ Kucera, Joshua (7 May 2021). "Azerbaijan begins controversial renovation of Armenian church". Eurasianet. Archived from the original on 5 October 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2021.
- ^ "Azerbaijan launches multi-day tours of Shusha | Eurasianet". Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
- ^ a b c Everett-Heath 2018.
- ^ Chkeidze 2001, pp. 486–490.
- ^ "Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary". Archived from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
- ^ a b Mkrtchyan, Shahen (1980). "City of Shushi (Շուշի քաղաքը)". Լեռնային Ղարաբաղի պատմա-ճարտարապետական հուշարձանները [Historical-architectural monuments of Mountainous Karabakh] (PDF) (in Armenian). Yerevan: Hayastan publishing house. p. 146. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- ^ Danielyan, Samvel (19 February 2021). "Շուշիի բոլոր անվանումները՝ հայերեն, թե օտարալեզու, հայկական են - Հայտարարում է բանասիրական գիտությունների թեկնածու Արտակ Վարդանյանը" [All of Shushi's names, Armenian or foreign-language, are Armenian - states Candidate of Philological Sciences Artak Vardanyan]. www.aravot.am (in Armenian). Archived from the original on 20 February 2021. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
The most reliable version of the etymology of the name of the fortified city of Shushi is that it came from the Artsakh dialect's shosh (tree sprout, high place, height)... The name of the village Shosh, not far from Shushi, obviously also comes from this.
- ^ a b Vardanyan, Artak (4 February 2021). "ՀԱՅԱՀՈՒՆՉ ՈՒ ՀԱՅԱՇՈՒՆՉ ՇՈՒՇԻ" [Armenian-sounding and Armenian-breathing Shushi]. RA NAA Language Institute named after H. Acharyan. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
The most reliable version of the etymology of the fortress city of Shushi... is the derivation of the place name from the word shosh ("tree branch", "high place", "height") of the Artsakh dialect.
- ^ a b Khachikyan L. S., (1955), Memorial records in Armenian manuscripts of 15 c., Part I (1401–1450) Archived 2014-12-13 at the Wayback Machine, Publish. of Academy of Sciences of ArmSSR, p. 384. (in Armenian)
- ^ a b Hakobyan, T. Kh.; Melik-Bakhshyan, St. T.; Barseghyan, H. Kh. (1991). "Shushi". Hayastani ev harakitsʻ shrjanneri teghanunneri baṛaran [Dictionary of toponymy of Armenia and adjacent territories] (in Armenian). Vol. 4. Yerevan State University. p. 161. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- ^ Boris Baratov. A Journey to Karabakh. Moscow, 1998, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Hravard Hakobian. Miniatures of Artsakh and Utik 13th–14th centuries. Yerevan, 1989, p. 25.
- ^ Bishop Makar Barkhudariants, Patmutiun Aghvanits ashkhari [History of the country of Aghvank], vol. 1, Vagharshapat, 1902, p. 384.
- ^ Ulubabyan B. A., "The Principality of Lower Khachen, 14th-15th centuries." Archived 2013-11-04 at the Wayback Machine, Patma-Banasirakan Handes 11 (1972): pp. 95–108, here p. 105.
- ^ Barkhudariants, Bishop Makar (1895). "The City of Shushi (Շուշի քաղաք)". Artsakh (PDF) (in Armenian). Baku: Aror publishing house. p. 137. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 May 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- ^ Hasratyan, M.; Ulubabyan, B. (1982). "Shushi". In Hambardzumyan, Viktor (ed.). Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia (in Armenian). Vol. 8. Yerevan. pp. 599–601. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b Цагарели, А. А. (1891). Грамоты и другие исторические документы XVIII столетия относящиеся к Грузии : Том I [Letters and other historical documents of the 18th century regarding Georgia, Vol. 1] (PDF). Saint Petersburg. pp. 434–435. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2021. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
когдажъ персицкаго шаха нестало, то сь их же стороны одинъ человекъ, закону магометанскаго и отъ народа жаванширскаго, принялъ силу; среди того правления, Хамсы, состоитъ старинная крепость, которая имъ обманомъ взята...
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Армяно-русские отношения в XVIII веке. Т. IV. С. 212, as cited in Магалян, Артак (2010). "Арцахские меликства и возникновение Карабахского ханства" [The melikates of Artsakh and the emergence of the Karabakh Khanate]. In Айрапетов, О. Р.; Йованович, Мирослав; Колеров, М. А.; Меннинг, Брюс; Чейсти, Пол (eds.). Русский Сборник Исследования По Истории России [Russian collection of research on the history of Russia] (PDF). Vol. VIII. Модест Колеров. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-5-91150-034-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 November 2012.
In [Archbishop Hovsep] Argutyan's letter to General Pavel Potemkin dated January 28, 1783, we read: 'The council of Melik Adam, Melik Hovsep and Melik Esai was united, but among them was the schismatic Melik Shahnazar, who was a cunning man, faithless and unfit for good deeds, treacherous and traitorous towards his brothers. A certain tribe called Javanshir comes to Karabakh, like homeless wanderers on the land, doing robbery and wandering in tents, the leader of which was named Panah Khan. Melik Shahnazar, cunning in his evil deeds, called him to help him, obeyed him of his own free will and handed over his fortress.'
- ^ Bournoutian, George A. Armenians and Russia, 1626-1796: A Documentary Record. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2001, Armenian Military Activities in Karabakh and Ghapan, pages 402-413
- ^ Bournoutian, George A. (2001). "Kekhva Chelebi's Report to the Collegium of [Russian] Foreign Affairs (17 December 1725)". Armenians and Russia, 1626-1796 : a documentary record. Costa Mesa, Calif.: Mazda Publishers. p. 133. ISBN 1-56859-132-2. OCLC 45136635. Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
- ^ a b Нерсисян, М. Г. (1981). "II. Бумаги А. В. Суворова об Армении, Закавказье и Персии - Рапорты А. В. Суворова князю Г. А. Потемкину" [II. A. V. Suvorov's papers about Armenia, Transcaucasian and Persia - A. V. Suvorov's reports to Prince G. A. Potemkin]. А.В. Суворов и русско-армянские отношения в 1770-1780-х годах [A. V. Suvorov and Russian-Armenian relations in the 1770s-1780s]. Yerevan: Айастан. p. 130. Archived from the original on 28 February 2009.
Мелик Шах-Назар может собрать войска близ 1000 человек; сей предатель своего отечества призвал Панахана, бывшего прежде начальником не знатной части кочующих магометан близ границ карабагских, отдал ему в руки свой крепкий замок Шушикала и учинился ему с его сигнагом покорным.
- ^ Bournoutian, George A. Armenians and Russia, 1626-1796: A Documentary Record. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2001, pp. 134, 269.
- ^ S.M.Bronesvskiy. Historical Notes... Archived 2009-02-12 at the Wayback Machine St. Petersburg,1996. Исторические выписки о сношениях России с Персиею, Грузиею и вообще с горскими народами, в Кавказе обитающими, со времён Ивана Васильевича доныне». СПб. 1996, секция "Карабаг". Bronesvskiy writes: "Мелик Шахназор призвал к себе на помощь владетеля кочующаго чавонширскаго народа Фона хана и здал ему крепость Шуши."
- ^ Бутков, П. Г. (1869). Материалы для новой истории Кавказа с 1722 по 1803 год. Saint Petersburg.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ М. к стр. 236. "Приложение И". Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 4 November 2013. - ^ Also see Walker Christopher "The Armenian Presence in Mountainous Karabakh" in "Transcaucasian Boundaries" (SOAS/GRC Geopolitics) edited by John Wright, Richard Schofield, Suzanne Goldenberg, 1995 p. 93 "South of Khachen lay the small territory of Varanda, originally part of its southern neighbour, Dizak, and only given a separate identity in the early sixteenth century. The ruling family, confirmed in that capacity by Shah Abbas I, was that of the Melik Shahnazarians. In the territory of Varanda lies the modern town of Shushi (or Shusha)"
- ^ Joseph Wolff. Travels and Adventures of the Rev. Joseph Wolff Archived 7 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine. London: Saunders, Otley, and Co., 1861, p. 226.
- ^ "Azerbaijan - History, People, & Facts". britannica.com. Archived from the original on 18 November 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
- ^ Hewsen, Robert H., Armenia: A Historical Atlas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 155.
- ^ a b Bournoutian George A. A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-E Qarabagh. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1994, p. 72. The original text by Mirza Jamal Javanshir calls the village "Shoshi."
- ^ a b c (in Russian) Mirza Jamal Javanshir Karabagi. The History of Karabakh Archived 2007-01-27 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Raffi. The Princedoms of Khamsa Archived 2009-11-25 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Mirza Adigozel-bek, Karabakh-name (1845), Baku, 1950, p. 54
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Qajar Dynasty Archived 7 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Online Academic Edition, 2007.
- ^ "АББАС-КУЛИ-АГА БАКИХАНОВ->ГЮЛИСТАН-И ИРАМ->ПЕРИОД V". vostlit.info. Archived from the original on 20 February 2007.
- ^ "МИРЗА АДИГЕЗАЛЬ-БЕК->КАРАБАГ-НАМЕ->ГЛАВЫ 1-6". www.vostlit.info. Archived from the original on 21 August 2010.
- ^ Encyclopedia Iranica. C. Edmund Bosworth. Ganja. Archived 2007-03-11 at the Wayback Machine
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- ^ Fisher et al. 1991, p. 128.
- ^ a b c Fisher et al. 1991, p. 126.
- ^ Fisher et al. 1991, p. 329.
- ^ a b "EBRĀHĪM ḴALĪL KHAN JAVĀNŠĪR – Encyclopaedia Iranica". Encyclopædia Iranica. 15 December 1997. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
- ^ Yunus, Arif. Karabakh: past and present Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine Turan Information Agency, 2005. page 29
- ^ Allen F. Chew. "An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders". Yale University Press, 1967. pp 74.
- ^ Timothy C. Dowling Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond Archived 2015-06-26 at the Wayback Machine pp 729-730 ABC-CLIO, 2 dec. 2014. ISBN 978-1598849486
- ^ a b c d The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge Archived 2016-06-10 at the Wayback Machine. 1833.
- ^ a b Bournoutian, George A. A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-E Qarabagh. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1994, page 18
- ^ a b c d e f Waal, Thomas de (2013). Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War Archived 2015-11-23 at the Wayback Machine NYU Press. ISBN 978-0814760321 p 201
- ^ Mkrtchyan, Shahen. Historical-Architectural Monuments of Nagorno Karabagh. Yerevan, 1989, p. 341.
- ^ Saparov, Arsène (27 August 2014). From conflict to autonomy in the Caucasus: the Soviet Union and the making of Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Nagorno Karabakh. Routledge. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-317-63783-7. OCLC 1124532887.
- ^ Hovannisian, Richard (1971). The Republic of Armenia: Volume 1, The First Years, 1918–1919. Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 89–90. ISBN 0-520-01805-2.
- ^ Tadeusz Swietochowski. Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition. ISBN 0-231-07068-3
- ^ a b Michael P. Croissant. The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: Causes and Implications. ISBN 0-275-96241-5 p. 16
- ^ a b c Mutafian, Claude (1994). "Karabagh in the Twentieth Century". In Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian, Patrick; Mutafian, Claude (eds.). The Caucasian Knot: the History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabakh. London: Zed Books. pp. 124–126. ISBN 1856492885. Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
In November the Karabagh Armenians rejected proposals for further submission presented by an Azerbaijani governmental delegation which demonstrated the weakness of the August accords... Sultanov took control of the Karkar Valley while massacring the Armenian population of several villages on 22 February, including Khankend (present-day Stepanakert).
- ^ Mutafyan Claude (1994) "Karabagh in the twentieth century." In Chorbajyan Levon, Donabedian Patrick and Mutafian Claude (eds.) The Caucasian Knot: The History and geo-politics of Nagorno-Karabakh. London: Zed Books, pp. 109–170.
- ^ Walker J. Christopher (ed.) (1991) Armenia and Karabakh: The Struggle for Unity. London: Minority Rights Group.
- ^ Benjamin Lieberman. Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe. ISBN 1-56663-646-9
- ^ "Chronology: Accord Nagorny Karabakh". c-r.org. 17 February 2012. Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
- ^ a b Richard G. Hovannisian. The Republic of Armenia, Vol. III: From London to Sèvres, February–August 1920
- ^ [1] Archived 2016-03-07 at the Wayback Machine Audrey L. Altstadt. Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity Under Russian Rule. Hoover Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8179-9182-4, ISBN 978-0-8179-9182-1, p. 103
- ^ Thomas de Waal. Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan through Peace and War. ISBN 0-8147-1944-9
- ^ a b Baberovski, Yorg (2010). Враг есть везде. Сталинизм на Кавказе [The enemy is everywhere. Stalinism in the Caucasus] (in Russian). Moscow: Rossiyskaya politicheskaya entsiklopediya (ROSSPEN) Fond «Prezidentskiy tsentr B. N. Yeltsina». p. 171. ISBN 978-5-8243-1435-9. Archived from the original on 8 October 2022.
- ^ (in Russian) Институт Истории АН Армении, Главное архивное управление при СМ Республики Армения, Кафедра истории армянского народла Ереванского Государственного Университета. Нагорный Карабах в 1918-1923 гг. Сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992. Документ No.443: из письма члена компартии Азербайджана Оджахкули Мусаева правительству РСФСР. стр. 638-639 (Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of Armenia, the Main archival department at Ministerial council of Republic Armenia, Faculty of history of Armenian people of the Yerevan State University. Nagorny Karabakh per 1918–1923. Collection of documents and materials. Yerevan, 1992. The document №443: from the letter of a member of the communist party of Azerbaijan Ojahkuli Musaev to the government of RSFSR. рр. 638–639)
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- ^ "Шуша - цитадель Карабаха: почему она важна для азербайджанцев и армян" [Shusha is the citadel of Karabakh: why is it important for Azerbaijanis and Armenians]. BBC Russian Service (in Russian). 7 November 2020. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
- ^ "Shusha Armenians recall their bittersweet victory". IWPR. 10 May 2002. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
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- ^ De Waal 2003, p. 190.
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- ^ "So-called "symbol of Armenian victory" tank displayed at Baku War Trophy Park (PHOTO)". Trend.Az. 23 September 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2024.
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{{cite book}}
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{{cite book}}
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Как ни странно, но Шушу в основном заселили бакинские армяне, и в целом город сохранил свой традиционно интеллигентный состав населения. Всюду в Шуше я встречал тепло и ностальгию бакинцев по старому Баку.
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Շուշիում ներկայումս բնակւում է 3000 մարդ, որոնք հիմնականում փախստականներ են Բաքուից:
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Town residents, many of them former Armenian refugees from Baku and other parts of Azerbaijan...
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Now Baku's Armenians are scattered all over the world, with many in Shusha. Saryan noted that Shusha is also home to Armenians who lost their homes in Mardakert and Hadrut...
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{{cite web}}
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Sources
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External links
- Shusha at GEOnet Names Server
- Shusha: from A to Z
- Shusha – the town of the dead. Photo-report.
- Shusha by Travel-images.com
- Shoushi Foundation
- Shushi portal Archived 24 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- Armenian Guidebook Chapter on Shushi
- Armeniapedia entry on Shushi
- "The Twentieth Spring" – A photo essay on Shushi 20 years after it was taken over by Armenian forces (randbild | 2011)