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==Mechanism of action== |
==Mechanism of action== |
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The active ingredient in Roundup is [[ |
The active ingredient in Roundup is [[glyphosate]]. Glyphosate inhibits an enzyme involved in the synthesis of the [[aromatic amino acids]]: [[tyrosine]], [[tryptophan]] and [[phenylalanine]]. It is absorbed through foliage. Because of this mode of action, it is only effective on actively growing plants; it is not effective in preventing seeds from germinating. |
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The enzyme that |
The enzyme that glyphosate inhibits, [[EPSP synthase|5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase]] (EPSPS), is found only in plants and micro-organisms. EPSPS is not present in animals, which instead obtain aromatic amino acids from their diet.<ref name="Funke">Molecular basis for the herbicide resistance of Roundup Ready crops, T. Funke et al., PNAS 2006 103:13010-13015 [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/103/35/13010#B10]</ref> |
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==Regulation== |
==Regulation== |
Revision as of 22:19, 16 September 2018
Manufacturing status | |
---|---|
Leading manufacturer | Monsanto |
Type | Herbicide |
Introduced to market | 1976[1] |
Purposes | |
Agriculture | non-selective post-emergence weed control |
Government | Destruction of illegal drugs, cosmetic purposes, and invasive species control |
Consumer / home | Cosmetic purposes |
Herbicide properties | |
Surfactant | Polyethoxylated tallow amine(most common) |
Main active ingredient | isopropylamine salt of Glyphosate |
Mode of action | 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase(EPSPS) inhibitor |
Roundup is the brand name of a systemic, broad-spectrum herbicide produced by the U.S. company Monsanto, and contains the active ingredient glyphosate. Glyphosate is the most widely used herbicide in the USA,[2] and Roundup has been the number one selling herbicide worldwide since at least 1980.[3] As of 2009, sales of Roundup herbicides represent about 10% of Monsanto's revenue due to competition from Chinese producers of other glyphosate-based herbicides;[4] the overall Roundup line of products (which includes GM seeds) represents about half of Monsanto's yearly revenue.[5]
Monsanto developed and patented the glyphosate molecule in the 1970s, and marketed Roundup from 1973. It retained exclusive rights in the US until its US patent expired in September, 2000, and maintained a predominant marketshare in countries where the patent expired earlier.
The main active ingredient of Roundup is the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate. Another important ingredient of Roundup is the surfactant POEA (polyethoxylated tallow amine), which is known for its toxicity in wildlife.[6] It increases herbicide penetration in plant[7] and animal[8][9] cells.
Several weed species, known as superweeds, have developed Roundup resistance largely because of repeated exposure.[10]
Monsanto also produces seeds which grow into plants genetically engineered to be tolerant to glyphosate, which are known as Roundup Ready crops. The genes contained in these seeds are patented. Such crops allow farmers to use glyphosate as a post-emergence herbicide against most broadleaf and cereal weeds. Soy was the first Roundup Ready crop, and was produced at Monsanto's Agracetus Campus located in Middleton, Wisconsin.
Mechanism of action
The active ingredient in Roundup is glyphosate. Glyphosate inhibits an enzyme involved in the synthesis of the aromatic amino acids: tyrosine, tryptophan and phenylalanine. It is absorbed through foliage. Because of this mode of action, it is only effective on actively growing plants; it is not effective in preventing seeds from germinating.
The enzyme that glyphosate inhibits, 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), is found only in plants and micro-organisms. EPSPS is not present in animals, which instead obtain aromatic amino acids from their diet.[11]
Regulation
Roundup commercial formulations were never submitted to test by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); its main active ingredient, glyphosate, received EPA Toxicity Class of III for oral and inhalation exposure.[12]
Beyond the glyphosate salts content, commercial formulations of Roundup contain surfactants, which vary in nature and concentration. As a result, human poisoning with this herbicide is not with the main active ingredient alone, but with complex and variable mixtures.[13]
Health effects
Toxicity
Laboratory studies have shown teratogenic effects of Roundup in animals.[14][15] These reports have proposed that the teratogenic effects are caused by impaired retinoic acid signaling.[16] A 2011 report by Earth Open Source asserts that the Roundup active ingredient - glyphosate - has caused birth defects in laboratory animal tests.[17] News reports have supposed that regulators have been aware of these studies since 1980.[18]
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) considers glyphosate to be relatively low in toxicity, and without carcinogenic or teratagenic effects.[19] The EPA considered a "worst case" dietary risk model of an individual eating a lifetime of food entirely from glyphosate-sprayed fields, and with residue levels remaining at their maximum levels, and concluded no adverse effects would exist under these conditions.[19]
A 2000 review concluded that "under present and expected conditions of new use, there is no potential for Roundup herbicide to pose a health risk to humans".[20] The 2000 review has been criticized because it reviewed mostly experiments in which glyphosate and POEA were used alone, not as a mixture as in Roundup, and for only one or two years.[21] They did not review toxicity studies of Roundup treatments (as a mixture) in rats or rabbits lasting more than 22 days[21] and Roundup's potential as an endocrine disruptor was not assessed with a Roundup mixture at all.[21]
A 2008 scientific study has shown that Roundup formulations and metabolic products cause the death of human embryonic, placental, and umbilical cells in vitro, even at low concentrations. The effects were not proportional to the main active ingredient concentrations (glyphosate), but dependent on the nature of the adjuvants used in the Roundup formulation.[22]
Deliberate ingestion of Roundup herbicide in quantities ranging from 85 to 200 ml has resulted in death within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms following ingestion.[23] There is a reasonable correlation between the amount of Roundup ingested and the likelihood of serious systemic sequelae or death. Ingestion of >85 mL of the concentrated formulation is likely to cause significant toxicity in adults. Gastrointestinal corrosive effects, with mouth, throat and epigastric pain and dysphagia are common. Renal and hepatic impairment are also frequent and usually reflect reduced organ perfusion. Respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, pulmonary oedema, infiltration on chest x-ray, shock, arrythmias, renal failure requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis and hyperkalaemia may occur in severe cases. Bradycardia and ventricular arrhythmias often present prior to death. Dermal exposure to ready-to-use glyphosate formulations can cause irritation, and photo-contact dermatitis has been reported occasionally; these effects are probably due to the preservative Proxel (benzisothiazolin-3-one).Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, tingling and throat irritation. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis, and superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.[13]
Glyphosate is toxic to human skin cells, through causing oxidative damage; antioxidants such as Vitamin C and E were found to provide some protection to such damage, leading the authors of the study to recommend that these chemicals be added to formulations including glyphosate.[24] Severe skin burns are very rare.[13]
Endocrine disruptor
A 2000 in vitro study on mouse MA-10 cells concluded that Roundup inhibited progesterone production by disrupting StAR protein expression.[25] Further studies demonstrated this was not caused by glyphosate but to surfactants used as inactive ingredients in Roundup formulations.[26]
A 2005 in vitro study on human placental JEG3 cells concluded that the glyphosate disruption of aromatase is facilitated by adjuvants of the Roundup formulation.[9][27]
A 2009 in vitro experiment with glyphosate formulations on human liver HepG2 cells has observed endocrine disruption at sub-agricultural doses, where a Roundup formulation showed to be the most active formulation. The effects were more dependent on the formulation than on the glyphosate concentration.[28]
A 2009 study on rats has found that Roundup is a potent endocrine disruptor causing disturbances in the reproductive development when the exposure was performed during the puberty period.[29]
Roundup has been found to interfere with an enzyme involved in testosterone production in mouse cell culture[30] and to interfere with an estrogen biosynthesis enzyme in cultures of Human Placental cells.[31]
Genetic damage
A 1998 study on mice concluded that Roundup is able to cause genetic damage. The authors concluded that the damage was "not related to the active ingredient, but to another component of the herbicide mixture".[32]
A 2005 study raised concerns over the effects of Roundup in transcription.[33] A 2009 study on mice has found that a single intraperitoneal injection of Roundup in concentration of 25 mg/kg caused chromosomal aberrations and induction of micronuclei.[34]
A 2009 in vitro experiment with glyphosate formulations on human liver cells has observed DNA damages at sub-agricultural doses, where a Roundup formulation showed to be the most active formulation. The effects were more dependent on the formulation than on the glyphosate concentration.[28]
Ecologic effects
A 2000 review of the toxicological data on Roundup concluded that "for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed nontarget organisms". It also concluded that there were some risks to aquatic organisms exposed to Roundup in shallow water.[35]
Toxicity
A 2009 study has concluded that while physiological pH decreases glyphosate uptake in animal cells, Roundup formulation contains surfactants that increase membrane permeability allowing cellular uptake at physiological pH.[8]
Aquatic effects
Fish and aquatic invertebrates are more sensitive to Roundup than terrestrial organisms.[35] Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil, with 12 to 60 day persistence observed in Canadian pond water, yet persistence of over a year have been observed in the sediments of ponds in Michigan and Oregon.[12]
The EU classifies Roundup as R51/53 Toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment.[36]
Although Roundup is not registered for aquatic uses[37] and studies of its effects on amphibians indicate it is toxic to them,[38] scientists have found that it may wind up in small wetlands where tadpoles live, due to inadvertent spraying during its application. A recent study found that even at concentrations one-third of the maximum concentrations expected in nature, Roundup still killed up to 71 percent of tadpoles raised in outdoor tanks.[39]
A 2010 study has found that long-term exposition to environmental relevant concentrations of a Roundup formulation causes metabolic disruption in the fish leporinus obtusidens.[40]
Environmental degradation and effects
When glyphosate comes into contact with the soil, it can be rapidly bound to soil particles and be inactivated.[12] Unbound glyphosate can be degraded by bacteria.[41] Glyphosphate has been shown to increase the infection rate of wheat by fusarium head blight in fields that have been treated with glyphosphate.[42] A 2009 study using a RoundUp formulation has concluded that absorption into plants delays subsequent soil-degradation, and can increase glyphosate persistence in soil from two to six times.[43]
Honey bee die-off
Terrence Ingram had done research on the effects of Roundup, as a cause of colony collapse disorder in honey bees.[44][45][46][47][48][49]
In March 2012, the Illinois Department of Agriculture seized most of his bee hives while he was at a family event. The bees disappeared while in the possession of the IDoA along with his 15 years of research.[50][51][52][53]
False advertising and scientific fraud
False advertising
In 1996, Monsanto was accused of false and misleading advertising of glyphosate products, prompting a law suit by the New York State attorney general.[54] Monsanto had made claims that its spray-on glyphosate based herbicides, including Roundup, were safer than table salt and "practically non-toxic" to mammals, birds, and fish.[55]
Environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case in France in 2001 for presenting Roundup as biodegradable and claiming that it left the soil clean after use; glyphosate, Roundup's main ingredient, is classed by the European Union as "dangerous for the environment" and "toxic for aquatic organisms". In January 2007, Monsanto was convicted of false advertising.[56] The result was confirmed in 2009.[57]
Scientific fraud
On two occasions, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has caught scientists deliberately falsifying test results at research laboratories hired by Monsanto to study glyphosate.[58][59][60] In the first incident involving Industrial Biotest Laboratories, an EPA reviewer stated after finding "routine falsification of data" that it was "hard to believe the scientific integrity of the studies when they said they took specimens of the uterus from male rabbits".[61][62][63] In the second incident of falsifying test results in 1991, the owner of Craven Laboratories and three employees were indicted on 20 felony counts, the owner was sentenced to 5 years in prison and fined $50,000, the lab was fined 15.5 million dollars and ordered to pay 3.7 million dollars in restitution.[64][65][66] Craven Laboratories performed studies for 262 pesticide companies including Monsanto.
Monsanto has stated that the studies have been repeated, and that Roundup's EPA certification does not now use any studies from Craven Labs or IBT. Monsanto also said that the Craven Labs investigation was started by the EPA after a pesticide industry task force discovered irregularities.[67]
Difference between regulatory registered and commercialized formulations
In November 2009, a French environment group (MDRGF) accused Monsanto of using chemicals in Roundup formulations not disclosed to the country's regulatory bodies, and demanded the removal of those products from the market.[68][69]
Resistance to Roundup
Resistance evolves after a weed population has been subjected to intense selection pressure in the form of repeated use of a single herbicide.[70][71] These weeds resistant to the herbicide have been called "Superweeds".[72][73] In the US 7 to 10 million acres (40,000 km2) of soil is afflicted by those superweeds.[74]
The first documented cases of weed resistance to glyphosate were found in Australia, involving rigid ryegrass near Orange, New South Wales.[75] Some farmers in the United States have expressed concern that weeds are now developing with glyphosate resistance, with 13 states now reporting resistance, and this poses a problem to many farmers, including cotton farmers, that are now heavily dependent on glyphosate to control weeds.[76][77] Farmers associations are now reporting 103 biotypes of weeds within 63 weed species with herbicide resistance.[76][77] This problem is likely to be exacerbated by the use of Roundup Ready crops.[78] Fifteen weed species have been confirmed as resistant to glyphosate.[70]
Palmer amaranth
In 2004, a glyphosate-resistant variation of palmer amaranth, commonly known as pigweed, was found in Georgia and confirmed by a 2005 study.[79] In 2005 resistance was also found in North Carolina.[80] Glyphosate resistance followed the widespread use of Roundup Ready crops, which lead to an unprecedented selection pressure to glyphosate.[80] The weed variation is now widespread in southeast US.[81] Cases are also reported in Texas[81] and Virginia.[82]
Johnsongrass
Glyphosate resistant Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense) has occurred in Roundup Ready soybean culture in Argentina.[83]
Coca
Boliviana negra, also known as "supercoca", is a relatively new strain of coca that is resistant to Roundup. The coca plant (Erythroxylum coca) is the source of the addictive stimulant drug known as cocaine, it is one of the most widely consumed illegal drugs in the world and the source of large amounts of money to various criminal organizations.
Roundup is a key ingredient in the multibillion-dollar aerial coca eradication campaign undertaken by the government of Colombia with U.S. financial and military backing known as Plan Colombia.[84]
Spraying Boliviana Negra with glyphosate would serve to strengthen its growth by eliminating the non-resistant weeds surrounding it. Joshua Davis, writing in Wired magazine, found no evidence of CP4 EPSPS, a protein produced by the Roundup Ready soybean, suggesting Bolivana Negra was not created in a laboratory but by selective breeding in the fields. According to Davis, the growing popularity of Boliviana Negra amongst growers could have serious repercussions for the U.S. war on drugs but nobody really wants to talk about because it could put an end to U.S. aid money in Colombia and the coca farmers who grow the new strain would stop receiving free weed control on behalf of the U.S. government and taxpayers.[85][86]
Genetically modified crops
Roundup Ready is the Monsanto trademark for its patented line of crop seed that are resistant to its glyphosphate-based herbicide, Roundup
Tradenames
The Roundup trademark is registered with the US Patent Office and still extant. However, glyphosate is no longer under patent, so similar products use it as an active ingredient.[87]
Other uses
Glyphosate is one of a number of herbicides used by the United States government to spray Colombian coca fields through Plan Colombia. There are reports that widespread application of glyphosate in attempts to destroy coca crops in South America have resulted in the development of glyphosate-resistant strains of coca known as Boliviana negra, which have been selectively bred to be both "Roundup Ready" and larger and higher yielding than the original strains of the plant.[88][89] However, there are no reports of glyphosate-resistant coca in the peer-reviewed literature.[90] In addition, since spraying of herbicides is not permitted in Colombian national parks, this has encouraged coca growers to move into park areas, cutting down the natural vegetation, and establishing coca plantations within park lands.
Cosmetic purposes
In many cities, Roundup is sprayed along the sidewalks and streets, as well as crevices in between pavement where weeds often grow. However, up to 24% of the glyphosate from a Roundup formulation applied to hard surfaces can be run off by water.[91] Glyphosate contamination of surface water is highly attributed to urban use.[92]
In many Canadian cities Roundup use for cosmetic purposes is either banned or restricted.[93][94]
See also
- Herbicide
- Pesticides in the United States
- Pesticide regulation in the United States
- Environmental impact of pesticides
- Health effects of pesticides
- 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
- Atrazine
- Integrated pest management
References
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- ^ (U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. Com. on Gov. Oper. 1984. Problems palgue the EPA pesticide registration activities. House Report 98-1147)
- ^ (U.S. EPA 1978 Data validation. Memo from K LOcke, Toxicology Branch, to R Taylor, Registration Branch. Washington DC Aug 9)
- ^ (U.S. EPA Office of pesticides and Toxic Substances 1983, Summary of the IBT review program. Washington D.C. July)
- ^ Schneider, K. 1983. Faking it: The case against Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories. The Amicus Journal (Spring):14-26. Reproduced at Planetwaves
- ^ mindfully.org. "Glyphosate Factsheet (part 1 of 2) Caroline Cox / Journal of Pesticide Reform v.108, n.3 Fall98 rev.Oct00". Mindfully.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ (US Dept. of Justice. United States Attorney. Western District of Texas 1992. Texas laboratory, its president, 3 employees indicted on 20 felony counts in connection with pesticide testing. Austin TX Sept 29)
- ^ (US EPA Communications, Education, And Public Affairs 1994 Press Advisory. Craven Laboratories, owner, and 14 employees sentenced for falsifying pesticide tests. Washington DC Mar 4)
- ^ Backgrounder: Testing Fraud: IBT and Craven Labs, June 2005, Monsanto background paper on RoundUp [9]
- ^ "Round up: une association veut le retrait". Le Figaro (in French). 2009-11-18. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
- ^ "Dossier de presse — alerte pesticides: le cas de 3 Roundup" (PDF) (in French). Mouvement pour les droits et le respect des générations futures (MDRGF). 1 November 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
- ^ a b Lori (2009-05-07). "U of G Researchers Find Suspected Glyphosate-Resistant Weed". Uoguelph.ca. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ "Resisting Roundup". The New York Times. 2010-05-16.
- ^ "'Superweed' explosion threatens Monsanto heartlands". France24.com. 2009-04-19. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ Tarter, Steve (2009-04-06). "PJStar.com". PJStar.com. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ NEUMAN, WILLIAM (4 May 2010). "U.S. Farmers Cope With Roundup-Resistant Weeds". New York Times. New York. pp. B1. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
{{cite news}}
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ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ "ISU Weed Science Online - Are RR Weeds in Your Future II". Weeds.iastate.edu. 2003-01-29. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ a b "Glyphosate resistance is a reality that should scare some cotton growers into changing the way they do business". Southeastfarmpress.com. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ a b More glyphosate resistant weeds[dead link]
- ^ "Purdue University" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ Culpepper, A. S.; Grey, T. L.; Vencill, W. K.; Kichler, J. M.; Webster, T. M.; Brown, S. M.; York, A. C.; Davis, J. W.; Hanna, W. W. (2006). "Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri ) confirmed in Georgia". Weed Science. 54 (4): 620–626. doi:10.1614/WS-06-001R.1.
{{cite journal}}
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at position 57 (help) - ^ a b Hampton, Natalie. "Cotton versus the monster weed". Retrieved 2009-07-19.
- ^ a b Smith, J.T. (March 2009). "Resistance a growing problem" (PDF). The Farmer Stockman. Retrieved 2009-07-19.
- ^ Taylor, Owen (2009-07-16). "Peanuts: variable insects, variable weather, Roundup resistant Palmer in new state". PeanutFax. AgFax Media. Retrieved 2009-07-19.
- ^ Vila-aiub, M. M.; Balbi, M. C.; Gundel, P. E.; Ghersa, C. M.; Powles, S. B. (2007). "Evolution of Glyphosate-Resistant Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) in Glyphosate-Resistant Soybean". Weed Science. 55 (6): 566–571. doi:10.1614/WS-07-053.1.
- ^ http://www.state.gov/www/regions/wha/colombia/fs_000328_plancolombia.html United States Support For Colombia
- ^ http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.11/columbia.html The Mystery of the Coca Plant That Wouldn't Die
- ^ http://www.comunidadboliviana.com.ar/shop/detallenot.asp?notid=460 BOLIVIANA NEGRA, LA COCA QUE NO MUERE
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- ^ mindfully.org. "RoundupReady Coca: New Super Strain of Coca Plant Stuns Anti-Drug Officials JEREMY MCDERMOTT / The Scotsman (Scotland) 27aug04". Mindfully.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
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{{cite web}}
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- ^ Botta, F.; Lavison, G.; Couturier, G.; Alliot, F.; Moreau-Guigon, E.; Fauchon, N.; Guery, B.; Chevreuil, M.; Blanchoud, H. (May 2009). "Transfer of glyphosate and its degradate AMPA to surface waters through urban sewerage systems". Chemosphere. 77 (1): 133–139. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.05.008. ISSN 0045-6535. PMID 19482331.
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Further reading
- Baccara, Mariagiovanna, et al. Monsanto's Roundup, NYU Stern School of Business: August 2001, Revised July 14, 2003.
- Pease W S et al. (1993) Preventing pesticide-related illness in California agriculture: Strategies and priorities. Environmental Health Policy Program Report. Berkeley, CA: University of California. School of Public Health. California Policy Seminar.
- Marie-Monique Robin. (2008) Le monde selon Monsanto. Arte Editions (book written in French). ISBN 978-2-7071-4918-3. An overview of Monsanto products: PCB, Dioxine, Roundup, Bovine Growth Hormone, OGM.
- Wang Y, Jaw C and Chen Y (1994) Accumulation of 2,4-D and glyphosate in fish and water hyaacinth. Water Air Soil Pollute. 74:397-403