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#REDIRECT[[Glyphosate]] |
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{{infobox| title = Roundup |
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| image = |
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| caption = |
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| header1 = Manufacturing status |
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| label2 = Leading manufacturer |
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| data2 = [[Monsanto]] |
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| label3 = Type |
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| data3 = [[Herbicide]] |
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| label4 = Introduced to market |
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| data4 = 1976<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.monsanto.com/who_we_are/history.asp |title=Monsanto ~ Who We Are ~ Company History |publisher=Monsanto.com |date=2008-11-03 |accessdate=2010-08-22 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080423174556/http://www.monsanto.com/who_we_are/history.asp |archivedate = April 23, 2008}}</ref> |
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| header5 = Purposes |
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| label6 = Agriculture |
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| data6 = non-selective post-emergence weed control |
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| label7 = Government |
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| data7 = Destruction of illegal drugs, cosmetic purposes, and invasive species control |
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| label8 = Consumer / home |
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| data8 = Cosmetic purposes |
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| header9 = [[Herbicide]] properties |
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| label10 = Surfactant |
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| data10 = [[Polyethoxylated tallow amine]](most common) |
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| label11 = Main active ingredient |
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| data11 = [[isopropylamine]] [[salt]] of [[Glyphosate]] |
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| label12 = Mode of action |
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| data12 = 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase(EPSPS) inhibitor |
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}} |
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'''Roundup''' is the brand name of a systemic, broad-spectrum [[herbicide]] produced by the [[United States|U.S.]] company [[Monsanto Company|Monsanto]], and contains the active ingredient [[glyphosate]]. Glyphosate is the most widely used herbicide in the USA,<ref name="EPAusage">US EPA 2000–2001 Pesticide Market Estimates [http://www.epa.gov/oppbead1/pestsales/01pestsales/usage2001_2.htm#3_6 Agriculture], [http://www.epa.gov/oppbead1/pestsales/01pestsales/usage2001_3.htm#3_7 Home and Garden]</ref> and Roundup has been the number one selling herbicide worldwide since at least 1980.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1189345/ Documentary ''The World According to Monsanto'']</ref> As of 2009, sales of Roundup herbicides represent about 10% of Monsanto's revenue due to competition from Chinese producers of other glyphosate-based herbicides;<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14904184|title=The debate over whether Monsanto is a corporate sinner or saint|date=19 November 2009|work=The Economist|accessdate=20 November 2009}}</ref> the overall Roundup line of products (which includes [[Genetic engineering|GM]] seeds) represents about half of Monsanto's yearly revenue.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.forbes.com/2009/06/29/monsanto-potash-fertilizer-personal-finance-investing-ideas-agrium-mosaic.html|title=The Seeds Of A Monsanto Short Play|last=Cavallaro|first=Matt|date=2009-06-26|publisher=Forbes|accessdate=2009-07-11}}</ref> |
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Monsanto developed and [[patent]]ed the [[glyphosate]] molecule in the 1970s, and marketed Roundup from 1973. It retained exclusive rights in the US until its US patent expired in September, 2000, and maintained a predominant marketshare in countries where the patent expired earlier. |
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The main [[active ingredient]] of Roundup is the [[isopropyl amine|isopropylamine]] [[salt]] of [[glyphosate]]. Another important ingredient of Roundup is the [[surfactant]] POEA ([[polyethoxylated tallow amine]]), which is known for its toxicity in wildlife.<ref>{{Cite journal| first1 = M. A. | title = The Ecological Impacts of Large-Scale Agrofuel Monoculture Production Systems in the Americas | journal = Bulletin of Science Technology & Society | volume = 29| issue = 3| last1 = Altieri | pages = 236 | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1177/0270467609333728}}</ref> It increases herbicide penetration in plant<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/news/roundup-weed-killer-is-toxic-to-human-cells.-study-intensifies-debate-over-inert-ingredients|title=Weed killer kills human cells. Study intensifies debate over 'inert' ingredients.|last=Gammon|first=Crystal|date=2009-06-22|work=Environmental Health News|publisher=Environmental Health Sciences|accessdate=2009-07-12}}</ref> and animal<ref name="cite pmid|20036731">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.tiv.2009.12.020 | title = Effects of Roundup and glyphosate formulations on intracellular transport, microtubules and actin filaments in Xenopus laevis melanophores | year = 2009 | last1 = Daniel | first1 = H. | last2 = Margareta | first2 = W. | journal = Toxicology in Vitro| volume = 24 | pages = 795–802 | pmid = 20036731 | issue = 3 }}</ref><ref name="Zeliger"/> cells. |
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Several weed species, known as superweeds, have developed Roundup resistance largely because of repeated exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.national-academies.org/morenews/20100413.html|title=GE Crops Benefit Farmers, But Management Needed to Maintain Effectiveness|date=13 April 2010|publisher=National Academy of Sciences|accessdate=4 May 2010}}</ref> |
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Monsanto also produces seeds which grow into plants [[genetic engineering|genetically engineered]] to be tolerant to glyphosate, which are known as ''Roundup Ready'' crops. The genes contained in these seeds are patented. Such crops allow farmers to use glyphosate as a post-emergence herbicide against most broadleaf and cereal weeds. Soy was the first [[#Genetically modified crops|''Roundup Ready'' crop]], and was produced at Monsanto's [[Agracetus]] Campus located in [[Middleton, Wisconsin]]. |
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==Mechanism of action== |
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The active ingredient in Roundup is [[glyphosphate]]. Glyphosate inhibits an enzyme involved in the synthesis of the [[aromatic amino acids]]: [[tyrosine]], [[tryptophan]] and [[phenylalanine]]. It is absorbed through foliage. Because of this mode of action, it is only effective on actively growing plants; it is not effective in preventing seeds from germinating. |
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The enzyme that glyphosphate inhibits, [[EPSP synthase|5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase]] (EPSPS), is found only in plants and micro-organisms. EPSPS is not present in animals, which instead obtain aromatic amino acids from their diet.<ref name="Funke">Molecular basis for the herbicide resistance of Roundup Ready crops, T. Funke et al., PNAS 2006 103:13010-13015 [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/103/35/13010#B10]</ref> |
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==Regulation== |
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Roundup commercial formulations were never submitted to test by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA); its main active ingredient, glyphosate, received EPA [[Toxicity Class]] of III for oral and inhalation exposure.<ref name="epa_reds">U.S. EPA ReRegistration Decision Fact Sheet for Glyphosate (EPA-738-F-93-011) 1993. [http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0178fact.pdf]</ref> |
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Beyond the glyphosate salts content, commercial formulations of Roundup contain [[surfactant]]s, which vary in nature and concentration. As a result, human poisoning with this herbicide is not with the main active ingredient alone, but with complex and variable mixtures.<ref name="glyphosate-poisoning">Review article at of glyphosate poisoning at Pubmed by Bradberry SM, Proudfoot AT, Vale JA. of the National Poisons Information Service (Birmingham Centre) and West Midlands Poisons Unit, City Hospital, Birmingham, UK. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15862083 National Institutes of Health]</ref> |
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==Health effects== |
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===Toxicity=== |
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Laboratory studies have shown [[Teratology|teratogenic]] effects of Roundup in animals.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lammer|first=E. J.|coauthors=Chen, D.T. et. al.|title=Retinoic acid embryopathy|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=313|pages=837–841}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Durston|first=A. J.|coauthors=Timmermans, J. P. et al.|title=Retinoic acid causes an anteroposterior transformation in the developing central nervous system|journal=Nature|date=13|year=1989|month=July|volume=340|issue=6229|pages=140–144|doi=10.1038/340140a0|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v340/n6229/abs/340140a0.html|accessdate=9 June 2011}}</ref> These reports have proposed that the teratogenic effects are caused by impaired retinoic acid signaling.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Paganelli|first=Alejandra|coauthors=et. al.|title=Glyphosate-Based Herbicides Produce Teratogenic Effects on Vertebrates by Impairing Retinoic Acid Signaling|journal=Chem. Res. Toxicol.|date=20|year=2010|month=May|volume=23|issue=10|pages=1586–1595|doi=10.1021/tx1001749|url=http://www.rapaluruguay.org/glifosato/Efectos%20teratogenicos%20del%20Glifosato.pdf|accessdate=9 June 2011|pmid=20695457}}</ref> A 2011 report by Earth Open Source asserts that the Roundup active ingredient - glyphosate - has caused birth defects in laboratory animal tests.<ref>{{cite book|last=Antoniou et. al.|first=Michael|title=Roundup and birth defects: Is the public being kept in the dark?|year=2011|publisher=Earth Open Source|url=http://www.scribd.com/fullscreen/57277946?access_key=key-2e3aijw4gtltp4q6fz9h}}</ref> News reports have supposed that regulators have been aware of these studies since 1980.<ref>{{cite news|last=Graves|first=Lucia|title=Roundup Birth Defects: Regulators Knew World's Best-Selling Herbicide Causes Problems, New Report Finds|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/06/07/roundup-birth-defects-herbicide-regulators_n_872862.html|accessdate=9 June 2011|newspaper=Huffington Post|date=7 June 2011}}</ref> |
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The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) considers glyphosate to be relatively low in toxicity, and without carcinogenic or teratagenic effects.<ref name="autogenerated7">http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0178fact.pdf</ref> The EPA considered a "worst case" dietary risk model of an individual eating a lifetime of food entirely from glyphosate-sprayed fields, and with residue levels remaining at their maximum levels, and concluded no adverse effects would exist under these conditions.<ref name="autogenerated7"/> |
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A 2000 review concluded that "under present and expected conditions of new use, there is no potential for Roundup herbicide to pose a health risk to humans".<ref name="wkc00">{{cite journal | author = Williams GM, Kroes R, Munro IC | year = 2000 | title = Safety evaluation and risk assessment of the herbicide Roundup and its active ingredient, glyphosate, for humans | url = | journal = Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 31 | issue = 2| pages = 117–165 | pmid = 10854122 | doi=10.1006/rtph.1999.1371}}</ref> The 2000 review has been criticized because it reviewed mostly experiments in which glyphosate and POEA were used alone, not as a mixture as in Roundup, and for only one or two years.<ref name="Benachour">{{Cite journal |
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| doi = 10.1007/s00244-006-0154-8 |
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| pmid = 17486286 |
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| year = 2007 |
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| last1 = Benachour |
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| first1 = N. |
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| last2 = Sipahutar |
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| first2 = H. |
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| last3 = Moslemi |
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| first3 = S. |
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| last4 = Gasnier |
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| first4 = C. |
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| last5 = Travert |
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| first5 = C. |
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| last6 = Séralini |
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| first6 = G. |
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| title = Time- and dose-dependent effects of roundup on human embryonic and placental cells |
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| volume = 53 |
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| issue = 1 |
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| pages = 126–133 |
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| journal = Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology |
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| quote = Most of the tests undertaken in a regulatory context are in fact performed with the active ingredient alone in vivo for one or two years (Williams et al. 2000). For instance, toxicity was not measured for Roundup treatments during more than 22 days with rats and rabbits. The potency for endocrine modulation was not assessed with the Roundup mixture at all, but only with glyphosate or POEA alone (Williams et al. 2000). |
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}}</ref> They did not review toxicity studies of Roundup treatments (as a mixture) in rats or rabbits lasting more than 22 days<ref name="Benachour"/> and Roundup's potential as an endocrine disruptor was not assessed with a Roundup mixture at all.<ref name="Benachour"/> |
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A 2008 scientific study has shown that Roundup formulations and metabolic products cause the death of human embryonic, placental, and umbilical cells ''in vitro'', even at low concentrations. The effects were not proportional to the main active ingredient concentrations (glyphosate), but dependent on the nature of the adjuvants used in the Roundup formulation.<ref name="human cells">{{Cite journal|last=Benachour|first=Nora |coauthors=Gilles-Eric Séralini|date=December 23, 2008|title=Glyphosate Formulations Induce Apoptosis and Necrosis in Human Umbilical, Embryonic, and Placental Cells|journal=Chemical Research in Toxicology|url=http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/tx800218n|doi=10.1021/tx800218n|pmid=19105591|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–105}}</ref> |
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Deliberate ingestion of Roundup herbicide in quantities ranging from 85 to 200 ml has resulted in [[death]] within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms following ingestion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://het.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/1/1 |title=Alan Ronald Talbot, Mon-Han Shiaw, Jinn-Sheng Huang, Shu-Fen Yang, Tein-Shong Goo, Shur-Hueih Wang, Chao-Liang Chen, Thomas Richard Sanford, "Acute Poisoning with a Glyphosate-Surfactant Herbicide ('Roundup'): A Review of 93 Cases", ''Human & Experimental Toxicology'', Vol. 10, No. 1, 1-8 (1991) |publisher=Het.sagepub.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> There is a reasonable correlation between the amount of Roundup ingested and the likelihood of serious systemic sequelae or death. Ingestion of >85 mL of the concentrated formulation is likely to cause significant toxicity in adults. Gastrointestinal corrosive effects, with mouth, throat and epigastric pain and dysphagia are common. Renal and hepatic impairment are also frequent and usually reflect reduced organ perfusion. Respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, pulmonary oedema, infiltration on chest x-ray, shock, arrythmias, renal failure requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis and hyperkalaemia may occur in severe cases. Bradycardia and ventricular arrhythmias often present prior to death. Dermal exposure to ready-to-use glyphosate formulations can cause irritation, and photo-contact dermatitis has been reported occasionally; these effects are probably due to the preservative Proxel (benzisothiazolin-3-one).Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, tingling and throat irritation. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis, and superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.<ref name="glyphosate-poisoning" /> |
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Glyphosate is toxic to human skin cells, through causing oxidative damage; antioxidants such as Vitamin C and E were found to provide some protection to such damage, leading the authors of the study to recommend that these chemicals be added to formulations including glyphosate.<ref name="skin-antioxidants">[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T7W-4F05RD4-1&_user=10&_coverDate=01%2F20%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1448589491&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=0e350453e272974cc695f5ab3f8fbf35&searchtype=a Audrey Gehin et. al., "Vitamins C and E reverse effect of herbicide-induced toxicity on human epidermal cells HaCaT: a biochemometric approach", ''International Journal of Pharmaceutics'', Vol. 288, No. 2, Jan. 20 2005, pp. 219–226.]</ref> Severe skin burns are very rare.<ref name="glyphosate-poisoning" /> |
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===Endocrine disruptor=== |
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A 2000 in vitro study on mouse MA-10 cells concluded that Roundup inhibited progesterone production by disrupting [[Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein|StAR protein]] expression.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1289/ehp.00108769| pmid = 10964798| year = 2000| last1 = Walsh | first1 = L. P.| last2 = McCormick | first2 = C.| last3 = Martin | first3 = C.| last4 = Stocco | first4 = D. M.| title = Roundup inhibits steroidogenesis by disrupting steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein expression| volume = 108| issue = 8| pages = 769–776| pmc = 1638308| journal = Environmental health perspectives| jstor=3434731}}</ref> Further studies demonstrated this was not caused by glyphosate but to surfactants used as inactive ingredients in Roundup formulations.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Papadopoulos|first=Vassilios|editor=Anita H. Payne |title=The Leydig Cell in Health and Disease|series=Contemporary Endocrinology|year=2007|publisher=Humana Press|isbn=978-1-58829-754-9|page=396|chapter=Environmental Factors That Disrupt Leydig Cell Steroidogenesis}}</ref> |
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A 2005 in vitro study on human placental JEG3 cells concluded that the glyphosate disruption of [[aromatase]] is facilitated by adjuvants of the Roundup formulation.<ref name="Zeliger">{{Cite book|last=Zeliger|first=Harold I.|title=Human Toxicology of Chemical Mixtures|year=2008|publisher=William Andrew Pub|isbn=978-0-8155-1589-0|page=388}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| pmid = 15929894| last1 = Richard| date=Jun 2005 | first = S. M.| last2 = Moslemi | first2 = S.| last3 = Sipahutar | first3 = H.| last4 = Benachour | first4 = N.| last5 = Seralini | first5 = G. E.| title = Differential Effects of Glyphosate and Roundup on Human Placental Cells and Aromatase| volume = 113| issue = 6| pages = 716–720| issn = 0091-6765| pmc = 1257596| journal = Environmental health perspectives| doi = 10.1289/ehp.7728}}</ref> |
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A 2009 in vitro experiment with glyphosate formulations on human liver [[Hep G2|HepG2]] cells has observed endocrine disruption at sub-agricultural doses, where a Roundup formulation showed to be the most active formulation. The effects were more dependent on the formulation than on the glyphosate concentration.<ref name="HepG2">{{Cite journal| first1 = C.| last5 = Chagnon | first2 = C. | first3 = N.| last2 = Dumont| last3 = Benachour| last6 = Séralini| last4 = Clair | first4 = E. | first5 = C. | first6 = E. | title = Glyphosate-based herbicides are toxic and endocrine disruptors in human cell lines | journal = Toxicology | volume = 262| issue = 3| pages = 184–191 | date=Jun 2009 | issn = 0300-483X | pmid = 19539684| last1 = Gasnier | doi = 10.1016/j.tox.2009.06.006}}</ref> |
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A 2009 study on rats has found that Roundup is a potent endocrine disruptor causing disturbances in the reproductive development when the exposure was performed during the puberty period.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s00204-009-0494-z | title = Prepubertal exposure to commercial formulation of the herbicide glyphosate alters testosterone levels and testicular morphology | year = 2009 | last1 = Romano | first1 = R. M. | last2 = Romano | first2 = M. A. | last3 = Bernardi | first3 = M. M. | last4 = Furtado | first4 = P. V. | last5 = Oliveira | first5 = C. A. | journal = Archives of Toxicology | volume = 84 | pages = 309–17 | pmid = 20012598 | issue = 4 }}</ref> |
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Roundup has been found to interfere with an enzyme involved in testosterone production in mouse cell culture<ref name="walsh">Walsh ''et al.'' Roundup inhibits steroidogenesis by disrupting steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein expression. Environ Health Perspect. 2000 108: 769–776.[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=10964798]</ref> and to interfere with an estrogen biosynthesis enzyme in cultures of Human Placental cells.<ref name="Aromatase">Richard et al., Differential Effects of Glyphosate and Roundup on Human Placental Cells and Aromatase, Environmental Health Perspectives Vol. 113, No.6, 716-720[http://www.ehponline.org/members/2005/7728/7728.pdf] </ref> |
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===Genetic damage=== |
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A 1998 study on mice concluded that Roundup is able to cause genetic damage. The authors concluded that the damage was "''not related to the active ingredient, but to another component of the herbicide mixture''".<ref>{{cite journal |pmid = 946431 | volume=68 | issue=02 | title=Relation between prolactin and gonadotrophin secretion in post-partum lactating rats | year=1976 | month=February | author=Lu KH, Chen HT, Huang HH, Grandison L, Marshall S, Meites J | journal=J. Endocrinol. | pages=241–50}}</ref> |
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A 2005 study raised concerns over the effects of Roundup in [[Transcription (genetics)|transcription]].<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.taap.2004.07.014| pmid = 15694458| year = 2005| last1 = Marc | first1 = J.| last2 = Le Breton | first2 = M.| last3 = Cormier | first3 = P.| last4 = Morales | first4 = J.| last5 = Bellé | first5 = R.| last6 = Mulner-Lorillon | first6 = O.| title = A glyphosate-based pesticide impinges on transcription| volume = 203| issue = 1| pages = 1–8| journal = Toxicology and applied pharmacology }}</ref> |
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A 2009 study on mice has found that a single [[intraperitoneal injection]] of Roundup in concentration of 25 mg/kg caused chromosomal aberrations and induction of [[micronucleus test|micronuclei]].<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1155/2009/308985| title = Clastogenic Effects of Glyphosate in Bone Marrow Cells of Swiss Albino Mice| year = 2009| last1 = Prasad| first1 = Sahdeo| last2 = Srivastava| first2 = Smita| last3 = Singh| first3 = Madhulika| last4 = Shukla| first4 = Yogeshwer| journal = Journal of Toxicology| volume = 2009| pages = 1}}</ref> |
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A 2009 in vitro experiment with glyphosate formulations on human liver cells has observed DNA damages at sub-agricultural doses, where a Roundup formulation showed to be the most active formulation. The effects were more dependent on the formulation than on the glyphosate concentration.<ref name="HepG2"/> |
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==Ecologic effects== |
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A 2000 review of the toxicological data on Roundup concluded that ''"for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed nontarget organisms"''. It also concluded that there were some risks to aquatic organisms exposed to Roundup in shallow water.<ref name="Giesy2000">JP Giesy, KR Solomon, S Dobson (2000). "Ecotoxicological Risk Assessment for Roundup Herbicide". Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 167: 35-120</ref> |
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===Toxicity=== |
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A 2009 study has concluded that while physiological pH decreases [[glyphosate]] uptake in animal cells, Roundup formulation contains surfactants that increase membrane permeability allowing cellular uptake at physiological pH.<ref name="cite pmid|20036731"/> |
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===Aquatic effects=== |
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[[Fish]] and aquatic [[invertebrates]] are more sensitive to Roundup than terrestrial organisms.<ref name="Giesy2000" /> Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil, with 12 to 60 day persistence observed in Canadian pond water, yet persistence of over a year have been observed in the sediments of ponds in Michigan and Oregon.<ref name="epa_reds"/><br> |
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The EU classifies Roundup as ''R51/53 Toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment.''<ref name="autogenerated3">[http://lscgw1.monsanto.com/esh/msdslib.nsf/2B20DAEB04E8631C0625689700650B45/$file/Roundup%20Ultra%203000-5059en-gb.pdf Monsanto] Roundup Material Safety Data sheet page 7, heading 16</ref> |
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Although Roundup is not registered for aquatic uses<ref>Monsanto Backgrounder 2005 Response to "The impact of insecticides and herbicides on the biodiversity and productivity of aquatic communities" [http://www.monsanto.com/monsanto/content/products/productivity/roundup/bkg_amphib_05a.pdf]</ref> and studies of its effects on amphibians indicate it is toxic to them,<ref>Rick A. Relyea 2005 The impact of insecticides and herbicides on the biodiversity and productivity of aquatic communities Ecological Applications 15:618–627</ref> scientists have found that it may wind up in small wetlands where tadpoles live, due to inadvertent spraying during its application. A recent study found that even at concentrations one-third of the maximum concentrations expected in nature, Roundup still killed up to 71 percent of tadpoles raised in outdoor tanks.<ref>Even Small Doses of Popular Weed Killer Fatal to Frogs, Scientist Finds [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/08/050804053212.htm]</ref> |
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A 2010 study has found that long-term exposition to environmental relevant concentrations of a Roundup formulation causes metabolic disruption in the fish ''[[leporinus obtusidens]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1007/s00244-009-9464-y| pmid = 20112104| year = 2010| last1 = Salbego | first1 = J.| last2 = Pretto | first2 = A.| last3 = Gioda | first3 = C.| last4 = De Menezes | first4 = C.| last5 = Lazzari | first5 = R.| last6 = Radünz Neto | first6 = J.| last7 = Baldisserotto | first7 = B.| last8 = Loro | first8 = V.| title = Herbicide formulation with glyphosate affects growth, acetylcholinesterase activity, and metabolic and hematological parameters in piava (Leporinus obtusidens)| volume = 58| issue = 3| pages = 740–745| journal = Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology}}</ref> |
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===Environmental degradation and effects=== |
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When glyphosate comes into contact with the soil, it can be rapidly bound to soil particles and be inactivated.<ref name="epa_reds">US EPA Reregistration Eligibility Decision — Glyphosate - (EPA-738-F-93-011) 1993 [http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/old_reds/glyphosate.pdf]</ref> Unbound glyphosate can be degraded by bacteria.<ref>Balthazor, Terry M and Laurence Hallas (1986) Glyphosate-degrading microorganisms in industrial waste treatment biosystems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 51:432-34.[http://aem.asm.org/cgi/reprint/51/2/432.pdf]</ref> Glyphosphate has been shown to increase the infection rate of wheat by fusarium head blight in fields that have been treated with glyphosphate.<ref name="autogenerated2">[http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/full/45/5/1908] "Crop Production Factors Associated with Fusarium Head Blight in Spring Wheat in Eastern Saskatchewan", published online 26 August 2005 by M. R. Fernandeza, F. Sellesa, D. Gehlb, R. M. DePauwa and R. P. Zentner.</ref> A 2009 study using a RoundUp formulation has concluded that absorption into plants delays subsequent soil-degradation, and can increase glyphosate persistence in soil from two to six times.<ref>{{Cite journal| author1 = Doublet| first2 = L.| first3 = E.| title = Delayed degradation in soil of foliar herbicides glyphosate and sulcotrione previously absorbed by plants: consequences on herbicide fate and risk assessment| journal = Chemosphere| volume = 77| issue = 4| pages = 582–589| year = 2009| pmid = 19625069| doi = 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.06.044| last2 = Mamy| last3 = Barriuso}}</ref> |
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In soils, half lives vary from as little as 3 days at a site in Texas, to as much as 141 days at a site in Iowa.<ref name=autogenerated6 /> In addition, the glyphosate metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid was shown to persist up to 2 years in Swedish forest soils.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.labmeeting.com/paper/18974220/torstensson-1989-influence-of-climatic-and-edaphic-factors-on-persistence-of-glyphosate-and-24-d-in-forest-soils |title=Influence of climatic and edaphic factors on persistence of glyphosate and 2,4-D in forest soils. (1989) |publisher=Labmeeting |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> |
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A recent study concluded that certain amphibians may be at risk from glyphosate use.<ref>Bette Hileman. (2005) Common herbicide kills tadpoles. Chemical & Engineering News. Washington 83(15):11.</ref> One study has shown an effect on growth and survival of earthworms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=2894073&q=&uid=790265242&setcookie=yes |title=(Springett & Gray 1992, ''Soil Biol. Biochem''. 24 (12):1739–1744) |publisher=Md1.csa.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> The results of this study are in conflict with other data, and have been criticized on methodological grounds.<ref name="Giesy2000" /> In other studies, nitrogen fixing bacteria have been impaired, and also crop plant susceptibility to disease has been increased.<ref name="autogenerated2" /><ref>(Santos & Flores 1995, ''Lett. Appl.'' Microbiol. 20:349-352)</ref><ref>(Brammel & Higgins 1988, ''Can. J. Bot'' 66:1547–1555)</ref><ref>(Johal & Rahe 1988, Molec. Plant Pathol. 32:267-281)</ref><ref>(Mekwatanakarn & Sivassithamparam 1987, ''Biol. Fertil. Soils'' 5:175-180)</ref><ref>(Kawate et al. 1997, ''Weed Sci''. 45:739-743)</ref><ref>(Bergvinson & Borden 1992, ''Can J. For. Res''. 22:206-209)</ref> |
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===Honey bee die-off=== |
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[[Terrence Ingram]] had done research on the effects of Roundup, as a cause of [[colony collapse disorder]] in honey bees.<ref> http://www.globalresearch.ca/illinois-illegally-seizes-bees-resistant-to-monsantos-roundup-kills-remaining-queens/5336210</ref><ref>http://oneradionetwork.com/%E2%80%9Chow-to-be-free-in-an-unfree-world%E2%80%9D/terrence-ingram-miracles-in-the-beehive-the-connection-between-colony-collapse-disorder-and-monsantos-roundup-herbicide-may-28-2013/</ref><ref>http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2012/07/05/monsanto-roundup-effects-on-honeybees.aspx</ref><ref>http://contentdesk.com/monsanto-roundup-resistant-bees-confiscated-in-illinois/</ref><ref>http://www.motherearthnews.com/homesteading-and-livestock/roundup-bees-zm0z10zarc.aspx#axzz2dwLaqPgo</ref><ref>http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/3/prweb10558542.htm</ref> |
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In March 2012, the [[Illinois Department of Agriculture]] seized most of his bee hives while he was at a family event. The bees disappeared while in the possession of the IDoA along with his 15 years of research.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gqXCboEL-7k</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pacc-news.com/5-2-12/heart_ingram5_2_12.html |title=Heart of the Matter – Ingram Gets His Day In Court - Three Weeks Late |publisher=Pacc-news.com |date= |accessdate=2013-08-17}}</ref><ref>http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_25845.cfm</ref><ref>http://thedestructionist.wordpress.com/tag/terrence-ingram/</ref> |
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==False advertising and scientific fraud== |
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=== False advertising === |
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In 1996, Monsanto was accused of false and misleading advertising of glyphosate products, prompting a law suit by the New York State attorney general.<ref>{{Cite web|author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Pesticide/Monsanto-v-AGNYnov96.htm |title=Attorney General of the State of New York. Consumer Frauds and Protection Bureau. Environmental Protection Bureau. 1996. In the matter of Monsanto Company, respondent. Assurance of discontinuance pursuant to executive law § 63(15). New York, NY, Nov |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> Monsanto had made claims that its spray-on glyphosate based herbicides, including Roundup, were safer than table salt and "practically non-toxic" to mammals, birds, and fish.<ref>"Monsanto pulls Roundup advertising in New York", ''Wichita Eagle'', Nov. 27, 1996.</ref> |
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Environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case in France in 2001 for presenting Roundup as biodegradable and claiming that it left the soil clean after use; glyphosate, Roundup's main ingredient, is classed by the European Union as "dangerous for the environment" and "toxic for aquatic organisms". In January 2007, Monsanto was convicted of false advertising.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_4114.cfm |title=Monsanto Fined in France for 'False' Herbicide Ads - Organic Consumers Association |publisher=Organicconsumers.org |date=2007-01-26 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> The result was confirmed in 2009.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8308903.stm|title=Monsanto guilty in 'false ad' row |date=2009-10-15|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2009-10-16}}</ref> |
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===Scientific fraud=== |
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On two occasions, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has caught scientists deliberately falsifying test results at research laboratories hired by Monsanto to study glyphosate.<ref>(US EPA Communications and Public Affairs 1991 ''Note to correspondents'' Washington DC Mar 1)</ref><ref>(US EPA Communications and Public Affairs 1991 Press Advisory. ''EPA lists crops associated with pesticides for which residue and environmental fate studies were allegedly manipulated''. Washington DC Mar 29)</ref><ref>(U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. Com. on Gov. Oper. 1984. ''Problems palgue the EPA pesticide registration activities''. House Report 98-1147)</ref> In the first incident involving [[Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories|Industrial Biotest Laboratories]], an EPA reviewer stated after finding "routine falsification of data" that it was "hard to believe the scientific integrity of the studies when they said they took specimens of the [[uterus]] from male rabbits".<ref>(U.S. EPA 1978 Data validation. Memo from K LOcke, Toxicology Branch, to R Taylor, Registration Branch. Washington DC Aug 9)</ref><ref>(U.S. EPA Office of pesticides and Toxic Substances 1983, ''Summary of the IBT review program''. Washington D.C. July)</ref><ref>Schneider, K. 1983. Faking it: The case against Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories. The Amicus Journal (Spring):14-26. Reproduced at [http://planetwaves.net/contents/faking_it.html Planetwaves]</ref> In the second incident of falsifying test results in 1991, the owner of [[Craven Laboratories]] and three employees were indicted on 20 felony counts, the owner was sentenced to 5 years in prison and fined $50,000, the lab was fined 15.5 million dollars and ordered to pay 3.7 million dollars in restitution.<ref name=autogenerated6>{{Cite web|author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Pesticide/Roundup-Glyphosate-Factsheet-Cox.htm |title=Glyphosate Factsheet (part 1 of 2) Caroline Cox / Journal of Pesticide Reform v.108, n.3 Fall98 rev.Oct00 |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>(US Dept. of Justice. United States Attorney. Western District of Texas 1992. ''Texas laboratory, its president, 3 employees indicted on 20 felony counts in connection with pesticide testing''. Austin TX Sept 29)</ref><ref>(US EPA Communications, Education, And Public Affairs 1994 Press Advisory. ''Craven Laboratories, owner, and 14 employees sentenced for falsifying pesticide tests''. Washington DC Mar 4)</ref> Craven Laboratories performed studies for 262 pesticide companies including Monsanto. |
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Monsanto has stated that the studies have been repeated, and that Roundup's EPA certification does not now use any studies from Craven Labs or IBT. Monsanto also said that the Craven Labs investigation was started by the EPA after a pesticide industry task force discovered irregularities.<ref>Backgrounder: Testing Fraud: IBT and Craven Labs, June 2005, Monsanto background paper on RoundUp [http://www.monsanto.com/products/Documents/glyphosate-background-materials/ibt_craven_bkg.pdf]</ref> |
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===Difference between regulatory registered and commercialized formulations=== |
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In November 2009, a French environment group (MDRGF) accused Monsanto of using chemicals in Roundup formulations not disclosed to the country's regulatory bodies, and demanded the removal of those products from the market.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/2009/11/18/01011-20091118FILWWW00547-round-up-une-association-veut-le-retrait.php|title=Round up: une association veut le retrait|date=2009-11-18|work=Le Figaro|language=French|accessdate=19 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mdrgf.org/pdf/Dossier_presse_Roundup_final.pdf|title=Dossier de presse — alerte pesticides: le cas de 3 Roundup|date=1 November 2009|publisher=Mouvement pour les droits et le respect des générations futures (MDRGF)|language=French|accessdate=19 November 2009}}</ref> |
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==Resistance to Roundup== |
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Resistance evolves after a weed population has been subjected to intense selection pressure in the form of repeated use of a single herbicide.<ref name="canada"/><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/17/opinion/17mon3.html?ref=opinion | work=The New York Times | title=Resisting Roundup | date=2010-05-16}}</ref> These weeds resistant to the herbicide have been called "Superweeds".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20090418-superweed-explosion-threatens-monsanto-heartlands-genetically-modified-US-crops |title=‘Superweed’ explosion threatens Monsanto heartlands |publisher=France24.com |date=2009-04-19 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Tarter |first=Steve |url=http://www.pjstar.com/business/x90676933/Attack-of-the-Superweeds |title=PJStar.com |publisher=PJStar.com |date=2009-04-06 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> In the US 7 to {{convert|10|e6acre|km2}} of soil is afflicted by those superweeds.<ref name="nytimes">{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/04/business/energy-environment/04weed.html|title=U.S. Farmers Cope With Roundup-Resistant Weeds|last=NEUMAN |first=WILLIAM|coauthors=ANDREW POLLACK|date=4 May 2010|work=New York Times|pages= B1|accessdate=4 May 2010|location=New York}}</ref> |
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The first documented cases of weed resistance to glyphosate were found in Australia, involving rigid ryegrass near Orange, New South Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2003/glyresistance.shtml |title=ISU Weed Science Online - Are RR Weeds in Your Future II |publisher=Weeds.iastate.edu |date=2003-01-29 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> Some farmers in the United States have expressed concern that weeds are now developing with glyphosate resistance, with 13 states now reporting resistance, and this poses a problem to many farmers, including cotton farmers, that are now heavily dependent on glyphosate to control weeds.<ref name="autogenerated5">{{Cite web|url=http://southeastfarmpress.com/news/021006-Glyphosate-resistance/ |title=Glyphosate resistance is a reality that should scare some cotton growers into changing the way they do business |publisher=Southeastfarmpress.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated4">[http://www.newfarm.com/news/2004/0804/083104/weeds.shtml More glyphosate resistant weeds]{{Dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> Farmers associations are now reporting 103 biotypes of weeds within 63 weed species with herbicide resistance.<ref name="autogenerated5" /><ref name="autogenerated4" /> This problem is likely to be exacerbated by the use of Roundup Ready crops.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chem.purdue.edu/courses/chm333/Roundup%20Article.pdf |title=Purdue University |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> Fifteen weed species have been confirmed as resistant to glyphosate.<ref name="canada">{{Cite web|author=Lori |url=http://www.uoguelph.ca/news/2009/05/u_of_g_research_19.html |title=U of G Researchers Find Suspected Glyphosate-Resistant Weed |publisher=Uoguelph.ca |date=2009-05-07 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> |
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===Palmer amaranth=== |
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In 2004, a glyphosate-resistant variation of [[Amaranthus palmeri|palmer amaranth]], commonly known as pigweed, was found in Georgia and confirmed by a 2005 study.<ref>{{Cite journal| first1 = A. S.| first2 = T. L.| first3 = W. K.| first4 = J. M.| last1 = Culpepper| first5 = T. M.| first6 = S. M.| first7 = A. C.| first8 = J. W.| first9 = W. W.| title = Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri ) confirmed in Georgia| journal = Weed Science| volume = 54| issue = 4| pages = 620–626| year = 2006| doi = 10.1614/WS-06-001R.1| last2 = Grey| last3 = Vencill| last4 = Kichler| last5 = Webster| last6 = Brown| last7 = York| last8 = Davis| last9 = Hanna}}</ref> In 2005 resistance was also found in North Carolina.<ref name="Hampton">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/agcomm/magazine/winter09/cotton.html|title=Cotton versus the monster weed|last=Hampton|first=Natalie|accessdate=2009-07-19}}</ref> |
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Glyphosate resistance followed the widespread use of Roundup Ready crops, which lead to an unprecedented selection pressure to glyphosate.<ref name="Hampton"/> |
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The weed variation is now widespread in southeast US.<ref name="FS03Mar09">{{Cite news|url=http://magissues.farmprogress.com/TFS/FS03Mar09/tfs024.pdf|title=Resistance a growing problem|last=Smith|first=J.T. |date=March 2009|work=The Farmer Stockman|accessdate=2009-07-19}}</ref> Cases are also reported in Texas<ref name="FS03Mar09"/> and Virginia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://agfax.com/news/2009/peanutfax/0716pf.htm|title=Peanuts: variable insects, variable weather, Roundup resistant Palmer in new state|last=Taylor|first=Owen|date=2009-07-16|work=PeanutFax|publisher=AgFax Media|accessdate=2009-07-19}}</ref> |
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===Conyza biotypes=== |
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''[[Conyza bonariensis]]'' (also known as hairy fleabane and buva) and ''[[Conyza canadensis]]'' (known as horseweed or marestail), are other weed species that had lately developed glyphosate resistance.<ref>{{Cite journal| first1 = L.| first2 = M. A.| first3 = M. A.| last1 = Vargas | first4 = D.| first5 = T.| title = Buva (Conyza bonariensis) resistente ao glyphosate na região sul do Brasil| journal = Planta Daninha| volume = 25| issue = 3| pages = 573| year = 2007| doi = 10.1590/S0100-83582007000300017| last2 = Bianchi| last3 = Rizzardi| last4 = Agostinetto| last5 = Dal Magro}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| first1 = C. H.| first2 = D. L.| first3 = W. B.| first4 = T.| first5 = W. E.| last1 = Koger| first6 = J. W.| title = Assessment of two nondestructive assays for detecting glyphosate resistance in horseweed (Conyza canadensis)| journal = Weed Science| volume = 53| issue = 4| pages = 438–445| year = 2005| doi = 10.1614/WS-05-010R| last2 = Shaner| last3 = Henry| last4 = Nadler-Hassar| last5 = Thomas| last6 = Wilcut}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1002/ps.1911| pmc = 3080097| pmid = 20063320| year = 2010| last1 = Ge | first1 = X.| last2 = d'Avignon | first2 = D.| last3 = Ackerman | first3 = J.| last4 = Sammons | first4 = R.| title = Rapid vacuolar sequestration: the horseweed glyphosate resistance mechanism| journal = Pest management science| pages = 345–348| volume = 66| issue = 4 }}</ref> A 2008 study on the current situation of glyphosate resistance in South America concluded that ''"resistance evolution followed intense glyphosate use"'' and the utilization of glyphosate-resistant soybean crops is a factor encouraging increase in glyphosate use.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1 = Vila-Aiub | first1 = M. M.| title = Glyphosate-resistant weeds of South American cropping systems: an overview| journal = Pest management science| volume = 64| issue = 4| pages = 366–371| date=Apr 2008 | issn = 1526-498X| pmid = 18161884| doi = 10.1002/ps.1488| last2 = Vidal | first2 = R.| last3 = Balbi | first3 = M.| last4 = Gundel | first4 = P.| last5 = Trucco | first5 = F.| last6 = Ghersa | first6 = C. }}</ref> |
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===Ryegrass=== |
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Glyphosate resistant [[ryegrass]] (Lolium) has occurred in most of the Australian agricultural area and other areas of the world. All cases of evolution of resistance to glyphosate in Australia were characterized by intensive use of the herbicide while no other effective weed control practices were used. Studies indicate that resistant ryegrass does not compete well against non-resistant plants and their numbers decrease when not grown under conditions of glyphosate application.<ref>{{Cite journal| first1 = C.| first2 = A. M.| last1 = Preston| first3 = F. C.| first4 = Y.| first5 = P. | title = A Decade of Glyphosate-Resistant Lolium around the World: Mechanisms, Genes, Fitness, and Agronomic Management| url = http://www.allenpress.com/pdf/wees/WEES_57.4_435_441.pdf| format = PDF | journal = Weed Science | volume = 57| issue = 4 | pages = 435–441 | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1614/WS-08-181.1| last2 = Wakelin| last3 = Dolman| last4 = Bostamam| last5 = Boutsalis}}</ref> |
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===Johnsongrass=== |
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Glyphosate resistant [[Johnson grass]] (''Sorghum halepense'') has occurred in Roundup Ready soybean culture in Argentina.<ref>{{Cite journal| first1 = M. M.| last1 = Vila-aiub | first2 = M. C.| first3 = P. E.| first4 = C. M.| first5 = S. B.| title = Evolution of Glyphosate-Resistant Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) in Glyphosate-Resistant Soybean| journal = Weed Science| volume = 55| issue = 6| pages = 566–571| year = 2007| doi = 10.1614/WS-07-053.1| last2 = Balbi| last3 = Gundel| last4 = Ghersa| last5 = Powles}}</ref> |
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===Coca=== |
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[[Boliviana negra]], also known as "supercoca", is a relatively new strain of [[coca]] that is resistant to Roundup. The coca plant (''Erythroxylum coca'') is the source of the [[drug addiction|addictive]] [[stimulant]] drug known as [[cocaine]], it is one of the most widely consumed [[illegal drugs]] in the world and the source of large amounts of money to various criminal organizations. |
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Roundup is a key ingredient in the multibillion-dollar aerial [[coca eradication]] campaign undertaken by the government of [[Colombia]] with U.S. financial and military backing known as [[Plan Colombia]].<ref>http://www.state.gov/www/regions/wha/colombia/fs_000328_plancolombia.html United States Support For Colombia |
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</ref> |
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Spraying Boliviana Negra with glyphosate would serve to strengthen its growth by eliminating the non-resistant [[weed]]s surrounding it. Joshua Davis, writing in ''Wired'' magazine, found no evidence of CP4 EPSPS, a protein produced by the Roundup Ready soybean, suggesting Bolivana Negra was not created in a laboratory but by selective breeding in the fields. According to Davis, the growing popularity of Boliviana Negra amongst growers could have serious repercussions for the U.S. [[war on drugs ]] but nobody really wants to talk about because it could put an end to U.S. aid money in Colombia and the coca farmers who grow the new strain would stop receiving free weed control on behalf of the U.S. government and taxpayers.<ref>http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.11/columbia.html The Mystery of the Coca Plant That Wouldn't Die |
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</ref><ref>http://www.comunidadboliviana.com.ar/shop/detallenot.asp?notid=460 BOLIVIANA NEGRA, LA COCA QUE NO MUERE </ref> |
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==Genetically modified crops== |
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In 1996, genetically modified ''Roundup Ready'' [[soybeans]] resistant to Roundup became commercially available, followed by ''Roundup Ready'' [[maize|corn]] in 1998.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://monsanto.com/monsanto/layout/about_us/timeline/default.asp |title=Monsanto Company History |publisher=Monsanto.com |date=2008-11-03 |accessdate=2010-08-22 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080423174556/http://www.monsanto.com/monsanto/layout/about_us/timeline/default.asp |archivedate = April 23, 2008}}</ref> ''Roundup Ready'' soybeans patent is due to expire in 2014.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_05/b4165019364939.htm|title=Monsanto Will Let Bio-Crop Patents Expire|date=January 21, 2010|work=Business Week|accessdate=25 January 2010}}</ref> Current ''Roundup Ready'' crops include [[soy]], [[maize]] (corn), [[canola]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.genuity.com/Traits/Specialty/Genuity-Roundup-Ready-Canola.aspx |title=Monsanto Genuity Roundup Ready canola trait |publisher=Genuity.com |date=2008-11-03 |accessdate=2010-08-22}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> [[sugar beet]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.genuity.com/Traits/Specialty/Genuity-Roundup-Ready-Sugarbeets.aspx |title=Monsanto Genuity Roundup Ready sugarbeets trait |publisher=Genuity.com |date=2008-11-03 |accessdate=2010-08-22}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> and [[cotton]], with [[wheat]]<ref>[http://www.agbios.com/dbase.php?action=ShowProd&data=MON71800&frmat=LONG Agbios GM database entry for wheat event MON71800]</ref> and [[alfalfa]]<ref>[http://www.agbios.com/dbase.php?action=ShowProd&data=J101%2C+J163&frmat=LONG Agbios GM database entry for alfalfa events events J101 and J163]</ref> still under development. As of 2005, 87% of U.S. soybean fields were planted with glyphosate resistant varieties.<ref>USDA/APHIS Environmental Assessment — In response to Monsanto Petition 06-178-01p seeking a Determination of Non-regulated Status for + Roundup RReady2Yield Soybean MON 89788, OECD Unique Identifier MON-89788-1, U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service + Biotechnology Regulatory Services page 13 [http://www.aphis.usda.gov/brs/aphisdocs/06_17801p_ea.pdf]</ref><ref>National Agriculture Statistics Service (2005) in Acreage eds. Johanns, M. & Wiyatt, S. D. 6 30, (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, DC). +</ref> |
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While the use of Roundup Ready crops has increased the usage of herbicides measured in pounds applied per acre,<ref name="Benbrook">Charles Benbrook. [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.41.823&rep=rep1&type=pdf Evidence of the Magnitude and Consequences of the Roundup Ready Soybean Yield Drag from University-Based Varietal Trials in 1998]. Ag BioTech InfoNet Technical Paper Number 1</ref> it has also changed the herbicide use profile away from [[atrazine]], metribuzin, and [[alachlor]]{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} which are more likely to be present in run off water.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} |
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An injunction in Center for Food Safety v. USDA in September, 2010 prevented farmers from planting Roundup Ready sugar beets across the United States until a remedial [[environmental impact report]] could be filed, prompting some fear of a sugar shortage.<ref>http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=129891767</ref> |
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===Genetic engineering=== |
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Some [[microorganisms]] have a version of [[EPSP synthase|5-''enol''pyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase]] (EPSPS: EC 2.5.1.19, 3-phosphoshikimate 1-carboxyvinyltransferase; 5-''enol''pyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate [[synthetase]]; phospho''enol''pyruvate:3-phosphoshikimate 5-''O''-(1-carboxyvinyl)-[[transferase]]) that is resistant to glyphosate [[Enzyme inhibition|inhibition]]. The version used in [[genetically modified crops]] was [[Genetic isolate|isolate]]d from ''[[Agrobacterium]]'' strain CP4 (CP4 EPSPS) that was [[Pesticide resistance|resistant]] to glyphosate.<ref>Development and Characterization of a CP4 EPSPS-Based, Glyphosate-Tolerant Corn Event,G. R. Heck et al. Crop Sci. 45:329-339 (2005).[http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/45/1/329?ijkey=44fad6f377d5b5dfe274484eb51a4c79d0d7ff63&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha]</ref><ref name="Funke" /> The CP4 EPSPS gene was [[cloned]] and inserted into soybeans. The CP4 EPSPS gene was engineered for [[plant expression]] by [[:wikt:fusing|fusing]] the 5' end of the gene to a [[chloroplast]] [[transit peptide]] derived from the [[petunia]] EPSPS. This transit peptide was used because it had shown previously an ability to deliver bacterial EPSPS to the chloroplasts of other plants. The [[plasmid]] used to move the gene into soybeans was PV-GMGTO4. It contained three bacterial genes, two CP4 EPSPS genes, and a gene [[encoding]] [[beta-glucuronidase]] (GUS) from ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' as a marker. The DNA was injected into the soybeans using the [[particle acceleration method]] or [[gene gun]]. Soybean cultivar A54O3 was used for the [[Transformation (genetics)|transformation]]. The [[Gene expression|expression]] of the GUS gene was used as the initial evidence of transformation. GUS expression was detected by a staining method in which the GUS enzyme converts a [[Substrate (biochemistry)|substrate]] into a blue [[precipitate]]. Those plants that showed GUS expression were then taken and sprayed with glyphosate and their tolerance was tested over many generations. |
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===Productivity claims=== |
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In 1999, a review of Roundup Ready soybean crops found that, compared to the top conventional varieties, they had a 6.7% lower yield.<ref name="Benbrook" /> This so called "yield drag" follows the same pattern observed when other traits are introduced into soybeans by conventional breeding.<ref>Caviness, C.E., and H.J. Walters. 1971. Effect of phytophthora rot on yield and chemical composition of soybean seed. Crop Science 11:83-84</ref> Monsanto claims later patented varieties yield 7-11% higher than their poorly performing initial varieties, closer to those of conventional farming, although the company refrains from citing actual yields.<ref>Roundup Ready 2 Yield- Monsanto Web site http://www.monsanto.com/rr2y/</ref> Monsanto's 2006 application to USDA states that RR2 (mon89788) yields 1.6 bu less than A3244, the conventional variety that the trait is inserted into.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/brs/aphisdocs/06_17801p.pdf |title=Microsoft Word - RR2Y USDA Revised 11.03.06a.doc |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> |
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==Tradenames== |
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The Roundup trademark is registered with the [[US Patent Office]] and still extant. However, [[glyphosate]] is no longer under patent, so similar products use it as an active ingredient.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/label/labelque.htm#regprods |title=California Product/Label Database |publisher=Cdpr.ca.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> |
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==Other uses== |
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Glyphosate is one of a number of herbicides used by the [[United States]] government to spray [[Colombia]]n [[coca]] fields through [[Plan Colombia]]. There are reports that widespread application of glyphosate in attempts to destroy coca crops in South America have resulted in the development of glyphosate-resistant strains of coca known as [[Boliviana negra]], which have been [[selective breeding|selectively bred]] to be both "Roundup Ready" and larger and higher yielding than the original strains of the plant.<ref>{{Cite web|author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/GE/2004/RoundupReady-Coca27aug04.htm |title=RoundupReady Coca: New Super Strain of Coca Plant Stuns Anti-Drug Officials JEREMY MCDERMOTT / The Scotsman (Scotland) 27aug04 |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>New Super Strain of Coca Plant Stuns Anti-Drug Officials. Jeremy McDermott. The Scotsman (Scotland) 27 August 2004</ref> However, there are no reports of glyphosate-resistant coca in the peer-reviewed literature.<ref>{{Cite web|author=" " |url=http://agricola.nal.usda.gov/ |title=USDA National Agricultural Library, accessed 1 November 2007 |publisher=Agricola.nal.usda.gov |date=2009-10-30 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> In addition, since spraying of herbicides is not permitted in Colombian national parks, this has encouraged coca growers to move into park areas, cutting down the natural vegetation, and establishing coca plantations within park lands. |
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===Cosmetic purposes=== |
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In many cities, Roundup is sprayed along the sidewalks and streets, as well as crevices in between pavement where weeds often grow. However, up to 24% of the glyphosate from a Roundup formulation applied to hard surfaces can be run off by water.<ref>[http://library.wur.nl/way/bestanden/clc/1777399.pdf ]{{Dead link|date=September 2010}}</ref> Glyphosate contamination of surface water is highly attributed to urban use.<ref>{{Cite journal| last2 = Lavison| first1 = F. | first2 = G.| last3 = Couturier| last4 = Alliot| last5 = Moreau-Guigon | first3 = G.| last7 = Guery | first4 = F.| last9 = Blanchoud | first5 = E.| last1 = Botta| last8 = Chevreuil | first6 = N.| last6 = Fauchon | first7 = B. | first8 = M. | first9 = H.| title = Transfer of glyphosate and its degradate AMPA to surface waters through urban sewerage systems| journal = Chemosphere| volume = 77| issue = 1| pages = 133–139| date=May 2009 | issn = 0045-6535| pmid = 19482331| doi = 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.05.008}}</ref> |
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In many Canadian cities Roundup use for cosmetic purposes is either banned or restricted.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thespec.com/News/Local/article/552563 |title=Hamilton Spectator |publisher=Thespec.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>[http://www.bclocalnews.com/greater_vancouver/newwestminsternewsleader/news/43061457.html BCLocalNews.com]{{Dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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* [[Herbicide]] |
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* [[Pesticides in the United States]] |
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* [[Pesticide regulation in the United States]] |
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* [[Environmental impact of pesticides]] |
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* [[Health effects of pesticides]] |
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* [[2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid]] |
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* [[Atrazine]] |
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* [[Integrated pest management]] |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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==Further reading== |
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* Baccara, Mariagiovanna, et al. [http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~lcabral/teaching/monsanto.pdf Monsanto's Roundup], NYU Stern School of Business: August 2001, Revised July 14, 2003. |
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* Pease W S et al. (1993) Preventing pesticide-related illness in California agriculture: Strategies and priorities. Environmental Health Policy Program Report. Berkeley, CA: [[University of California]]. School of Public Health. California Policy Seminar. |
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* Marie-Monique Robin. (2008) Le monde selon Monsanto. Arte Editions (book written in French). ISBN 978-2-7071-4918-3. An overview of Monsanto products: [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]], [[Dioxine]], Roundup, [[Bovine Growth Hormone]], [[OGM]]. |
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* Wang Y, Jaw C and Chen Y (1994) Accumulation of 2,4-D and glyphosate in fish and water hyaacinth. Water Air Soil Pollute. 74:397-403 |
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==External links== |
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* {{Official website|http://www.roundup.com|Monsanto's official Roundup website}} |
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* [http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0057.htm EPA's Integrated Risk Information System entry for glyphosate] the main ingredient in Roundup |
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* [http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwh/c-soc/glyphosa.html EPA's ground & drinking water consumer factsheet for glyphosate] |
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* [http://www.pesticideinfo.org/Detail_Chemical.jsp?Rec_Id=PC33139 Chemical Identification and Use for Glyphosate, isopropylamine salt] |
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Revision as of 11:57, 30 October 2017
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