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{{short description|Glyphosate-based herbicide made by Monsanto}} |
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{{about|the herbicide developed by Monsanto|the active ingredient alone|glyphosate}} |
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{{use American English|date=August 2022}} |
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{{use mdy dates|date=August 2022}} |
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{{infobox| title = Roundup |
{{infobox| title = Roundup |
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| image = |
| image = |
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| caption = |
| caption = |
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| header1 = Manufacturing status |
| header1 = Manufacturing status |
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| label2 = |
| label2 = Manufacturer |
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| data2 = [[ |
| data2 = [[Bayer]] |
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| label3 = Type |
| label3 = Type |
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| data3 = [[Herbicide]] |
| data3 = [[Herbicide]] |
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| label4 = Introduced to market |
| label4 = Introduced to market |
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| data4 = 1976<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.monsanto.com/who_we_are/history.asp |title=Monsanto ~ Who We Are ~ Company History |publisher=Monsanto.com |date=2008-11-03 | |
| data4 = 1976<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.monsanto.com/who_we_are/history.asp |title=Monsanto ~ Who We Are ~ Company History |publisher=Monsanto.com |date=2008-11-03 |access-date=2010-08-22 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080423174556/http://www.monsanto.com/who_we_are/history.asp |archive-date = April 23, 2008}}</ref> |
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| header5 = Purposes |
| header5 = Purposes |
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| label6 = Agriculture |
| label6 = Agriculture |
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| data6 = |
| data6 = Non-selective post-emergence weed control |
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| label7 = Government |
| label7 = Government |
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| data7 = |
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| data7 = Destruction of illegal drugs, cosmetic purposes, and invasive species control |
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| label8 = Consumer |
| label8 = Consumer/home |
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| data8 = |
| data8 = |
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| header9 = [[Herbicide]] properties |
| header9 = [[Herbicide]] properties |
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| label10 = Surfactant |
| label10 = Surfactant |
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| data10 = [[Polyethoxylated tallow amine]](most common) |
| data10 = [[Polyethoxylated tallow amine]] (most common) |
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| label11 = Main active ingredient |
| label11 = Main active ingredient |
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| data11 = [[ |
| data11 = [[Isopropylamine]] [[salt (chemistry)|salt]] of [[glyphosate]] |
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| label12 = Mode of action |
| label12 = Mode of action |
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| data12 = 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase(EPSPS) inhibitor |
| data12 = 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) inhibitor |
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}} |
}} |
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'''Roundup''' is a brand name of herbicide originally produced by [[Monsanto]], which [[Bayer]] acquired in 2018. Prior to the late-2010s formulations, it used broad-spectrum [[glyphosate-based herbicides]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Monsanto No More: Agri-Chemical Giant's Name Dropped In Bayer Acquisition|work=[[NPR]] |date=June 4, 2018 |access-date=August 17, 2018|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/06/04/616772911/monsanto-no-more-agri-chemical-giants-name-dropped-in-bayer-acquisition|last=Domonoske |first=Camila}}</ref> As of 2009, sales of Roundup herbicides still represented about 10 percent of Monsanto's revenue despite competition from Chinese producers of other glyphosate-based herbicides.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14904184|title=The debate over whether Monsanto is a corporate sinner or saint|date=November 19, 2009 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |access-date=November 20, 2009}}</ref> The overall Roundup line of products represented about half of Monsanto's yearly revenue in 2009.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Cavallaro |first=Matt |date=June 26, 2009 |title=The Seeds Of A Monsanto Short Play |url=https://www.forbes.com/2009/06/29/monsanto-potash-fertilizer-personal-finance-investing-ideas-agrium-mosaic.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703040305/http://www.forbes.com/2009/06/29/monsanto-potash-fertilizer-personal-finance-investing-ideas-agrium-mosaic.html |archive-date=2009-07-03 |access-date=July 11, 2009 |magazine=[[Forbes]]}}</ref> The product is marketed to consumers by [[Scotts Miracle-Gro Company]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-05-01/scotts-miracle-gro-jumps-most-in-decade-on-pot-roundup-rebound|title=Scotts Miracle-Gro Jumps Most in Decade on Pot-Supplies Rebound |author=Jack Kaskey |publisher=Bloomberg |date=May 1, 2019}}</ref> In the late-2010s other non-glyphosate containing herbicides were also sold under the Roundup brand.<ref name="UNLExt">{{cite web |title=For the homeowner: Roundup® for Lawns? |url=https://turf.unl.edu/nta/5-11_20_Roundup_for_lawns.pdf |website=Nebraska Turfgrass Science |publisher=University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension |access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="MSUExt">{{cite web |last1=Frank |first1=Kevin |last2=Hathaway |first2=Aaron |title=What’s the difference between Roundup and Roundup For Lawns? |url=https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/difference_between_roundup_and_roundup_for_lawns |website=MSU Extension |publisher=Michigan State University Extension |access-date=9 January 2024 |language=en-us |date=31 March 2017}}</ref> |
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Monsanto developed and patented the glyphosate molecule in the 1970s, and marketed it as Roundup from 1973. It retained exclusive rights to glyphosate in the US until its US patent expired in September 2000; in other countries the patent expired earlier. The Roundup trademark is registered with the [[US Patent and Trademark Office]] and still extant. However, glyphosate is no longer under patent, so similar products use it as an active ingredient.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/label/labelque.htm#regprods|title=California Product/Label Database|publisher=Cdpr.ca.gov|access-date=2010-08-22}}</ref> |
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'''Roundup''' is the brand name of a systemic, broad-spectrum [[herbicide]] produced by the [[United States|U.S.]] company [[Monsanto Company|Monsanto]], and contains the active ingredient [[glyphosate]]. Glyphosate is the most widely used herbicide in the USA,<ref name="EPAusage">US EPA 2000–2001 Pesticide Market Estimates [http://www.epa.gov/oppbead1/pestsales/01pestsales/usage2001_2.htm#3_6 Agriculture], [http://www.epa.gov/oppbead1/pestsales/01pestsales/usage2001_3.htm#3_7 Home and Garden]</ref> and Roundup has been the number one selling herbicide worldwide since at least 1980.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1189345/ Documentary ''The World According to Monsanto'']</ref> As of 2009, sales of Roundup herbicides represent about 10% of Monsanto's revenue due to competition from Chinese producers of other glyphosate-based herbicides;<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14904184|title=The debate over whether Monsanto is a corporate sinner or saint|date=19 November 2009|work=The Economist|accessdate=20 November 2009}}</ref> the overall Roundup line of products (which includes [[Genetic engineering|GM]] seeds) represents about half of Monsanto's yearly revenue.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.forbes.com/2009/06/29/monsanto-potash-fertilizer-personal-finance-investing-ideas-agrium-mosaic.html|title=The Seeds Of A Monsanto Short Play|last=Cavallaro|first=Matt|date=2009-06-26|publisher=Forbes|accessdate=2009-07-11}}</ref> |
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The main [[active ingredient]] of Roundup is the [[Isopropyl amine|isopropylamine]] [[salt]] of glyphosate. Another ingredient of Roundup is the [[surfactant]] POEA ([[polyethoxylated tallow amine]]). |
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Monsanto developed and [[patent]]ed the [[glyphosate]] molecule in the 1970s, and marketed Roundup from 1973. It retained exclusive rights in the US until its US patent expired in September, 2000, and maintained a predominant marketshare in countries where the patent expired earlier. |
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Monsanto also produced seeds which grow into plants [[Genetic engineering|genetically engineered]] to be tolerant to glyphosate, which are known as ''[[Roundup Ready]]'' crops. The genes contained in these seeds are patented. Such crops allow farmers to use glyphosate as a post-emergence herbicide against most broadleaf and cereal weeds. |
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The main [[active ingredient]] of Roundup is the [[isopropyl amine|isopropylamine]] [[salt]] of [[glyphosate]]. Another important ingredient of Roundup is the [[surfactant]] POEA ([[polyethoxylated tallow amine]]), which is known for its toxicity in wildlife.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1177/0270467609333728}}</ref> It increases herbicide penetration in plant<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/news/roundup-weed-killer-is-toxic-to-human-cells.-study-intensifies-debate-over-inert-ingredients|title=Weed killer kills human cells. Study intensifies debate over 'inert' ingredients.|last=Gammon|first=Crystal|date=2009-06-22|work=Environmental Health News|publisher=Environmental Health Sciences|accessdate=2009-07-12}}</ref> and animal<ref name="cite pmid|20036731">{{cite pmid|20036731}}</ref><ref name="Zeliger"/> cells. |
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The health impacts of the product as well as its effects on the environment have been at the center of substantial legal and scientific controversies. In June 2020, Bayer agreed to pay $9.6 billion to settle tens of thousands of claims, mostly alleging that glyphosate-based Roundup had caused cancer.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |last=Cohen |first=Patricia |date=2020-06-24 |title=Roundup Maker to Pay $10 Billion to Settle Cancer Suits |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/24/business/roundup-settlement-lawsuits.html |access-date=2020-06-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224130733/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/24/business/roundup-settlement-lawsuits.html |archive-date=December 24, 2023 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":1" >{{Cite web |date=December 23, 2023 |title=Bayer wins latest Roundup cancer trial, ending losing streak |url=https://www.reuters.com/legal/bayer-wins-latest-roundup-cancer-trial-ending-losing-streak-2023-12-23/ |website=Reuters}}</ref> |
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Several weed species, known as superweeds, have developed Roundup resistance largely because of repeated exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.national-academies.org/morenews/20100413.html|title=GE Crops Benefit Farmers, But Management Needed to Maintain Effectiveness|date=13 April 2010|publisher=National Academy of Sciences|accessdate=4 May 2010}}</ref> |
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==Composition== |
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Monsanto also produces seeds which grow into plants [[genetic engineering|genetically engineered]] to be tolerant to glyphosate, which are known as ''Roundup Ready'' crops. The genes contained in these seeds are patented. Such crops allow farmers to use glyphosate as a post-emergence herbicide against most broadleaf and cereal weeds. Soy was the first [[#Genetically modified crops|''Roundup Ready'' crop]], and was produced at Monsanto's [[Agracetus]] Campus located in [[Middleton, Wisconsin]]. |
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Glyphosate-based formulations may contain a number of [[Agricultural spray adjuvant|adjuvants]], the identities of which may be proprietary.<ref name="www2.epa.gov">{{cite web |url=http://www2.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/pesticide-registration-manual |title=Pesticide Registration Manual | Pesticide Registration | US EPA |date=March 4, 2013 |access-date=August 19, 2022 |archive-date=April 14, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414065403/https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/pesticide-registration-manual |url-status=dead }}</ref> Surfactants are used in herbicide formulations as [[wetting]] agents, to maximize coverage and aid penetration of the herbicide(s) through plant leaves. As agricultural spray adjuvants, surfactants may be pre-mixed into commercial formulations or they may be purchased separately and mixed on-site.<ref>{{cite web |title=Adjuvants for Enhancing Herbicide Performance |url=https://extension.psu.edu/adjuvants-for-enhancing-herbicide-performance |website=extension.psu.edu |publisher=Penn State Extension |access-date=15 August 2018 |language=en}}</ref> |
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[[Polyethoxylated tallow amine]] (POEA) is a surfactant used in the original Roundup formulation and was commonly used in 2015.<ref name=usgs.glyphosate.poea>{{cite web|title=Measuring POEA, a Surfactant Mixture in Herbicide Formulations|url=http://toxics.usgs.gov/highlights/glyphosate_poea.html|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|access-date=August 19, 2022|archive-date=October 7, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007051906/http://toxics.usgs.gov/highlights/glyphosate_poea.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Different versions of Roundup have included different percentages of POEA. A 1997 US government report said that Roundup is 15% POEA while Roundup Pro is 14.5%.<ref name="fs.fed.us"/> Since POEA is more toxic to fish and amphibians than glyphosate alone, POEA is not allowed in aquatic formulations.<ref name="Langeland"/><ref name="fs.fed.us">Gary L. Diamond and Patrick R. Durkin February 6, 1997, under contract from the United States Department of Agriculture. [http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/pesticide/pdfs/Surfactants.pdf Effects of Surfactants on the Toxicity of Glyphosate, with Specific Reference to RODEO]</ref><ref name=Mann/> |
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==Mechanism of action== |
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The active ingredient in Roundup is [[glyphosphate]]. Glyphosate inhibits an enzyme involved in the synthesis of the [[aromatic amino acids]]: [[tyrosine]], [[tryptophan]] and [[phenylalanine]]. It is absorbed through foliage. Because of this mode of action, it is only effective on actively growing plants; it is not effective in preventing seeds from germinating. |
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Non-glyphosate formulations of Roundup are typically used for lawns that glyphosate would otherwise kill. Both type of products being sold under the Roundup brand name can be a source of confusion for consumers.<ref name="MSUExt"/> Active ingredients for non-glyphosate formulations of Roundup can include [[MCPA]], [[quinclorac]], [[dicamba]], and [[sulfentrazone]], [[penoxsulam]], and [[2,4-D]]<ref name="UNLExt"/><ref name="MSUExt"/> |
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The enzyme that glyphosphate inhibits, [[EPSP synthase|5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase]] (EPSPS), is found only in plants and micro-organisms. EPSPS is not present in animals, which instead obtain aromatic amino acids from their diet.<ref name="Funke">Molecular basis for the herbicide resistance of Roundup Ready crops, T. Funke et al., PNAS 2006 103:13010-13015 [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/103/35/13010#B10]</ref> |
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==Acute toxicity== |
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The [[lethal dose]] of different glyphosate-based formulations varies, especially with respect to the surfactants used. Formulations intended for terrestrial use that include the surfactant [[polyethoxylated tallow amine]] (POEA) can be more toxic than other formulations for aquatic species.<ref name=vbruggen>{{Cite journal |doi= 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.309 |pmid= 29117584 |issn= 0048-9697 |volume= 616-617 |pages=255–268 |last1=Van Bruggen |first1= A.H.C. |last2= He |first2= M.M. |last3= Shin |first3= K. |last4= Mai |first4= V. |last5= Jeong |first5= K.C. |last6= Finckh |first6= M. R. |last7= Morris |first7= J.G. |title= Environmental and health effects of the herbicide glyphosate |journal= Science of the Total Environment |date= 2018-03-01 |bibcode= 2018ScTEn.616..255V }}</ref><ref name=SERA1997>{{Citation |title= Effects of Surfactants on the Toxicity of Glyphosate, with Specific Reference to Rodeo |publisher= Syracuse Environmental Research Associates, Inc. (SERA) |access-date= 2018-08-20 |url= https://www.fs.fed.us/r5/hfqlg/publications/herbicide_info/2003_glyphosate.pdf}}</ref> Due to the variety in available formulations, including five different glyphosate salts and different combinations of inert ingredients, it is difficult to determine how much surfactants contribute to the overall toxicity of each formulation.<ref name=SERA2003>{{Citation| title = Glyphosate: Human Health and Ecological Risk Assessment | publisher= Syracuse Environmental Research Associates, Inc.(SERA) |access-date = 2018-08-20| url = https://www.fs.fed.us/r5/hfqlg/publications/herbicide_info/2003_glyphosate.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Bradberry_2004"/> Independent scientific reviews and regulatory agencies have repeatedly concluded that glyphosate-based herbicides do not lead to a significant risk for human or environmental health when the product label is properly followed.<ref name="Rolando"/> |
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Roundup commercial formulations were never submitted to test by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA); its main active ingredient, glyphosate, received EPA [[Toxicity Class]] of III for oral and inhalation exposure.<ref name="epa_reds">U.S. EPA ReRegistration Decision Fact Sheet for Glyphosate (EPA-738-F-93-011) 1993. [http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0178fact.pdf]</ref> |
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===Human=== |
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Beyond the glyphosate salts content, commercial formulations of Roundup contain [[surfactant]]s, which vary in nature and concentration. As a result, human poisoning with this herbicide is not with the main active ingredient alone, but with complex and variable mixtures.<ref name="glyphosate-poisoning">Review article at of glyphosate poisoning at Pubmed by Bradberry SM, Proudfoot AT, Vale JA. of the National Poisons Information Service (Birmingham Centre) and West Midlands Poisons Unit, City Hospital, Birmingham, UK. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15862083 National Institutes of Health]</ref> |
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The acute oral toxicity for mammals is low,<ref name=vbruggen/> but death has been reported after deliberate overdose of [[Dose–response relationship|concentrated]] Roundup.<ref name="pmid22835958">{{cite journal |vauthors= Sribanditmongkol P, Jutavijittum P, Pongraveevongsa P, Wunnapuk K, Durongkadech P |title= Pathological and toxicological findings in glyphosate-surfactant herbicide fatality: a case report |journal= The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology |volume= 33 |issue=3 |pages= 234–7 |date= Sep 2012 |doi= 10.1097/PAF.0b013e31824b936c |pmid= 22835958 |s2cid= 3457850 }}</ref> The surfactants in glyphosate formulations can increase the relative acute toxicity of the formulation.<ref name="Bradberry_2004">{{cite journal |vauthors= Bradberry SM, Proudfoot AT, Vale JA |title= Glyphosate poisoning |journal = Toxicological Reviews |volume= 23 |issue=3 |pages= 159–67 |year= 2004 |pmid= 15862083 |doi= 10.2165/00139709-200423030-00003 |s2cid= 5636017 }}</ref> Surfactants generally do not, however, cause [[Drug interaction#Synergy and antagonism|synergistic effects]] (as opposed to additive effects) that increase the acute toxicity of glyphosate within a formulation.<ref name="Bradberry_2004"/> The surfactant POEA is not considered an acute toxicity hazard, and has an oral toxicity similar to [[vitamin A]] and less toxic than [[aspirin]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Williams |first1=Gary M. |last2=Kroes |first2= Robert |last3=Munro |first3=Ian C. |title= Safety Evaluation and Risk Assessment of the Herbicide Roundup and Its Active Ingredient, Glyphosate, for Humans |journal=[[Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology]] |date=April 2000 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=117–165 |doi= 10.1006/rtph.1999.1371 |pmid=10854122 |s2cid=19831028 }}</ref> Deliberate ingestion of Roundup ranging from 85 to 200 ml (of 41% solution) has resulted in death within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms.<ref name="pmid1673618">{{cite journal |vauthors=Talbot AR, Shiaw MH, Huang JS, Yang SF, Goo TS, Wang SH, Chen CL, Sanford TR |title=Acute poisoning with a glyphosate-surfactant herbicide ('Roundup'): a review of 93 cases |journal=Human & Experimental Toxicology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |date=Jan 1991 |pmid=1673618 |doi= 10.1177/096032719101000101|s2cid=8028945 }}</ref> Consumption of over 85 ml of concentrated product is likely to cause serious symptoms in adults, including burns due to corrosive effects as well as kidney and liver damage. More severe cases lead to "respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, [[pulmonary edema]], infiltration on chest X-ray, shock, arrhythmias, [[kidney failure]] requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis, and hyperkalaemia" and death is often preceded by [[bradycardia]] and [[ventricular arrhythmia]]s.<ref name="Bradberry_2004"/> |
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Skin exposure can cause irritation, and [[Contact dermatitis#Photocontact dermatitis|photocontact dermatitis]] has been occasionally reported. Severe skin burns are very rare.<ref name="Bradberry_2004"/> In a 2017 risk assessment, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) wrote: "There is very limited information on skin irritation in humans. Where skin irritation has been reported, it is unclear whether it is related to glyphosate or co-formulants in glyphosate-containing herbicide formulations." The ECHA concluded that available human data was insufficient to support classification for skin corrosion or irritation.<ref>[https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/2f8b5c7f-030f-5d3a-e87e-0262fb392f38 Committee of Risk Assessment Opinion proposing harmonised classification and labelling at EU level of glyphosate (ISO); N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine]</ref> |
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==Health effects== |
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===Toxicity=== |
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Laboratory studies have shown [[Teratology|teratogenic]] effects of Roundup in animals.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lammer|first=E. J.|coauthors=Chen, D.T. et. al.|title=Retinoic acid embryopathy|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=313|pages=837–841}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Durston|first=A. J.|coauthors=Timmermans, J. P. et al.|title=Retinoic acid causes an anteroposterior transformation in the developing central nervous system|journal=Nature|date=13|year=1989|month=July|volume=340|issue=6229|pages=140–144|doi=10.1038/340140a0|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v340/n6229/abs/340140a0.html|accessdate=9 June 2011}}</ref> These reports have proposed that the teratogenic effects are caused by impaired retinoic acid signaling.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Paganelli|first=Alejandra|coauthors=et. al.|title=Glyphosate-Based Herbicides Produce Teratogenic Effects on Vertebrates by Impairing Retinoic Acid Signaling|journal=Chem. Res. Toxicol.|date=20|year=2010|month=May|volume=23|issue=10|pages=1586–1595|doi=10.1021/tx1001749|url=http://www.rapaluruguay.org/glifosato/Efectos%20teratogenicos%20del%20Glifosato.pdf|accessdate=9 June 2011|pmid=20695457}}</ref> A 2011 report by Earth Open Source asserts that the Roundup active ingredient - glyphosate - has caused birth defects in laboratory animal tests.<ref>{{cite book|last=Antoniou et. al.|first=Michael|title=Roundup and birth defects: Is the public being kept in the dark?|year=2011|publisher=Earth Open Source|url=http://www.scribd.com/fullscreen/57277946?access_key=key-2e3aijw4gtltp4q6fz9h}}</ref> News reports have supposed that regulators have been aware of these studies since 1980.<ref>{{cite news|last=Graves|first=Lucia|title=Roundup Birth Defects: Regulators Knew World's Best-Selling Herbicide Causes Problems, New Report Finds|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/06/07/roundup-birth-defects-herbicide-regulators_n_872862.html|accessdate=9 June 2011|newspaper=Huffington Post|date=7 June 2011}}</ref> |
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Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, or tingling and irritation in the throat. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis. Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.<ref name="Bradberry_2004"/> |
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The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) considers glyphosate to be relatively low in toxicity, and without carcinogenic or teratagenic effects.<ref name="autogenerated7">http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0178fact.pdf</ref> The EPA considered a "worst case" dietary risk model of an individual eating a lifetime of food entirely from glyphosate-sprayed fields, and with residue levels remaining at their maximum levels, and concluded no adverse effects would exist under these conditions.<ref name="autogenerated7"/> |
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===Aquatic=== |
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A 2000 review concluded that "under present and expected conditions of new use, there is no potential for Roundup herbicide to pose a health risk to humans".<ref name="wkc00">{{cite journal | author = Williams GM, Kroes R, Munro IC | year = 2000 | title = Safety evaluation and risk assessment of the herbicide Roundup and its active ingredient, glyphosate, for humans | url = | journal = Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 31 | issue = 2| pages = 117–165 | pmid = 10854122 | doi=10.1006/rtph.1999.1371}}</ref> The 2000 review has been criticized because it reviewed mostly experiments in which glyphosate and POEA were used alone, not as a mixture as in Roundup, and for only one or two years.<ref name="Benachour">{{Cite journal |
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Glyphosate formulations with POEA, such as Roundup, are not approved for aquatic use due to aquatic organism toxicity.<ref name="Langeland">{{cite web |title=SS-AGR-104 Safe Use of Glyphosate-Containing Products in Aquatic and Upland Natural Areas |url= https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/AG/AG24800.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203235802/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/AG/AG24800.pdf |archive-date=2007-02-03 |url-status=live |publisher= University of Florida |access-date=13 August 2018}}</ref> Due to the presence of POEA, glyphosate formulations only allowed for terrestrial use are more toxic for amphibians and fish than glyphosate alone.<ref name="Langeland"/><ref name="fs.fed.us"/><ref name=Mann>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mann RM, Hyne RV, Choung CB, Wilson SP |title= Amphibians and agricultural chemicals: Review of the risks in a complex environment|journal=Environmental Pollution |year=2009 |volume=157 |issue=11 |pages= 2903–2927 |doi= 10.1016/j.envpol.2009.05.015|pmid= 19500891|url= http://hdl.cqu.edu.au/10018/35613}}</ref> Terrestrial glyphosate formulations that include the surfactants POEA and MON 0818 (75% POEA) may have negative impacts on various aquatic organisms like [[protozoa]], [[mussels]], [[crustaceans]], [[frogs]] and [[fish]].<ref name=vbruggen/> Aquatic organism exposure risk to terrestrial formulations with POEA is limited to drift or temporary water pockets.<ref name="Langeland"/> While laboratory studies can show effects of glyphosate formulations on aquatic organisms, similar observations rarely occur in the field when instructions on the herbicide label are followed.<ref name="Rolando">{{cite journal |last1=Rolando |first1=Carol |last2=Baillie |first2=Brenda |last3=Thompson |first3=Dean |last4=Little |first4=Keith |title=The Risks Associated with Glyphosate-Based Herbicide Use in Planted Forests |journal=Forests |date=12 June 2017 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=208 |doi= 10.3390/f8060208 |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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| doi = 10.1007/s00244-006-0154-8 |
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| pmid = 17486286 |
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| year = 2007 |
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| last1 = Benachour |
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| first1 = N. |
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| last2 = Sipahutar |
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| first2 = H. |
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| last3 = Moslemi |
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| first3 = S. |
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| last4 = Gasnier |
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| first4 = C. |
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| last5 = Travert |
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| first5 = C. |
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| last6 = Séralini |
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| first6 = G. |
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| title = Time- and dose-dependent effects of roundup on human embryonic and placental cells |
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| volume = 53 |
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| issue = 1 |
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| pages = 126–133 |
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| journal = Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology |
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| quote = Most of the tests undertaken in a regulatory context are in fact performed with the active ingredient alone in vivo for one or two years (Williams et al. 2000). For instance, toxicity was not measured for Roundup treatments during more than 22 days with rats and rabbits. The potency for endocrine modulation was not assessed with the Roundup mixture at all, but only with glyphosate or POEA alone (Williams et al. 2000). |
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}}</ref> They did not review toxicity studies of Roundup treatments (as a mixture) in rats or rabbits lasting more than 22 days<ref name="Benachour"/> and Roundup's potential as an endocrine disruptor was not assessed with a Roundup mixture at all.<ref name="Benachour"/> |
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Studies in a variety of amphibians have shown the toxicity of products containing POEA to amphibian larvae. These effects include interference with gill morphology and mortality from either the loss of osmotic stability or asphyxiation. At sub-lethal concentrations, exposure to POEA or glyphosate/POEA formulations have been associated with delayed development, accelerated development, reduced size at [[metamorphosis]], developmental malformations of the tail, mouth, eye and head, histological indications of intersex and symptoms of oxidative stress.<ref name="Mann" /> Glyphosate-based formulations can cause [[oxidative stress]] in bullfrog tadpoles.<ref name=iarcmono>{{cite journal | url= https://monographs.iarc.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/mono112-10.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712091323/https://monographs.iarc.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/mono112-10.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-12 |url-status=live |title= Glyphosate | journal = IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans | volume = 112 | date = 11 August 2016 | publisher=[[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] | access-date= July 31, 2019}}</ref> The use of glyphosate-based pesticides are not considered the major cause of amphibian decline, the bulk of which occurred prior to widespread use of glyphosate or in pristine tropical areas with minimal glyphosate exposure.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |vauthors= Wagner N, Reichenbecher W, Teichmann H, Tappeser B, Lötters S |title= Questions concerning the potential impact of glyphosate-based herbicides on amphibians |journal= Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry |volume= 32 |issue=8 |pages= 1688–700 |date= Aug 2013 |pmid= 23637092 |doi= 10.1002/etc.2268 |s2cid= 36417341 }}</ref> |
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A 2008 scientific study has shown that Roundup formulations and metabolic products cause the death of human embryonic, placental, and umbilical cells ''in vitro'', even at low concentrations. The effects were not proportional to the main active ingredient concentrations (glyphosate), but dependent on the nature of the adjuvants used in the Roundup formulation.<ref name="human cells">{{Cite journal|last=Benachour|first=Nora |coauthors=Gilles-Eric Séralini|date=December 23, 2008|title=Glyphosate Formulations Induce Apoptosis and Necrosis in Human Umbilical, Embryonic, and Placental Cells|journal=Chemical Research in Toxicology|url=http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/tx800218n|doi=10.1021/tx800218n|pmid=19105591|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–105}}</ref> |
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A 2000 review of the toxicological data on Roundup concluded that "for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed nontarget organisms". It also concluded that there were some risks to aquatic organisms exposed to Roundup in shallow water.<ref name="Giesy2000">JP Giesy, KR Solomon, S Dobson (2000). "Ecotoxicological Risk Assessment for Roundup Herbicide". Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 167: 35-120</ref> |
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Deliberate ingestion of Roundup herbicide in quantities ranging from 85 to 200 ml has resulted in [[death]] within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms following ingestion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://het.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/1/1 |title=Alan Ronald Talbot, Mon-Han Shiaw, Jinn-Sheng Huang, Shu-Fen Yang, Tein-Shong Goo, Shur-Hueih Wang, Chao-Liang Chen, Thomas Richard Sanford, "Acute Poisoning with a Glyphosate-Surfactant Herbicide ('Roundup'): A Review of 93 Cases", ''Human & Experimental Toxicology'', Vol. 10, No. 1, 1-8 (1991) |publisher=Het.sagepub.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> There is a reasonable correlation between the amount of Roundup ingested and the likelihood of serious systemic sequelae or death. Ingestion of >85 mL of the concentrated formulation is likely to cause significant toxicity in adults. Gastrointestinal corrosive effects, with mouth, throat and epigastric pain and dysphagia are common. Renal and hepatic impairment are also frequent and usually reflect reduced organ perfusion. Respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, pulmonary oedema, infiltration on chest x-ray, shock, arrythmias, renal failure requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis and hyperkalaemia may occur in severe cases. Bradycardia and ventricular arrhythmias often present prior to death. Dermal exposure to ready-to-use glyphosate formulations can cause irritation, and photo-contact dermatitis has been reported occasionally; these effects are probably due to the preservative Proxel (benzisothiazolin-3-one).Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, tingling and throat irritation. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis, and superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.<ref name="glyphosate-poisoning" /> |
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===Bees=== |
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Glyphosate is toxic to human skin cells, through causing oxidative damage; antioxidants such as Vitamin C and E were found to provide some protection to such damage, leading the authors of the study to recommend that these chemicals be added to formulations including glyphosate.<ref name="skin-antioxidants">[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T7W-4F05RD4-1&_user=10&_coverDate=01%2F20%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1448589491&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=0e350453e272974cc695f5ab3f8fbf35&searchtype=a Audrey Gehin et. al., "Vitamins C and E reverse effect of herbicide-induced toxicity on human epidermal cells HaCaT: a biochemometric approach", ''International Journal of Pharmaceutics'', Vol. 288, No. 2, Jan. 20 2005, pp. 219–226.]</ref> Severe skin burns are very rare.<ref name="glyphosate-poisoning" /> |
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Roundup Ready‐To‐Use, Roundup No Glyphosate, and Roundup ProActive have all been found to cause significant mortality in [[bumblebee]]s when sprayed directly on them. It has been hypothesized that this is due to surfactants in the formulations blocking the tracheal system of the bees.<ref name="Straw2021">{{cite journal |last1=Straw |first1=Edward A. |last2=Carpentier |first2=Edward N. |last3=Brown |first3=Mark J. F. |title=Roundup causes high levels of mortality following contact exposure in bumble bees |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=6 April 2021 |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=1167–1176 |doi=10.1111/1365-2664.13867|doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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==Carcinogenicity== |
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===Endocrine disruptor=== |
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There is limited evidence that human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate, such as agricultural work, but no good evidence of such a risk from home use, such as in domestic gardening.<ref name=cruk>{{cite web |
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A 2000 in vitro study on mouse MA-10 cells concluded that Roundup inhibited progesterone production by disrupting [[Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein|StAR protein]] expression.<ref>{{cite pmid|10964798}}</ref> Further studies demonstrated this was not caused by glyphosate but to surfactants used as inactive ingredients in Roundup formulations.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Papadopoulos|first=Vassilios|editor=Anita H. Payne |title=The Leydig Cell in Health and Disease|series=Contemporary Endocrinology|year=2007|publisher=Humana Press|isbn=978-1-58829-754-9|page=396|chapter=Environmental Factors That Disrupt Leydig Cell Steroidogenesis}}</ref> |
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|publisher=Cancer Research UK |
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|title=Food Controversies—Pesticides and organic foods |
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|url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/food-controversies#food_controversies4 |
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|date=2016 |
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206193833/https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/food-controversies#food_controversies4 |
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|access-date=November 28, 2017 |
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|archive-date=February 6, 2017}}</ref> The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human [[carcinogen]]icity.<ref name=Tarazona>{{cite journal |
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|last1=Tarazona |first1=Jose V. |last2=Court-Marques |first2=Daniele |last3=Tiramani |first3=Manuela |last4=Reich |first4=Hermine |
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|last5=Pfeil |first5=Rudolf |last6=Istace |first6=Frederique |last7=Crivellente |first7=Federica |
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|title=Glyphosate toxicity and carcinogenicity: a review of the scientific basis of the European Union assessment and its differences with IARC |
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|journal=Archives of Toxicology |
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|date=April 3, 2017 |volume=91 |issue=8 |pages=2723–2743 |doi=10.1007/s00204-017-1962-5 |pmid=28374158 |pmc=5515989 }}</ref> Organizations such as the Joint [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]]/[[World Health Organization|WHO]] Meeting on Pesticide Residues and the [[European Commission]], Canadian [[Pest Management Regulatory Agency]], and the German [[Federal Institute for Risk Assessment]]<ref>{{Cite web| title = The BfR has finalised its draft report for the re-evaluation of glyphosate - BfR| access-date = 2018-08-18| url = https://www.bfr.bund.de/en/the_bfr_has_finalised_its_draft_report_for_the_re_evaluation_of_glyphosate-188632.html}}</ref> have concluded that there is no evidence that glyphosate poses a carcinogenic or [[genotoxic]] risk to humans. The final assessment of the [[Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority]] in 2017 was that "glyphosate does not pose a carcinogenic risk to humans".<ref>{{Cite book |
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|publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4129-6987-1 |
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|last1=Guston |first1=David |last2=Ludlow |first2=Karinne |
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|title=Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Society |chapter=Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority |
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|location=[[Thousand Oaks, California|Thousand Oaks, Calif.]] |date=2010 |
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|chapter-url=http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/nanoscience/n22.xml}}</ref> The EPA has evaluated the carcinogenic potential of glyphosate multiple times since 1986. In 1986, glyphosate was initially classified as Group C: "Possible Human Carcinogen", but later recommended as Group D: "Not Classifiable as to Human Carcinogenicity" due to lack of [[statistical significance]] in previously examined rat tumor studies. In 1991, it was classified as Group E: "Evidence of Non-Carcinogenicity for Humans", and in 2015 and 2017, "Not Likely to be Carcinogenic to Humans".<ref>{{Cite web |
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|author=OCSPP |title=EPA Releases Draft Risk Assessments for Glyphosate |
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|work=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|US EPA]] |
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|format=Announcements and Schedules |access-date=August 18, 2018 |date=December 18, 2017 |
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|url=https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/epa-releases-draft-risk-assessments-glyphosate}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |
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|title=Revised Glyphosate Issue Paper: Evaluation of Carcinogenic Potential |
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|url=https://www.regulations.gov/document?D=EPA-HQ-OPP-2009-0361-0073 |
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|publisher=EPA |pages= 12–13 |access-date=September 24, 2019}}</ref> |
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One international scientific organization, the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] ([[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]]), classified glyphosate in [[List of IARC Group 2A carcinogens|Group 2A]], "probably carcinogenic to humans" in 2015.<ref name=iarcmono/> The variation in classification between this agency and others has been attributed to "use of different data sets" and "methodological differences in the evaluation of the available evidence".<ref name=Tarazona/> In 2017, California environmental regulators listed glyphosate as “known to the state to cause cancer.” The state's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment made the decision based in part on the report from the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]]. State Proposition 65 requires the state office to add substances the international agency deems carcinogenic in humans or laboratory animals to a state list of cancer-causing items.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How chemicals are added to the Proposition 65 list |url=https://oehha.ca.gov/proposition-65/how-chemicals-are-added-proposition-65-list |access-date=2024-01-21 |website=oehha.ca.gov}}</ref> |
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A 2005 in vitro study on human placental JEG3 cells concluded that the glyphosate disruption of [[aromatase]] is facilitated by adjuvants of the Roundup formulation.<ref name="Zeliger">{{Cite book|last=Zeliger|first=Harold I.|title=Human Toxicology of Chemical Mixtures|year=2008|publisher=William Andrew Pub|isbn=978-0-8155-1589-0|page=388}}</ref><ref>{{cite pmid|15929894}}</ref> |
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==Legal== |
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A 2009 in vitro experiment with glyphosate formulations on human liver [[Hep G2|HepG2]] cells has observed endocrine disruption at sub-agricultural doses, where a Roundup formulation showed to be the most active formulation. The effects were more dependent on the formulation than on the glyphosate concentration.<ref name="HepG2">{{cite doi|10.1016/j.tox.2009.06.006}}</ref> |
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{{Primary sources section|date=December 2023}} |
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In the ten months following Bayer's June 2018 acquisition of Monsanto, its stock lost 46% of its value because of investor apprehension concerning the 11,200 lawsuits filed against its subsidiary.<ref name="Moutot">{{cite news|url=https://www.lesechos.fr/industrie-services/industrie-lourde/0600982774167-glyphosate-monsanto-condamne-pour-la-deuxieme-fois-aux-etats-unis-2255984.php|title=Glyphosate: nouveau revers judiciare pour Bayer|author=Anaïs Moutot|newspaper=Les Echos|date=28 March 2019|access-date=30 March 2019|language=fr}}</ref> As of 2023, around 165,000 claims have been made against Bayer, mostly alleging that Roundup had caused cancer.<ref name=":1" /> Bayer has settled tens of thousands of those claims and has agreed to pay billions in damages, but, as of 2023, more than 50,000 similar claims were still pending.<ref name=":1" /> In December 2023, Bayer won a case against a claim that Roundup had caused a man's cancer. In a statement they said the outcome was "consistent with the evidence in this case that Roundup does not cause cancer and is not responsible for the plaintiff's illness". At that time, Bayer had previously won 10 of 15 such cases.<ref name=":1"/> |
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===Cancer cases=== |
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A 2009 study on rats has found that Roundup is a potent endocrine disruptor causing disturbances in the reproductive development when the exposure was performed during the puberty period.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1007/s00204-009-0494-z}}</ref> |
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<!-- If you update this, consider also updating [[Glyphosate]], [[Glyphosate-based herbicides]], [[Monsanto]], and [[Bayer]]. --> |
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As of October 30, 2019, there were over 42,000 plaintiffs who said that glyphosate herbicides caused their cancer.<ref>{{cite news |
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Roundup has been found to interfere with an enzyme involved in testosterone production in mouse cell culture<ref name="walsh">Walsh ''et al.'' Roundup inhibits steroidogenesis by disrupting steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein expression. Environ Health Perspect. 2000 108: 769–776.[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=10964798]</ref> and to interfere with an estrogen biosynthesis enzyme in cultures of Human Placental cells.<ref name="Aromatase">Richard et al., Differential Effects of Glyphosate and Roundup on Human Placental Cells and Aromatase, Environmental Health Perspectives Vol. 113, No.6, 716-720[http://www.ehponline.org/members/2005/7728/7728.pdf] </ref> |
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|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-10-30/bayer-is-now-facing-42-700-plaintiffs-in-roundup-litigation |
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|title=Bayer's Roundup Headache Grows as Plaintiffs Pile Into Court |
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|date=October 30, 2019 |publisher=[[Bloomberg News]] |access-date=October 31, 2019 |
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|language=en}}</ref> After the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]] classified glyphosate as "probably carcinogenic to humans" in March 2015,<ref name="iarcmono" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=IARC Monograph on Glyphosate |url=https://www.iarc.who.int/featured-news/media-centre-iarc-news-glyphosate/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220712185952/https://www.iarc.who.int/featured-news/media-centre-iarc-news-glyphosate/ |archive-date=2022-07-12 |access-date=2023-09-04 |website=[[International Agency for Research on Cancer]]}}</ref> many state and federal lawsuits were filed in the United States. Early on, over 300 of them were consolidated into a [[multidistrict litigation]] called [[Monsanto legal cases|''In re: RoundUp Products Liability'']].<ref>{{Cite news |
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|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-14/monsanto-judge-pictures-weed-killer-showers-amid-cancer-debate |
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|title=Monsanto's Cancer Fight Judge Pictures Weed Killer Showers |
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|date=March 14, 2018 |access-date=August 17, 2018 |publisher=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> |
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On August 10, 2018, [[Dewayne "Lee" Johnson|Dewayne Johnson]], who has [[Non-Hodgkin lymphoma|non-Hodgkin's lymphoma]], was awarded $289 million in damages (later cut to $78 million on appeal<ref>{{cite news |
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===Genetic damage=== |
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|title=Groundskeeper Accepts Reduced $78 Million Award In Monsanto Cancer Suit |
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A 1998 study on mice concluded that Roundup is able to cause genetic damage. The authors concluded that the damage was "''not related to the active ingredient, but to another component of the herbicide mixture''".<ref>{{cite journal |pmid = 946431 | volume=68 | issue=02 | title=Relation between prolactin and gonadotrophin secretion in post-partum lactating rats | year=1976 | month=February | author=Lu KH, Chen HT, Huang HH, Grandison L, Marshall S, Meites J | journal=J. Endocrinol. | pages=241–50}}</ref> |
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|first=Emily |last=Sullivan |publisher=[[National Public Radio]] |
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|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/11/01/662812333/groundskeeper-accepts-reduced-78-million-in-monsanto-cancer-suit |
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|access-date=July 29, 2019}}</ref> then reduced to $21 million after another appeal<ref>{{cite news |
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|last1=Egelko |first1=Bob |title=Award to Vallejo groundskeeper in Monsanto cancer case slashed again - verdict upheld |
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|url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/Award-to-Vallejo-groundskeeper-in-Monsanto-cancer-15421705.php |
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|access-date=March 3, 2021 |publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |
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|date=July 21, 2020}}</ref>) after a jury in [[San Francisco]] found that Monsanto had failed to adequately warn consumers of cancer risks posed by the herbicide.<ref>{{cite news |
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|title=Monsanto ordered to pay $289 million in world's first Roundup... |
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|work=Reuters |access-date=August 17, 2018 |date=August 11, 2018 |
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|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-monsanto-cancer-lawsuit/jury-orders-monsanto-to-pay-290-million-in-california-roundup-cancer-trial-idUSKBN1KV2HB}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |
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|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-45154362 |
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|title=Weedkiller 'doesn't cause cancer' - Bayer |
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|date=August 11, 2018 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=August 11, 2018 |
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|language=en-GB}}</ref> Johnson had routinely used two different glyphosate formulations in his work as a groundskeeper, RoundUp and another Monsanto product called Ranger Pro.<ref name="smh">{{Cite news |
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|last=Johnston |first=Gretel |title=Dying cancer patient awarded $395m in Monsanto Roundup case |
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|work=The Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=August 18, 2018 |date=August 11, 2018 |
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|url= https://www.smh.com.au/world/north-america/dying-cancer-patient-awarded-a395m-in-monsanto-roundup-case-20180811-p4zwww.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |
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|pages=33 |last1= Fee |first1=Dawn M |last2=Company |first2=Monsato | last3 = Street| first3 = I| title = United States Environmental Protection Agency Washington, D.C. 20460}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=September 2019}} The jury's verdict addressed the question of whether Monsanto knowingly failed to warn consumers that RoundUp could be harmful, but not whether RoundUp causes cancer.<ref>{{Cite news |issn=0027-8378 |last=Ebersole |first=Rene |title=Monsanto Just Lost a Case Linking Its Weed Killer to Cancer |magazine=[[The Nation]] |access-date=August 18, 2018 |date=August 17, 2018 |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/monsanto-just-lost-a-case-linking-its-weedkiller-to-cancer/ |archive-date=August 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817153043/https://www.thenation.com/article/monsanto-just-lost-a-case-linking-its-weedkiller-to-cancer/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Court documents from the case alleged the company's efforts to influence scientific research via [[Medical ghostwriter|ghostwriting]].<ref name=HakimNYT>{{Cite news |work=[[The New York Times]] |
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|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/01/business/monsantos-sway-over-research-is-seen-in-disclosed-emails.html |
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|title=Monsanto Emails Raise Issue of Influencing Research on Roundup Weed Killer |
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|first=Danny |last=Hakim |date=August 1, 2018 |access-date=October 13, 2018 |language=en}}</ref> |
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In January 2019, [[Costco]] decided to stop carrying Roundup or other glyphosate-based herbicides. The decision was reportedly influenced in part by the public court cases.<ref>{{Cite web |
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A 2005 study raised concerns over the effects of Roundup in [[Transcription (genetics)|transcription]].<ref>{{cite pmid|15694458}}</ref> |
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|url=https://people.com/home/costco-removes-roundup-after-2-billion-lawsuit |
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|title=Costco Will Reportedly Remove Roundup from Stores After $2 Billion Awarded to Couple Who Claimed Weed Killer Caused Their Cancer |
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|magazine=[[People (magazine)|People magazine]] |language=en |access-date=December 8, 2019}}</ref> |
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In March 2019, a man was awarded $80 million (later cut to $26 million on appeal<ref name="AP2019-07-15">{{cite news|url=https://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2019/07/15/80-million-award-reduced-monsanto-roundup-cancer-patient/|title=Judge Reduces $80M Award In Roundup Case; Cancer Patient, Monsanto Both Consider Appeal|date=2019-07-15|access-date=2019-07-27|publisher=[[KPIX-TV]]|agency=Associated Press|location=San Francisco}}</ref>) in a lawsuit claiming Roundup was a substantial factor in his cancer.<ref>{{cite news | title = Jury Awards $80 Million In Damages In Roundup Weed Killer Cancer Trial |first=Richard |last=Gonzales |date=March 29, 2019 |publisher=[[NPR]] |
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A 2009 study on mice has found that a single [[intraperitoneal injection]] of Roundup in concentration of 25 mg/kg caused chromosomal aberrations and induction of [[micronucleus test|micronuclei]].<ref>{{cite doi|10.1155/2009/308985}}</ref> |
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|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/03/27/707439575/jury-awards-80-million-in-damages-in-roundup-weed-killer-cancer-trial | access-date=2019-07-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = Louisville lawyer wins $80M verdict against Monsanto over weedkiller Roundup | first = Andrew | last = Wolfson | work = [[The Courier-Journal]] | location = Louisville, Kentucky | date = 2019-03-28 | url = https://www.courier-journal.com/story/news/2019/03/28/monsanto-roundup-cancer-lawsuit-louisville-lawyer-wins-huge-verdict-80-million/3295421002/ | access-date = 2019-07-29}}</ref> U.S. District Judge [[Vince Chhabria]] stated that a punitive award was appropriate because the evidence "easily supported a conclusion that Monsanto was more concerned with tamping down safety inquiries and manipulating public opinion than it was with ensuring its product is safe." Chhabria stated that there was evidence on both sides as to whether glyphosate causes cancer, and that the behavior of Monsanto showed "a lack of concern about the risk that its product might be carcinogenic."<ref name="AP2019-07-15" /> |
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On May 13, 2019, a jury in California ordered Bayer to pay a couple $2 billion in damages (later cut to $87 million on appeal<ref name=LessGelt2B>{{cite news |
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A 2009 in vitro experiment with glyphosate formulations on human liver cells has observed DNA damages at sub-agricultural doses, where a Roundup formulation showed to be the most active formulation. The effects were more dependent on the formulation than on the glyphosate concentration.<ref name="HepG2"/> |
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|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/07/26/judge-cuts-billion-award-couple-with-cancer-million-roundup-lawsuit |
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|title=Judge cuts $2 billion award for couple with cancer to $86.7 million in Roundup lawsuit |last=Telford |first=Taylor |
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|date=July 26, 2019 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |
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|access-date=July 27, 2019}}</ref>) after finding that the company had failed to adequately inform consumers of the possible carcinogenicity of Roundup.<ref>{{Cite news |
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|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-05-13/bayer-loses-its-third-trial-over-claims-roundup-causes-cancer |
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|title=Bayer's $2 Billion Roundup Damages Boost Pressure to Settle |
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|newspaper=Bloomberg.com |date=May 13, 2019 |publisher=Bloomberg News |access-date=May 14, 2019}}</ref> On December 19, 2019, it was announced that Timothy Litzenburg, the lawyer for the RoundUp Virginia plaintiffs had been charged with extortion after offering to stop searching for more plaintiffs if he was paid a $200 million consulting fee by a manufacturer of glyphosate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/timothy-litzenburg-former-monsanto-roundup-lawyer-charged-with-extortion/|title=Roundup suit lawyer accused of $200 million extortion plot|website=[[CBS News]] }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.agri-pulse.com/articles/12976-lawyer-for-roundup-plaintiffs-charged-with-extortion|title = Lawyer for Roundup plaintiffs charged with extortion}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-otc-masstorts/doj-charges-roundup-plaintiffs-lawyer-in-200-million-alleged-extortion-scheme-idUSKBN1YM2L9|title = DOJ charges Roundup plaintiffs' lawyer in $200 million alleged extortion scheme|newspaper = Reuters|date = 19 December 2019}}</ref> Litzenburg and his partner Daniel Kincheloe pleaded guilty to the charges and they were sentenced to two and one years in prison respectively.<ref>{{cite news |
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|title=Virginia lawyers get prison terms for $200M Roundup extortion scheme |
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|url=https://today.westlaw.com/Document/I50a628d0f9f211eaadd8fa89d4036ae0/View/FullText.html |
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|access-date=December 1, 2021 |website=[[Westlaw|Westlaw Today]] |agency=Reuters Legal |date=September 18, 2020}}</ref> |
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In June 2020, Bayer agreed to settle over a hundred thousand Roundup lawsuits, agreeing to pay $8.8 to $9.6 billion to settle those claims, and $1.5 billion for any future claims. The settlement does not include three cases that have already gone to jury trials and are being appealed.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2020/06/24/882949098/bayer-to-pay-more-than-10-billion-to-resolve-roundup-cancer-lawsuits Bayer To Pay More Than $10 Billion To Resolve Cancer Lawsuits Over Weedkiller Roundup]</ref> However the settlement was not allowed to cover future cases.<ref name=":1" /> |
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==Ecologic effects== |
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A 2000 review of the toxicological data on Roundup concluded that ''"for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed nontarget organisms"''. It also concluded that there were some risks to aquatic organisms exposed to Roundup in shallow water.<ref name="Giesy2000">JP Giesy, KR Solomon, S Dobson (2000). "Ecotoxicological Risk Assessment for Roundup Herbicide". Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 167: 35-120</ref> |
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=== |
===False advertising=== |
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In 1996, Monsanto was accused of false and misleading advertising of glyphosate products, prompting a lawsuit by the New York State attorney general.<ref>{{Cite web |author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Pesticide/Monsanto-v-AGNYnov96.htm |title=Attorney General of the State of New York. Consumer Frauds and Protection Bureau. Environmental Protection Bureau. 1996. In the matter of Monsanto Company, respondent. Assurance of discontinuance pursuant to executive law § 63(15). New York, NY, Nov |publisher=Mindfully.org |access-date=2010-08-22 |archive-date=July 6, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706091235/http://www.mindfully.org/Pesticide/Monsanto-v-AGNYnov96.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Monsanto had made claims that its spray-on glyphosate based herbicides, including Roundup, were safer than table salt and "practically non-toxic" to mammals, birds, and fish, "environmentally friendly", and "biodegradable".<ref name="ap-false">{{cite news |title=Monsanto Agrees to Modify Roundup Ads in New York State |
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A 2009 study has concluded that while physiological pH decreases [[glyphosate]] uptake in animal cells, Roundup formulation contains surfactants that increase membrane permeability allowing cellular uptake at physiological pH.<ref name="cite pmid|20036731"/> |
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|author=Talbot, AR |author2=Shiaw, MH |author3=Huang, JS |author4=Yang, SF |
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|url=https://www.apnews.com/d196b9a5bb54637a7b281760b0f7a966 |access-date=14 October 2018 | publisher =Associated Press |date=25 November 1996}}</ref> Citing avoidance of costly litigation, Monsanto settled the case, admitting no wrongdoing, and agreeing to remove the offending advertising claims in New York State.<ref name="ap-false" /> |
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Environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case in France in 2001 accusing Monsanto of presenting Roundup as "biodegradable" and claiming that it "left the soil clean" after use; glyphosate, Roundup's main ingredient, was classed by the European Union as "dangerous for the environment" and "toxic for aquatic organisms". In January 2007, Monsanto was convicted of false advertising and fined 15,000 euros. The result was confirmed in 2009.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8308903.stm|title=Monsanto guilty in 'false ad' row |date=2009-10-15 |work=BBC News |access-date=2009-10-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2009/10/15/monsanto-definitivement-condamne-pour-publicite-mensongere-a-propos-du-round-up_1254230_3244.html |title=Monsanto définitivement condamné pour "publicité mensongère" à propos du Round Up |language=fr |trans-title=Monsanto finally convicted for 'false advertising' about the Round Up |date=2009-10-15 |newspaper=Le Monde |location=Paris}}</ref> |
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===Aquatic effects=== |
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[[Fish]] and aquatic [[invertebrates]] are more sensitive to Roundup than terrestrial organisms.<ref name="Giesy2000" /> Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil, with 12 to 60 day persistence observed in Canadian pond water, yet persistence of over a year have been observed in the sediments of ponds in Michigan and Oregon.<ref name="epa_reds"/><br> |
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The EU classifies Roundup as ''R51/53 Toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment.''<ref name="autogenerated3">[http://lscgw1.monsanto.com/esh/msdslib.nsf/2B20DAEB04E8631C0625689700650B45/$file/Roundup%20Ultra%203000-5059en-gb.pdf Monsanto] Roundup Material Safety Data sheet page 7, heading 16</ref> |
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On 27 March 2020 Bayer settled claims in a proposed class action alleging that it falsely advertised that the active ingredient in Roundup Weed & Grass Killer only affects plants with a $39.5 million deal that included changing the labels on its products.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1257915/monsanto-to-pay-39m-in-roundup-false-ad-class-settlement|title=Monsanto To Pay $39M In Roundup False Ad Class Settlement - Law360|website=www.law360.com|language=en|access-date=2020-03-30}}</ref> |
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Although Roundup is not registered for aquatic uses<ref>Monsanto Backgrounder 2005 Response to "The impact of insecticides and herbicides on the biodiversity and productivity of aquatic communities" [http://www.monsanto.com/monsanto/content/products/productivity/roundup/bkg_amphib_05a.pdf]</ref> and studies of its effects on amphibians indicate it is toxic to them,<ref>Rick A. Relyea 2005 The impact of insecticides and herbicides on the biodiversity and productivity of aquatic communities Ecological Applications 15:618–627</ref> scientists have found that it may wind up in small wetlands where tadpoles live, due to inadvertent spraying during its application. A recent study found that even at concentrations one-third of the maximum concentrations expected in nature, Roundup still killed up to 71 percent of tadpoles raised in outdoor tanks.<ref>Even Small Doses of Popular Weed Killer Fatal to Frogs, Scientist Finds [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/08/050804053212.htm]</ref> |
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In June 2023, Bayer reached a $6.9 million settlement agreement with the New York attorney general, settling false advertising allegations concerning the safety of Roundup.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Stempel |first1=Jonathan |title=Bayer reaches $6.9 million settlement with New York over Roundup safety claims |url=https://www.reuters.com/legal/government/bayer-reaches-69-mln-settlement-with-new-york-over-roundup-safety-claims-2023-06-15/ |access-date=21 June 2023 |publisher=Reuters |date=15 June 2023}}</ref> |
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A 2010 study has found that long-term exposition to environmental relevant concentrations of a Roundup formulation causes metabolic disruption in the fish ''[[leporinus obtusidens]]''.<ref>{{cite pmid|20112104}}</ref> |
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===Falsification of test results === |
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===Environmental degradation and effects=== |
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Some tests originally conducted on glyphosate by contractors were later found to have been fraudulent, along with tests conducted on other pesticides. Concerns were raised about toxicology tests conducted by [[Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories]] in the 1970s<ref>{{cite web |publisher=U.S. EPA Office of pesticides and Toxic Substances |date=July 1983 |title=Summary of the IBT review program |url=https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=91014ULV.TXT}}</ref> and [[Craven Laboratories]] was found to have fraudulently analysed samples for residues of glyphosate in 1991.<ref>{{cite news |author=Keith Schneider |work=New York Times |title=U.S. Seeks to Learn if Tests On Pesticides Were Falsified |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/02/us/us-seeks-to-learn-if-tests-on-pesticides-were-falsified.html |access-date=20 September 2018 |date=1991-03-02 |language=en}}</ref> Monsanto has stated that the studies have since been repeated.<ref>{{cite web |work=Backgrounder |title=Testing Fraud: IBT and Craven Labs |date=June 2005 |publisher=Monsanto |url=http://www.monsanto.com/products/Documents/glyphosate-background-materials/ibt_craven_bkg.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101208233014/http://www.monsanto.com/products/Documents/glyphosate-background-materials/ibt_craven_bkg.pdf |archive-date=2010-12-08 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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When glyphosate comes into contact with the soil, it can be rapidly bound to soil particles and be inactivated.<ref name="epa_reds">US EPA Reregistration Eligibility Decision — Glyphosate - (EPA-738-F-93-011) 1993 [http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/old_reds/glyphosate.pdf]</ref> Unbound glyphosate can be degraded by bacteria.<ref>Balthazor, Terry M and Laurence Hallas (1986) Glyphosate-degrading microorganisms in industrial waste treatment biosystems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 51:432-34.[http://aem.asm.org/cgi/reprint/51/2/432.pdf]</ref> Glyphosphate has been shown to increase the infection rate of wheat by fusarium head blight in fields that have been treated with glyphosphate.<ref name="autogenerated2">[http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/full/45/5/1908] "Crop Production Factors Associated with Fusarium Head Blight in Spring Wheat in Eastern Saskatchewan", published online 26 August 2005 by M. R. Fernandeza, F. Sellesa, D. Gehlb, R. M. DePauwa and R. P. Zentner.</ref> A 2009 study using a RoundUp formulation has concluded that absorption into plants delays subsequent soil-degradation, and can increase glyphosate persistence in soil from two to six times.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.06.044}}</ref> |
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===Ban in France=== |
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In soils, half lives vary from as little as 3 days at a site in Texas, to as much as 141 days at a site in Iowa.<ref name=autogenerated6 /> In addition, the glyphosate metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid was shown to persist up to 2 years in Swedish forest soils.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.labmeeting.com/paper/18974220/torstensson-1989-influence-of-climatic-and-edaphic-factors-on-persistence-of-glyphosate-and-24-d-in-forest-soils |title=Influence of climatic and edaphic factors on persistence of glyphosate and 2,4-D in forest soils. (1989) |publisher=Labmeeting |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> |
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In January 2019, Roundup 360 was banned in France following a [[Lyon]] court ruling that regulator [[Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire de l'alimentation, de l'environnement et du travail|ANSES]] had not given due weight to safety concerns when they approved the product in March 2017. The ban went into effect immediately. The court's decision cited research by the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]], based in Lyon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190116-weedkiller-roundup-banned-france-after-court-ruling|title=Weedkiller Roundup banned in France after court ruling|date=2019-01-16|website=France 24|language=en|access-date=2019-01-16}}</ref><ref name=FrenchBan>{{cite news |
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|newspaper=Reuters |title=French court cancels Monsanto weedkiller permit on safety grounds |
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|date=January 15, 2019 |access-date=January 16, 2019 |
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|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bayer-monsanto-france/french-court-cancels-monsanto-weedkiller-permit-on-safety-grounds-idUSKCN1P91F6}}</ref> |
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==Use with genetically modified crops== |
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A recent study concluded that certain amphibians may be at risk from glyphosate use.<ref>Bette Hileman. (2005) Common herbicide kills tadpoles. Chemical & Engineering News. Washington 83(15):11.</ref> One study has shown an effect on growth and survival of earthworms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=2894073&q=&uid=790265242&setcookie=yes |title=(Springett & Gray 1992, ''Soil Biol. Biochem''. 24 (12):1739–1744) |publisher=Md1.csa.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> The results of this study are in conflict with other data, and have been criticized on methodological grounds.<ref name="Giesy2000" /> In other studies, nitrogen fixing bacteria have been impaired, and also crop plant susceptibility to disease has been increased.<ref name="autogenerated2" /><ref>(Santos & Flores 1995, ''Lett. Appl.'' Microbiol. 20:349-352)</ref><ref>(Brammel & Higgins 1988, ''Can. J. Bot'' 66:1547–1555)</ref><ref>(Johal & Rahe 1988, Molec. Plant Pathol. 32:267-281)</ref><ref>(Mekwatanakarn & Sivassithamparam 1987, ''Biol. Fertil. Soils'' 5:175-180)</ref><ref>(Kawate et al. 1997, ''Weed Sci''. 45:739-743)</ref><ref>(Bergvinson & Borden 1992, ''Can J. For. Res''. 22:206-209)</ref> |
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{{main|Roundup Ready}} |
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Monsanto first developed Roundup in the 1970s. End-users initially deployed it in a similar way to [[paraquat]] and [[diquat]] – as a non-selective herbicide. Application of glyphosate-based herbicides to row crops resulted in problems with crop damage and kept them from being widely used for this purpose. In the United States, use of Roundup experienced rapid growth following the commercial introduction of a [[Genetically modified soybean#Roundup Ready Soybean|glyphosate-resistant soybean]] in 1996.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Duke |first1= Stephen O. |title= The history and current status of glyphosate |journal= Pest Management Science |volume= 74 |issue= 5 |pages= 1027–1034 |doi= 10.1002/ps.4652 |pmid= 28643882 |url= http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usdaarsfacpub/1766/ |access-date= 20 August 2018|year= 2018 |s2cid= 4408706 |doi-access= free }}</ref> "Roundup Ready" became Monsanto's trademark for its patented line of crop seeds that are resistant to Roundup. Between 1990 and 1996 sales of Roundup increased around 20% per year.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Top-selling herbicide not close to withering | work = Wall Street Journal | access-date = 2018-08-12 | date = 1996-01-08 | url = https://www.newspapers.com/clip/22746669/topselling_herbicide_not_close_to/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180813111128/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/22746669/topselling_herbicide_not_close_to/ | archive-date = 2018-08-13 | url-status = live}}</ref> {{As of| 2015}} the product was used in over 160 countries.<ref name=natgeo> |
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===Honey bee die-off=== |
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{{Cite web |
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[[Terrence Ingram]] had done research on the effects of Roundup, as a cause of [[colony collapse disorder]] in honey bees.<ref> http://www.globalresearch.ca/illinois-illegally-seizes-bees-resistant-to-monsantos-roundup-kills-remaining-queens/5336210</ref><ref>http://oneradionetwork.com/%E2%80%9Chow-to-be-free-in-an-unfree-world%E2%80%9D/terrence-ingram-miracles-in-the-beehive-the-connection-between-colony-collapse-disorder-and-monsantos-roundup-herbicide-may-28-2013/</ref><ref>http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2012/07/05/monsanto-roundup-effects-on-honeybees.aspx</ref><ref>http://contentdesk.com/monsanto-roundup-resistant-bees-confiscated-in-illinois/</ref> |
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| title = What Do We Really Know About Roundup Weed Killer? |
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| work = National Geographic News |
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In March 2012, the [[Illinois Department of Agriculture]] seized most of his bee hives while he was at a family event. The bees disappeared while in the possession of the IDoA along with his 15 years of research.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gqXCboEL-7k</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pacc-news.com/5-2-12/heart_ingram5_2_12.html |title=Heart of the Matter – Ingram Gets His Day In Court - Three Weeks Late |publisher=Pacc-news.com |date= |accessdate=2013-08-17}}</ref><ref>http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_25845.cfm</ref> |
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| access-date = 2018-08-13 |
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| date = 2015-04-23 |
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==False advertising and scientific fraud== |
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| url = https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150422-glyphosate-roundup-herbicide-weeds/ |
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=== False advertising === |
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| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180813111122/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150422-glyphosate-roundup-herbicide-weeds/ |
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In 1996, Monsanto was accused of false and misleading advertising of glyphosate products, prompting a law suit by the New York State attorney general.<ref>{{Cite web|author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Pesticide/Monsanto-v-AGNYnov96.htm |title=Attorney General of the State of New York. Consumer Frauds and Protection Bureau. Environmental Protection Bureau. 1996. In the matter of Monsanto Company, respondent. Assurance of discontinuance pursuant to executive law § 63(15). New York, NY, Nov |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> Monsanto had made claims that its spray-on glyphosate based herbicides, including Roundup, were safer than table salt and "practically non-toxic" to mammals, birds, and fish.<ref>"Monsanto pulls Roundup advertising in New York", ''Wichita Eagle'', Nov. 27, 1996.</ref> |
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| archive-date = 2018-08-13 | url-status = dead |
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}} |
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Environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case in France in 2001 for presenting Roundup as biodegradable and claiming that it left the soil clean after use; glyphosate, Roundup's main ingredient, is classed by the European Union as "dangerous for the environment" and "toxic for aquatic organisms". In January 2007, Monsanto was convicted of false advertising.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_4114.cfm |title=Monsanto Fined in France for 'False' Herbicide Ads - Organic Consumers Association |publisher=Organicconsumers.org |date=2007-01-26 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> The result was confirmed in 2009.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8308903.stm|title=Monsanto guilty in 'false ad' row |date=2009-10-15|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2009-10-16}}</ref> |
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===Scientific fraud=== |
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On two occasions, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has caught scientists deliberately falsifying test results at research laboratories hired by Monsanto to study glyphosate.<ref>(US EPA Communications and Public Affairs 1991 ''Note to correspondents'' Washington DC Mar 1)</ref><ref>(US EPA Communications and Public Affairs 1991 Press Advisory. ''EPA lists crops associated with pesticides for which residue and environmental fate studies were allegedly manipulated''. Washington DC Mar 29)</ref><ref>(U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. Com. on Gov. Oper. 1984. ''Problems palgue the EPA pesticide registration activities''. House Report 98-1147)</ref> In the first incident involving [[Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories|Industrial Biotest Laboratories]], an EPA reviewer stated after finding "routine falsification of data" that it was "hard to believe the scientific integrity of the studies when they said they took specimens of the [[uterus]] from male rabbits".<ref>(U.S. EPA 1978 Data validation. Memo from K LOcke, Toxicology Branch, to R Taylor, Registration Branch. Washington DC Aug 9)</ref><ref>(U.S. EPA Office of pesticides and Toxic Substances 1983, ''Summary of the IBT review program''. Washington D.C. July)</ref><ref>Schneider, K. 1983. Faking it: The case against Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories. The Amicus Journal (Spring):14-26. Reproduced at [http://planetwaves.net/contents/faking_it.html Planetwaves]</ref> In the second incident of falsifying test results in 1991, the owner of [[Craven Laboratories]] and three employees were indicted on 20 felony counts, the owner was sentenced to 5 years in prison and fined $50,000, the lab was fined 15.5 million dollars and ordered to pay 3.7 million dollars in restitution.<ref name=autogenerated6>{{Cite web|author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Pesticide/Roundup-Glyphosate-Factsheet-Cox.htm |title=Glyphosate Factsheet (part 1 of 2) Caroline Cox / Journal of Pesticide Reform v.108, n.3 Fall98 rev.Oct00 |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>(US Dept. of Justice. United States Attorney. Western District of Texas 1992. ''Texas laboratory, its president, 3 employees indicted on 20 felony counts in connection with pesticide testing''. Austin TX Sept 29)</ref><ref>(US EPA Communications, Education, And Public Affairs 1994 Press Advisory. ''Craven Laboratories, owner, and 14 employees sentenced for falsifying pesticide tests''. Washington DC Mar 4)</ref> Craven Laboratories performed studies for 262 pesticide companies including Monsanto. |
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Monsanto has stated that the studies have been repeated, and that Roundup's EPA certification does not now use any studies from Craven Labs or IBT. Monsanto also said that the Craven Labs investigation was started by the EPA after a pesticide industry task force discovered irregularities.<ref>Backgrounder: Testing Fraud: IBT and Craven Labs, June 2005, Monsanto background paper on RoundUp [http://www.monsanto.com/products/Documents/glyphosate-background-materials/ibt_craven_bkg.pdf]</ref> |
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===Difference between regulatory registered and commercialized formulations=== |
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In November 2009, a French environment group (MDRGF) accused Monsanto of using chemicals in Roundup formulations not disclosed to the country's regulatory bodies, and demanded the removal of those products from the market.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/2009/11/18/01011-20091118FILWWW00547-round-up-une-association-veut-le-retrait.php|title=Round up: une association veut le retrait|date=2009-11-18|work=Le Figaro|language=French|accessdate=19 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mdrgf.org/pdf/Dossier_presse_Roundup_final.pdf|title=Dossier de presse — alerte pesticides: le cas de 3 Roundup|date=1 November 2009|publisher=Mouvement pour les droits et le respect des générations futures (MDRGF)|language=French|accessdate=19 November 2009}}</ref> |
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==Resistance to Roundup== |
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Resistance evolves after a weed population has been subjected to intense selection pressure in the form of repeated use of a single herbicide.<ref name="canada"/><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/17/opinion/17mon3.html?ref=opinion | work=The New York Times | title=Resisting Roundup | date=2010-05-16}}</ref> These weeds resistant to the herbicide have been called "Superweeds".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20090418-superweed-explosion-threatens-monsanto-heartlands-genetically-modified-US-crops |title=‘Superweed’ explosion threatens Monsanto heartlands |publisher=France24.com |date=2009-04-19 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Tarter |first=Steve |url=http://www.pjstar.com/business/x90676933/Attack-of-the-Superweeds |title=PJStar.com |publisher=PJStar.com |date=2009-04-06 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> In the US 7 to {{convert|10|e6acre|km2}} of soil is afflicted by those superweeds.<ref name="nytimes">{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/04/business/energy-environment/04weed.html|title=U.S. Farmers Cope With Roundup-Resistant Weeds|last=NEUMAN |first=WILLIAM|coauthors=ANDREW POLLACK|date=4 May 2010|work=New York Times|pages= B1|accessdate=4 May 2010|location=New York}}</ref> |
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The first documented cases of weed resistance to glyphosate were found in Australia, involving rigid ryegrass near Orange, New South Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2003/glyresistance.shtml |title=ISU Weed Science Online - Are RR Weeds in Your Future II |publisher=Weeds.iastate.edu |date=2003-01-29 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> Some farmers in the United States have expressed concern that weeds are now developing with glyphosate resistance, with 13 states now reporting resistance, and this poses a problem to many farmers, including cotton farmers, that are now heavily dependent on glyphosate to control weeds.<ref name="autogenerated5">{{Cite web|url=http://southeastfarmpress.com/news/021006-Glyphosate-resistance/ |title=Glyphosate resistance is a reality that should scare some cotton growers into changing the way they do business |publisher=Southeastfarmpress.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated4">[http://www.newfarm.com/news/2004/0804/083104/weeds.shtml More glyphosate resistant weeds]{{Dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> Farmers associations are now reporting 103 biotypes of weeds within 63 weed species with herbicide resistance.<ref name="autogenerated5" /><ref name="autogenerated4" /> This problem is likely to be exacerbated by the use of Roundup Ready crops.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chem.purdue.edu/courses/chm333/Roundup%20Article.pdf |title=Purdue University |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> Fifteen weed species have been confirmed as resistant to glyphosate.<ref name="canada">{{Cite web|author=Lori |url=http://www.uoguelph.ca/news/2009/05/u_of_g_research_19.html |title=U of G Researchers Find Suspected Glyphosate-Resistant Weed |publisher=Uoguelph.ca |date=2009-05-07 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> |
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===Palmer amaranth=== |
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In 2004, a glyphosate-resistant variation of [[Amaranthus palmeri|palmer amaranth]], commonly known as pigweed, was found in Georgia and confirmed by a 2005 study.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1614/WS-06-001R.1}}</ref> In 2005 resistance was also found in North Carolina.<ref name="Hampton">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/agcomm/magazine/winter09/cotton.html|title=Cotton versus the monster weed|last=Hampton|first=Natalie|accessdate=2009-07-19}}</ref> |
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Glyphosate resistance followed the widespread use of Roundup Ready crops, which lead to an unprecedented selection pressure to glyphosate.<ref name="Hampton"/> |
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The weed variation is now widespread in southeast US.<ref name="FS03Mar09">{{Cite news|url=http://magissues.farmprogress.com/TFS/FS03Mar09/tfs024.pdf|title=Resistance a growing problem|last=Smith|first=J.T. |date=March 2009|work=The Farmer Stockman|accessdate=2009-07-19}}</ref> Cases are also reported in Texas<ref name="FS03Mar09"/> and Virginia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://agfax.com/news/2009/peanutfax/0716pf.htm|title=Peanuts: variable insects, variable weather, Roundup resistant Palmer in new state|last=Taylor|first=Owen|date=2009-07-16|work=PeanutFax|publisher=AgFax Media|accessdate=2009-07-19}}</ref> |
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===Conyza biotypes=== |
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''[[Conyza bonariensis]]'' (also known as hairy fleabane and buva) and ''[[Conyza canadensis]]'' (known as horseweed or marestail), are other weed species that had lately developed glyphosate resistance.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1590/S0100-83582007000300017}}</ref><ref>{{cite doi|10.1614/WS-05-010R}}</ref><ref>{{cite pmid|20063320}}</ref> A 2008 study on the current situation of glyphosate resistance in South America concluded that ''"resistance evolution followed intense glyphosate use"'' and the utilization of glyphosate-resistant soybean crops is a factor encouraging increase in glyphosate use.<ref>{{cite pmid|18161884}}</ref> |
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===Ryegrass=== |
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Glyphosate resistant [[ryegrass]] (Lolium) has occurred in most of the Australian agricultural area and other areas of the world. All cases of evolution of resistance to glyphosate in Australia were characterized by intensive use of the herbicide while no other effective weed control practices were used. Studies indicate that resistant ryegrass does not compete well against non-resistant plants and their numbers decrease when not grown under conditions of glyphosate application.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1614/WS-08-181.1}}</ref> |
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===Johnsongrass=== |
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Glyphosate resistant [[Johnson grass]] (''Sorghum halepense'') has occurred in Roundup Ready soybean culture in Argentina.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1614/WS-07-053.1}}</ref> |
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===Coca=== |
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[[Boliviana negra]], also known as "supercoca", is a relatively new strain of [[coca]] that is resistant to Roundup. The coca plant (''Erythroxylum coca'') is the source of the [[drug addiction|addictive]] [[stimulant]] drug known as [[cocaine]], it is one of the most widely consumed [[illegal drugs]] in the world and the source of large amounts of money to various criminal organizations. |
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Roundup is a key ingredient in the multibillion-dollar aerial [[coca eradication]] campaign undertaken by the government of [[Colombia]] with U.S. financial and military backing known as [[Plan Colombia]].<ref>http://www.state.gov/www/regions/wha/colombia/fs_000328_plancolombia.html United States Support For Colombia |
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</ref> |
</ref> |
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Roundup is used most heavily on corn, soy, and cotton crops that have been genetically modified to withstand the chemical, but {{as of | 2012 | lc = on}} glyphosate treated approximately 5 million acres in [[California]] for crops like [[almond]], [[peach]], [[cantaloupe]], [[onion]], [[cherry]], [[sweet corn]], and [[citrus]],<ref> |
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{{Cite web |
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Spraying Boliviana Negra with glyphosate would serve to strengthen its growth by eliminating the non-resistant [[weed]]s surrounding it. Joshua Davis, writing in ''Wired'' magazine, found no evidence of CP4 EPSPS, a protein produced by the Roundup Ready soybean, suggesting Bolivana Negra was not created in a laboratory but by selective breeding in the fields. According to Davis, the growing popularity of Boliviana Negra amongst growers could have serious repercussions for the U.S. [[war on drugs ]] but nobody really wants to talk about because it could put an end to U.S. aid money in Colombia and the coca farmers who grow the new strain would stop receiving free weed control on behalf of the U.S. government and taxpayers.<ref>http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.11/columbia.html The Mystery of the Coca Plant That Wouldn't Die |
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| title = What Do We Really Know About Roundup Weed Killer? |
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</ref><ref>http://www.comunidadboliviana.com.ar/shop/detallenot.asp?notid=460 BOLIVIANA NEGRA, LA COCA QUE NO MUERE </ref> |
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| work = National Geographic News |
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| date = 2015-04-23 |
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==Genetically modified crops== |
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| url = https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150422-glyphosate-roundup-herbicide-weeds/ |
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In 1996, genetically modified ''Roundup Ready'' [[soybeans]] resistant to Roundup became commercially available, followed by ''Roundup Ready'' [[maize|corn]] in 1998.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://monsanto.com/monsanto/layout/about_us/timeline/default.asp |title=Monsanto Company History |publisher=Monsanto.com |date=2008-11-03 |accessdate=2010-08-22 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080423174556/http://www.monsanto.com/monsanto/layout/about_us/timeline/default.asp |archivedate = April 23, 2008}}</ref> ''Roundup Ready'' soybeans patent is due to expire in 2014.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_05/b4165019364939.htm|title=Monsanto Will Let Bio-Crop Patents Expire|date=January 21, 2010|work=Business Week|accessdate=25 January 2010}}</ref> Current ''Roundup Ready'' crops include [[soy]], [[maize]] (corn), [[canola]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.genuity.com/Traits/Specialty/Genuity-Roundup-Ready-Canola.aspx |title=Monsanto Genuity Roundup Ready canola trait |publisher=Genuity.com |date=2008-11-03 |accessdate=2010-08-22}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> [[sugar beet]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.genuity.com/Traits/Specialty/Genuity-Roundup-Ready-Sugarbeets.aspx |title=Monsanto Genuity Roundup Ready sugarbeets trait |publisher=Genuity.com |date=2008-11-03 |accessdate=2010-08-22}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> and [[cotton]], with [[wheat]]<ref>[http://www.agbios.com/dbase.php?action=ShowProd&data=MON71800&frmat=LONG Agbios GM database entry for wheat event MON71800]</ref> and [[alfalfa]]<ref>[http://www.agbios.com/dbase.php?action=ShowProd&data=J101%2C+J163&frmat=LONG Agbios GM database entry for alfalfa events events J101 and J163]</ref> still under development. As of 2005, 87% of U.S. soybean fields were planted with glyphosate resistant varieties.<ref>USDA/APHIS Environmental Assessment — In response to Monsanto Petition 06-178-01p seeking a Determination of Non-regulated Status for + Roundup RReady2Yield Soybean MON 89788, OECD Unique Identifier MON-89788-1, U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service + Biotechnology Regulatory Services page 13 [http://www.aphis.usda.gov/brs/aphisdocs/06_17801p_ea.pdf]</ref><ref>National Agriculture Statistics Service (2005) in Acreage eds. Johanns, M. & Wiyatt, S. D. 6 30, (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, DC). +</ref> |
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| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180813111122/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150422-glyphosate-roundup-herbicide-weeds/ |
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| archive-date = 2018-08-13 |
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While the use of Roundup Ready crops has increased the usage of herbicides measured in pounds applied per acre,<ref name="Benbrook">Charles Benbrook. [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.41.823&rep=rep1&type=pdf Evidence of the Magnitude and Consequences of the Roundup Ready Soybean Yield Drag from University-Based Varietal Trials in 1998]. Ag BioTech InfoNet Technical Paper Number 1</ref> it has also changed the herbicide use profile away from [[atrazine]], metribuzin, and [[alachlor]]{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} which are more likely to be present in run off water.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} |
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| url-status = dead |
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| access-date = 13 July 2020 |
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An injunction in Center for Food Safety v. USDA in September, 2010 prevented farmers from planting Roundup Ready sugar beets across the United States until a remedial [[environmental impact report]] could be filed, prompting some fear of a sugar shortage.<ref>http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=129891767</ref> |
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| quote = [...] some five million acres in California were treated with glyphosate in 2012 to grow almonds, peaches, onions, cantaloupe, cherries, sweet corn, citrus, grapes, and other edible crops. |
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}} |
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===Genetic engineering=== |
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</ref> although the product is only applied directly to certain varieties of sweet corn. |
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Some [[microorganisms]] have a version of [[EPSP synthase|5-''enol''pyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase]] (EPSPS: EC 2.5.1.19, 3-phosphoshikimate 1-carboxyvinyltransferase; 5-''enol''pyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate [[synthetase]]; phospho''enol''pyruvate:3-phosphoshikimate 5-''O''-(1-carboxyvinyl)-[[transferase]]) that is resistant to glyphosate [[Enzyme inhibition|inhibition]]. The version used in [[genetically modified crops]] was [[Genetic isolate|isolate]]d from ''[[Agrobacterium]]'' strain CP4 (CP4 EPSPS) that was [[Pesticide resistance|resistant]] to glyphosate.<ref>Development and Characterization of a CP4 EPSPS-Based, Glyphosate-Tolerant Corn Event,G. R. Heck et al. Crop Sci. 45:329-339 (2005).[http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/45/1/329?ijkey=44fad6f377d5b5dfe274484eb51a4c79d0d7ff63&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha]</ref><ref name="Funke" /> The CP4 EPSPS gene was [[cloned]] and inserted into soybeans. The CP4 EPSPS gene was engineered for [[plant expression]] by [[:wikt:fusing|fusing]] the 5' end of the gene to a [[chloroplast]] [[transit peptide]] derived from the [[petunia]] EPSPS. This transit peptide was used because it had shown previously an ability to deliver bacterial EPSPS to the chloroplasts of other plants. The [[plasmid]] used to move the gene into soybeans was PV-GMGTO4. It contained three bacterial genes, two CP4 EPSPS genes, and a gene [[encoding]] [[beta-glucuronidase]] (GUS) from ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' as a marker. The DNA was injected into the soybeans using the [[particle acceleration method]] or [[gene gun]]. Soybean cultivar A54O3 was used for the [[Transformation (genetics)|transformation]]. The [[Gene expression|expression]] of the GUS gene was used as the initial evidence of transformation. GUS expression was detected by a staining method in which the GUS enzyme converts a [[Substrate (biochemistry)|substrate]] into a blue [[precipitate]]. Those plants that showed GUS expression were then taken and sprayed with glyphosate and their tolerance was tested over many generations. |
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===Productivity claims=== |
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In 1999, a review of Roundup Ready soybean crops found that, compared to the top conventional varieties, they had a 6.7% lower yield.<ref name="Benbrook" /> This so called "yield drag" follows the same pattern observed when other traits are introduced into soybeans by conventional breeding.<ref>Caviness, C.E., and H.J. Walters. 1971. Effect of phytophthora rot on yield and chemical composition of soybean seed. Crop Science 11:83-84</ref> Monsanto claims later patented varieties yield 7-11% higher than their poorly performing initial varieties, closer to those of conventional farming, although the company refrains from citing actual yields.<ref>Roundup Ready 2 Yield- Monsanto Web site http://www.monsanto.com/rr2y/</ref> Monsanto's 2006 application to USDA states that RR2 (mon89788) yields 1.6 bu less than A3244, the conventional variety that the trait is inserted into.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/brs/aphisdocs/06_17801p.pdf |title=Microsoft Word - RR2Y USDA Revised 11.03.06a.doc |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> |
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==Tradenames== |
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The Roundup trademark is registered with the [[US Patent Office]] and still extant. However, [[glyphosate]] is no longer under patent, so similar products use it as an active ingredient.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/label/labelque.htm#regprods |title=California Product/Label Database |publisher=Cdpr.ca.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> |
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==Other uses== |
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Glyphosate is one of a number of herbicides used by the [[United States]] government to spray [[Colombia]]n [[coca]] fields through [[Plan Colombia]]. There are reports that widespread application of glyphosate in attempts to destroy coca crops in South America have resulted in the development of glyphosate-resistant strains of coca known as [[Boliviana negra]], which have been [[selective breeding|selectively bred]] to be both "Roundup Ready" and larger and higher yielding than the original strains of the plant.<ref>{{Cite web|author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/GE/2004/RoundupReady-Coca27aug04.htm |title=RoundupReady Coca: New Super Strain of Coca Plant Stuns Anti-Drug Officials JEREMY MCDERMOTT / The Scotsman (Scotland) 27aug04 |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>New Super Strain of Coca Plant Stuns Anti-Drug Officials. Jeremy McDermott. The Scotsman (Scotland) 27 August 2004</ref> However, there are no reports of glyphosate-resistant coca in the peer-reviewed literature.<ref>{{Cite web|author=" " |url=http://agricola.nal.usda.gov/ |title=USDA National Agricultural Library, accessed 1 November 2007 |publisher=Agricola.nal.usda.gov |date=2009-10-30 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> In addition, since spraying of herbicides is not permitted in Colombian national parks, this has encouraged coca growers to move into park areas, cutting down the natural vegetation, and establishing coca plantations within park lands. |
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===Cosmetic purposes=== |
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In many cities, Roundup is sprayed along the sidewalks and streets, as well as crevices in between pavement where weeds often grow. However, up to 24% of the glyphosate from a Roundup formulation applied to hard surfaces can be run off by water.<ref>[http://library.wur.nl/way/bestanden/clc/1777399.pdf ]{{Dead link|date=September 2010}}</ref> Glyphosate contamination of surface water is highly attributed to urban use.<ref>{{cite doi| 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.05.008}}</ref> |
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In many Canadian cities Roundup use for cosmetic purposes is either banned or restricted.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thespec.com/News/Local/article/552563 |title=Hamilton Spectator |publisher=Thespec.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>[http://www.bclocalnews.com/greater_vancouver/newwestminsternewsleader/news/43061457.html BCLocalNews.com]{{Dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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* [[Herbicide]] |
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* [[Pesticides in the United States]] |
* [[Pesticides in the United States]] |
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* [[Pesticide regulation in the United States]] |
* [[Pesticide regulation in the United States]] |
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* [[Environmental impact of pesticides]] |
* [[Environmental impact of pesticides]] |
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* [[Health effects of pesticides]] |
* [[Health effects of pesticides]] |
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* [[Integrated pest management]] |
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* [[2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid]] |
* [[2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid]] |
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* [[Atrazine]] |
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* [[Integrated pest management]] |
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==References== |
==References== |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
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* Baccara, Mariagiovanna, et al. [http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~lcabral/teaching/monsanto.pdf |
* Baccara, Mariagiovanna, et al. [http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~lcabral/teaching/monsanto.pdf ”Monsanto's Roundup”], NYU Stern School of Business: August 2001, Revised July 14, 2003. |
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* Pease W S et al. (1993) |
* Pease W S et al. (1993) ”Preventing pesticide-related illness in California agriculture: Strategies and priorities”. Environmental Health Policy Program Report. Berkeley, CA: [[University of California]]. School of Public Health. California Policy Seminar. |
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* Wang Y, Jaw C and Chen Y (1994) “Accumulation of 2,4-D and glyphosate in fish and water hyaacinth”. Water Air Soil Pollute. 74:397–403 |
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* Marie-Monique Robin. (2008) Le monde selon Monsanto. Arte Editions (book written in French). ISBN 978-2-7071-4918-3. An overview of Monsanto products: [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]], [[Dioxine]], Roundup, [[Bovine Growth Hormone]], [[OGM]]. |
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* Wang Y, Jaw C and Chen Y (1994) Accumulation of 2,4-D and glyphosate in fish and water hyaacinth. Water Air Soil Pollute. 74:397-403 |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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* {{Official website|http://www.roundup.com|Monsanto's official Roundup website}} |
* {{Official website|http://www.roundup.com|Monsanto's official Roundup website}} |
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* [http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0057.htm EPA's Integrated Risk Information System entry for glyphosate] the main ingredient in Roundup |
* [http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0057.htm EPA's Integrated Risk Information System entry for glyphosate] the main ingredient in Roundup |
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* [http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwh/c-soc/glyphosa.html EPA's ground & drinking water consumer factsheet for glyphosate] |
* [http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwh/c-soc/glyphosa.html EPA's ground & drinking water consumer factsheet for glyphosate] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020919180630/http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwh/c-soc/glyphosa.html |date=2002-09-19 }} |
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* [http://www.pesticideinfo.org/Detail_Chemical.jsp?Rec_Id=PC33139 Chemical Identification and Use for Glyphosate, isopropylamine salt] |
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{{user sandbox|plain=yes}} |
Latest revision as of 21:58, 18 April 2024
Manufacturing status | |
---|---|
Manufacturer | Bayer |
Type | Herbicide |
Introduced to market | 1976[1] |
Purposes | |
Agriculture | Non-selective post-emergence weed control |
Herbicide properties | |
Surfactant | Polyethoxylated tallow amine (most common) |
Main active ingredient | Isopropylamine salt of glyphosate |
Mode of action | 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) inhibitor |
Roundup is a brand name of herbicide originally produced by Monsanto, which Bayer acquired in 2018. Prior to the late-2010s formulations, it used broad-spectrum glyphosate-based herbicides.[2] As of 2009, sales of Roundup herbicides still represented about 10 percent of Monsanto's revenue despite competition from Chinese producers of other glyphosate-based herbicides.[3] The overall Roundup line of products represented about half of Monsanto's yearly revenue in 2009.[4] The product is marketed to consumers by Scotts Miracle-Gro Company.[5] In the late-2010s other non-glyphosate containing herbicides were also sold under the Roundup brand.[6][7]
Monsanto developed and patented the glyphosate molecule in the 1970s, and marketed it as Roundup from 1973. It retained exclusive rights to glyphosate in the US until its US patent expired in September 2000; in other countries the patent expired earlier. The Roundup trademark is registered with the US Patent and Trademark Office and still extant. However, glyphosate is no longer under patent, so similar products use it as an active ingredient.[8]
The main active ingredient of Roundup is the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate. Another ingredient of Roundup is the surfactant POEA (polyethoxylated tallow amine).
Monsanto also produced seeds which grow into plants genetically engineered to be tolerant to glyphosate, which are known as Roundup Ready crops. The genes contained in these seeds are patented. Such crops allow farmers to use glyphosate as a post-emergence herbicide against most broadleaf and cereal weeds.
The health impacts of the product as well as its effects on the environment have been at the center of substantial legal and scientific controversies. In June 2020, Bayer agreed to pay $9.6 billion to settle tens of thousands of claims, mostly alleging that glyphosate-based Roundup had caused cancer.[9][10]
Composition
Glyphosate-based formulations may contain a number of adjuvants, the identities of which may be proprietary.[11] Surfactants are used in herbicide formulations as wetting agents, to maximize coverage and aid penetration of the herbicide(s) through plant leaves. As agricultural spray adjuvants, surfactants may be pre-mixed into commercial formulations or they may be purchased separately and mixed on-site.[12]
Polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA) is a surfactant used in the original Roundup formulation and was commonly used in 2015.[13] Different versions of Roundup have included different percentages of POEA. A 1997 US government report said that Roundup is 15% POEA while Roundup Pro is 14.5%.[14] Since POEA is more toxic to fish and amphibians than glyphosate alone, POEA is not allowed in aquatic formulations.[15][14][16]
Non-glyphosate formulations of Roundup are typically used for lawns that glyphosate would otherwise kill. Both type of products being sold under the Roundup brand name can be a source of confusion for consumers.[7] Active ingredients for non-glyphosate formulations of Roundup can include MCPA, quinclorac, dicamba, and sulfentrazone, penoxsulam, and 2,4-D[6][7]
Acute toxicity
The lethal dose of different glyphosate-based formulations varies, especially with respect to the surfactants used. Formulations intended for terrestrial use that include the surfactant polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA) can be more toxic than other formulations for aquatic species.[17][18] Due to the variety in available formulations, including five different glyphosate salts and different combinations of inert ingredients, it is difficult to determine how much surfactants contribute to the overall toxicity of each formulation.[19][20] Independent scientific reviews and regulatory agencies have repeatedly concluded that glyphosate-based herbicides do not lead to a significant risk for human or environmental health when the product label is properly followed.[21]
Human
The acute oral toxicity for mammals is low,[17] but death has been reported after deliberate overdose of concentrated Roundup.[22] The surfactants in glyphosate formulations can increase the relative acute toxicity of the formulation.[20] Surfactants generally do not, however, cause synergistic effects (as opposed to additive effects) that increase the acute toxicity of glyphosate within a formulation.[20] The surfactant POEA is not considered an acute toxicity hazard, and has an oral toxicity similar to vitamin A and less toxic than aspirin.[23] Deliberate ingestion of Roundup ranging from 85 to 200 ml (of 41% solution) has resulted in death within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms.[24] Consumption of over 85 ml of concentrated product is likely to cause serious symptoms in adults, including burns due to corrosive effects as well as kidney and liver damage. More severe cases lead to "respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, pulmonary edema, infiltration on chest X-ray, shock, arrhythmias, kidney failure requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis, and hyperkalaemia" and death is often preceded by bradycardia and ventricular arrhythmias.[20]
Skin exposure can cause irritation, and photocontact dermatitis has been occasionally reported. Severe skin burns are very rare.[20] In a 2017 risk assessment, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) wrote: "There is very limited information on skin irritation in humans. Where skin irritation has been reported, it is unclear whether it is related to glyphosate or co-formulants in glyphosate-containing herbicide formulations." The ECHA concluded that available human data was insufficient to support classification for skin corrosion or irritation.[25]
Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, or tingling and irritation in the throat. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis. Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.[20]
Aquatic
Glyphosate formulations with POEA, such as Roundup, are not approved for aquatic use due to aquatic organism toxicity.[15] Due to the presence of POEA, glyphosate formulations only allowed for terrestrial use are more toxic for amphibians and fish than glyphosate alone.[15][14][16] Terrestrial glyphosate formulations that include the surfactants POEA and MON 0818 (75% POEA) may have negative impacts on various aquatic organisms like protozoa, mussels, crustaceans, frogs and fish.[17] Aquatic organism exposure risk to terrestrial formulations with POEA is limited to drift or temporary water pockets.[15] While laboratory studies can show effects of glyphosate formulations on aquatic organisms, similar observations rarely occur in the field when instructions on the herbicide label are followed.[21]
Studies in a variety of amphibians have shown the toxicity of products containing POEA to amphibian larvae. These effects include interference with gill morphology and mortality from either the loss of osmotic stability or asphyxiation. At sub-lethal concentrations, exposure to POEA or glyphosate/POEA formulations have been associated with delayed development, accelerated development, reduced size at metamorphosis, developmental malformations of the tail, mouth, eye and head, histological indications of intersex and symptoms of oxidative stress.[16] Glyphosate-based formulations can cause oxidative stress in bullfrog tadpoles.[26] The use of glyphosate-based pesticides are not considered the major cause of amphibian decline, the bulk of which occurred prior to widespread use of glyphosate or in pristine tropical areas with minimal glyphosate exposure.[27]
A 2000 review of the toxicological data on Roundup concluded that "for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed nontarget organisms". It also concluded that there were some risks to aquatic organisms exposed to Roundup in shallow water.[28]
Bees
Roundup Ready‐To‐Use, Roundup No Glyphosate, and Roundup ProActive have all been found to cause significant mortality in bumblebees when sprayed directly on them. It has been hypothesized that this is due to surfactants in the formulations blocking the tracheal system of the bees.[29]
Carcinogenicity
There is limited evidence that human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate, such as agricultural work, but no good evidence of such a risk from home use, such as in domestic gardening.[30] The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity.[31] Organizations such as the Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues and the European Commission, Canadian Pest Management Regulatory Agency, and the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment[32] have concluded that there is no evidence that glyphosate poses a carcinogenic or genotoxic risk to humans. The final assessment of the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority in 2017 was that "glyphosate does not pose a carcinogenic risk to humans".[33] The EPA has evaluated the carcinogenic potential of glyphosate multiple times since 1986. In 1986, glyphosate was initially classified as Group C: "Possible Human Carcinogen", but later recommended as Group D: "Not Classifiable as to Human Carcinogenicity" due to lack of statistical significance in previously examined rat tumor studies. In 1991, it was classified as Group E: "Evidence of Non-Carcinogenicity for Humans", and in 2015 and 2017, "Not Likely to be Carcinogenic to Humans".[34][35]
One international scientific organization, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), classified glyphosate in Group 2A, "probably carcinogenic to humans" in 2015.[26] The variation in classification between this agency and others has been attributed to "use of different data sets" and "methodological differences in the evaluation of the available evidence".[31] In 2017, California environmental regulators listed glyphosate as “known to the state to cause cancer.” The state's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment made the decision based in part on the report from the IARC. State Proposition 65 requires the state office to add substances the international agency deems carcinogenic in humans or laboratory animals to a state list of cancer-causing items.[36]
Legal
In the ten months following Bayer's June 2018 acquisition of Monsanto, its stock lost 46% of its value because of investor apprehension concerning the 11,200 lawsuits filed against its subsidiary.[37] As of 2023, around 165,000 claims have been made against Bayer, mostly alleging that Roundup had caused cancer.[10] Bayer has settled tens of thousands of those claims and has agreed to pay billions in damages, but, as of 2023, more than 50,000 similar claims were still pending.[10] In December 2023, Bayer won a case against a claim that Roundup had caused a man's cancer. In a statement they said the outcome was "consistent with the evidence in this case that Roundup does not cause cancer and is not responsible for the plaintiff's illness". At that time, Bayer had previously won 10 of 15 such cases.[10]
Cancer cases
As of October 30, 2019, there were over 42,000 plaintiffs who said that glyphosate herbicides caused their cancer.[38] After the IARC classified glyphosate as "probably carcinogenic to humans" in March 2015,[26][39] many state and federal lawsuits were filed in the United States. Early on, over 300 of them were consolidated into a multidistrict litigation called In re: RoundUp Products Liability.[40]
On August 10, 2018, Dewayne Johnson, who has non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, was awarded $289 million in damages (later cut to $78 million on appeal[41] then reduced to $21 million after another appeal[42]) after a jury in San Francisco found that Monsanto had failed to adequately warn consumers of cancer risks posed by the herbicide.[43][44] Johnson had routinely used two different glyphosate formulations in his work as a groundskeeper, RoundUp and another Monsanto product called Ranger Pro.[45][46][full citation needed] The jury's verdict addressed the question of whether Monsanto knowingly failed to warn consumers that RoundUp could be harmful, but not whether RoundUp causes cancer.[47] Court documents from the case alleged the company's efforts to influence scientific research via ghostwriting.[48]
In January 2019, Costco decided to stop carrying Roundup or other glyphosate-based herbicides. The decision was reportedly influenced in part by the public court cases.[49]
In March 2019, a man was awarded $80 million (later cut to $26 million on appeal[50]) in a lawsuit claiming Roundup was a substantial factor in his cancer.[51][52] U.S. District Judge Vince Chhabria stated that a punitive award was appropriate because the evidence "easily supported a conclusion that Monsanto was more concerned with tamping down safety inquiries and manipulating public opinion than it was with ensuring its product is safe." Chhabria stated that there was evidence on both sides as to whether glyphosate causes cancer, and that the behavior of Monsanto showed "a lack of concern about the risk that its product might be carcinogenic."[50]
On May 13, 2019, a jury in California ordered Bayer to pay a couple $2 billion in damages (later cut to $87 million on appeal[53]) after finding that the company had failed to adequately inform consumers of the possible carcinogenicity of Roundup.[54] On December 19, 2019, it was announced that Timothy Litzenburg, the lawyer for the RoundUp Virginia plaintiffs had been charged with extortion after offering to stop searching for more plaintiffs if he was paid a $200 million consulting fee by a manufacturer of glyphosate.[55][56][57] Litzenburg and his partner Daniel Kincheloe pleaded guilty to the charges and they were sentenced to two and one years in prison respectively.[58]
In June 2020, Bayer agreed to settle over a hundred thousand Roundup lawsuits, agreeing to pay $8.8 to $9.6 billion to settle those claims, and $1.5 billion for any future claims. The settlement does not include three cases that have already gone to jury trials and are being appealed.[59] However the settlement was not allowed to cover future cases.[10]
False advertising
In 1996, Monsanto was accused of false and misleading advertising of glyphosate products, prompting a lawsuit by the New York State attorney general.[60] Monsanto had made claims that its spray-on glyphosate based herbicides, including Roundup, were safer than table salt and "practically non-toxic" to mammals, birds, and fish, "environmentally friendly", and "biodegradable".[61] Citing avoidance of costly litigation, Monsanto settled the case, admitting no wrongdoing, and agreeing to remove the offending advertising claims in New York State.[61]
Environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case in France in 2001 accusing Monsanto of presenting Roundup as "biodegradable" and claiming that it "left the soil clean" after use; glyphosate, Roundup's main ingredient, was classed by the European Union as "dangerous for the environment" and "toxic for aquatic organisms". In January 2007, Monsanto was convicted of false advertising and fined 15,000 euros. The result was confirmed in 2009.[62][63]
On 27 March 2020 Bayer settled claims in a proposed class action alleging that it falsely advertised that the active ingredient in Roundup Weed & Grass Killer only affects plants with a $39.5 million deal that included changing the labels on its products.[64]
In June 2023, Bayer reached a $6.9 million settlement agreement with the New York attorney general, settling false advertising allegations concerning the safety of Roundup.[65]
Falsification of test results
Some tests originally conducted on glyphosate by contractors were later found to have been fraudulent, along with tests conducted on other pesticides. Concerns were raised about toxicology tests conducted by Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories in the 1970s[66] and Craven Laboratories was found to have fraudulently analysed samples for residues of glyphosate in 1991.[67] Monsanto has stated that the studies have since been repeated.[68]
Ban in France
In January 2019, Roundup 360 was banned in France following a Lyon court ruling that regulator ANSES had not given due weight to safety concerns when they approved the product in March 2017. The ban went into effect immediately. The court's decision cited research by the IARC, based in Lyon.[69][70]
Use with genetically modified crops
Monsanto first developed Roundup in the 1970s. End-users initially deployed it in a similar way to paraquat and diquat – as a non-selective herbicide. Application of glyphosate-based herbicides to row crops resulted in problems with crop damage and kept them from being widely used for this purpose. In the United States, use of Roundup experienced rapid growth following the commercial introduction of a glyphosate-resistant soybean in 1996.[71] "Roundup Ready" became Monsanto's trademark for its patented line of crop seeds that are resistant to Roundup. Between 1990 and 1996 sales of Roundup increased around 20% per year.[72] As of 2015 the product was used in over 160 countries.[73] Roundup is used most heavily on corn, soy, and cotton crops that have been genetically modified to withstand the chemical, but as of 2012 glyphosate treated approximately 5 million acres in California for crops like almond, peach, cantaloupe, onion, cherry, sweet corn, and citrus,[74] although the product is only applied directly to certain varieties of sweet corn.
See also
- Pesticides in the United States
- Pesticide regulation in the United States
- Environmental impact of pesticides
- Health effects of pesticides
- Integrated pest management
- 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
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[...] some five million acres in California were treated with glyphosate in 2012 to grow almonds, peaches, onions, cantaloupe, cherries, sweet corn, citrus, grapes, and other edible crops.
Further reading
- Baccara, Mariagiovanna, et al. ”Monsanto's Roundup”, NYU Stern School of Business: August 2001, Revised July 14, 2003.
- Pease W S et al. (1993) ”Preventing pesticide-related illness in California agriculture: Strategies and priorities”. Environmental Health Policy Program Report. Berkeley, CA: University of California. School of Public Health. California Policy Seminar.
- Wang Y, Jaw C and Chen Y (1994) “Accumulation of 2,4-D and glyphosate in fish and water hyaacinth”. Water Air Soil Pollute. 74:397–403
External links
- Monsanto's official Roundup website
- EPA's Integrated Risk Information System entry for glyphosate the main ingredient in Roundup
- EPA's ground & drinking water consumer factsheet for glyphosate Archived 2002-09-19 at the Wayback Machine