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Beyond the glyphosate salts content, commercial formulations of Roundup contain [[surfactant]]s, which vary in nature and concentration. As a result, the effects of this herbicide are not with the main active ingredient alone, but with complex and variable mixtures.<ref name="glyphosate-poisoning">Review article at of glyphosate poisoning at Pubmed by Bradberry SM, Proudfoot AT, Vale JA. of the National Poisons Information Service (Birmingham Centre) and West Midlands Poisons Unit, City Hospital, Birmingham, UK. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15862083 National Institutes of Health]</ref> |
Beyond the glyphosate salts content, commercial formulations of Roundup contain [[surfactant]]s, which vary in nature and concentration. As a result, the effects of this herbicide are not with the main active ingredient alone, but with complex and variable mixtures.<ref name="glyphosate-poisoning">Review article at of glyphosate poisoning at Pubmed by Bradberry SM, Proudfoot AT, Vale JA. of the National Poisons Information Service (Birmingham Centre) and West Midlands Poisons Unit, City Hospital, Birmingham, UK. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15862083 National Institutes of Health]</ref> |
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== |
==Acute toxicity== |
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{{further|The dose makes the poison}} |
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A 2000 review concluded that "under present and expected conditions of new use, there is no potential for Roundup herbicide to pose a health risk to humans".<ref name="wkc00">{{cite journal | author = Williams GM, Kroes R, Munro IC | year = 2000 | title = Safety evaluation and risk assessment of the herbicide Roundup and its active ingredient, glyphosate, for humans | url = | journal = Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 31 | issue = 2| pages = 117–165 | pmid = 10854122 | doi=10.1006/rtph.1999.1371}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated7">http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0178fact.pdf</ref> |
Roundup contains the surfactant polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA), which makes it more toxic for aquatic species than some other glyphosate formulations.<ref name=vbruggen>{{Cite journal |doi= 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.309 |pmid= 29117584 |issn= 0048-9697 |volume= 616-617 |pages=255–268 |last1=Van Bruggen |first1= A.H.C. |last2= He |first2= M.M. |last3= Shin |first3= K. |last4= Mai |first4= V. |last5= Jeong |first5= K.C. |last6= Finckh |first6= M. R. |last7= Morris |first7= J.G. |title= Environmental and health effects of the herbicide glyphosate |journal= Science of the Total Environment |accessdate= 2018-08-15 |date= 2018-03-01 |url= http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969717330279}}</ref><ref name=SERA1997>{{Cite |title= Effects of Surfactants on the Toxicity of Glyphosate, with Specific Reference to Rodeo |publisher= Syracuse Environmental Research Associates, Inc. (SERA) |accessdate= 2018-08-20 |url= https://www.fs.fed.us/r5/hfqlg/publications/herbicide_info/2003_glyphosate.pdf}}</ref> Independent scientific reviews and regulatory agencies have regularly concluded that glyphosate-based herbicides do not lead to a significant risk for human or environmental health when the product label is properly followed.<ref name="Rolando"/> A 2000 review concluded that "under present and expected conditions of new use, there is no potential for Roundup herbicide to pose a health risk to humans".<ref name="wkc00">{{cite journal | author = Williams GM, Kroes R, Munro IC | year = 2000 | title = Safety evaluation and risk assessment of the herbicide Roundup and its active ingredient, glyphosate, for humans | url = | journal = Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 31 | issue = 2| pages = 117–165 | pmid = 10854122 | doi=10.1006/rtph.1999.1371}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated7">http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0178fact.pdf</ref> |
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The acute oral toxicity for mammals is low,<ref name=vbruggen/> but death has been reported after deliberate overdose of [[Dose–response relationship|concentrated]] Roundup.<ref name="pmid22835958">{{cite journal |vauthors= Sribanditmongkol P, Jutavijittum P, Pongraveevongsa P, Wunnapuk K, Durongkadech P |title= Pathological and toxicological findings in glyphosate-surfactant herbicide fatality: a case report |journal= The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology |volume= 33 |issue=3 |pages= 234–7 |date= Sep 2012 |doi= 10.1097/PAF.0b013e31824b936c |pmid= 22835958 }}</ref> The surfactants in glyphosate formulations can increase the relative acute toxicity of the formulation.<ref name="Bradberry_2004">{{cite journal |vauthors= Bradberry SM, Proudfoot AT, Vale JA |title= Glyphosate poisoning |journal = Toxicological Reviews |volume= 23 |issue=3 |pages= 159–67 |year= 2004 |pmid= 15862083 |doi= 10.2165/00139709-200423030-00003 |url= http://content.wkhealth.com/linkback/openurl?issn=1176-2551&volume=23&issue=3&spage=159 }}</ref><ref name=SERA2003/> Surfactants generally do not, however, cause [[Drug_interaction#Synergy_and_antagonism|synergistic effects]] (as opposed to additive effects) that increase the acute toxicity of glyphosate within a formulation.<ref name="Bradberry_2004"/> The surfactant POEA is not considered an acute toxicity hazard, and has an oral toxicity similar to [[vitamin A]] and less toxic than [[asprin]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Williams |first1=Gary M. |last2=Kroes |first2= Robert |last3=Munro |first3=Ian C. |title= Safety Evaluation and Risk Assessment of the Herbicide Roundup and Its Active Ingredient, Glyphosate, for Humans |journal=[[Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology]] |date=April 2000 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=117–165 |doi= 10.1006/rtph.1999.1371 }}</ref> Deliberate ingestion of Roundup ranging from 85 to 200 ml (of 41% solution) has resulted in death within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms.<ref name="pmid1673618">{{cite journal |vauthors=Talbot AR, Shiaw MH, Huang JS, Yang SF, Goo TS, Wang SH, Chen CL, Sanford TR |title=Acute poisoning with a glyphosate-surfactant herbicide ('Roundup'): a review of 93 cases |journal=Human & Experimental Toxicology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |date=Jan 1991 |pmid=1673618 |doi= 10.1177/096032719101000101}}</ref> Consumption of over 85 ml of concentrated product is likely to cause serious symptoms in adults, including burns due to corrosive effects as well as kidney and liver damage. More severe cases lead to "respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, [[pulmonary edema]], infiltration on chest X-ray, shock, arrhythmias, renal failure requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis, and hyperkalaemia" and death is often preceded by [[bradycardia]] and [[ventricular arrhythmia]]s.<ref name="Bradberry_2004"/> |
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Skin exposure can cause irritation, and [[Contact dermatitis#Photocontact dermatitis|photocontact dermatitis]] has been occasionally reported. Severe skin burns are very rare.<ref name="Bradberry_2004"/> In a 2017 risk assessment, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) wrote: "There is very limited information on skin irritation in humans. Where skin irritation has been reported, it is unclear whether it is related to glyphosate or co-formulants in glyphosate-containing herbicide formulations." The ECHA concluded that available human data was insufficient to support classification for skin corrosion or irritation.<ref>[https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/2f8b5c7f-030f-5d3a-e87e-0262fb392f38 Committee of Risk Assessment Opinion proposing harmonised classification and labelling at EU level of glyphosate (ISO); N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine]</ref> |
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Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, or tingling and irritation in the throat. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis. Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.<ref name="Bradberry_2004"/> |
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===Aquatic=== |
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Glyphosate formulations with POEA, such as Roundup, are not approved for aquatic use due to aquatic organism toxicity.<ref name="Langeland">{{cite web |title=SS-AGR-104 Safe Use of Glyphosate-Containing Products in Aquatic and Upland Natural Areas |url= https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/AG/AG24800.pdf |publisher= University of Florida |accessdate=13 August 2018}}</ref> Due to the presence of POEA, glyphosate formulations only allowed for terrestrial use are more toxic for amphibians and fish than glyphosate alone.<ref name="Langeland"/><ref name="fs.fed.us">Gary L. Diamond and Patrick R. Durkin February 6, 1997, under contract from the United States Department of Agriculture. [http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/pesticide/pdfs/Surfactants.pdf Effects of Surfactants on the Toxicity of Glyphosate, with Specific Reference to RODEO]</ref><ref name=Mann>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mann RM, Hyne RV, Choung CB, Wilson SP |title= Amphibians and agricultural chemicals: Review of the risks in a complex environment|journal=Environmental Pollution |year=2009 |volume=157 |issue=11 |pages= 2903–2927 |doi= 10.1016/j.envpol.2009.05.015}}</ref> Terrestrial glyphosate formulations that include the surfactants POEA and MON 0818 (75% POEA) may have negative impacts on various aquatic organisms like [[protozoa]], [[mussels]], [[crustaceans]], [[frogs]] and [[fish]].<ref name=vbruggen/> Aquatic organism exposure risk to terrestrial formulations with POEA is limited to drift or temporary water pockets.<ref name="Langeland"/> While laboratory studies can show effects of glyphosate formulations on aquatic organisms, similar observations rarely occur in the field when instructions on the herbicide label are followed.<ref name="Rolando">{{cite journal |last1=Rolando |first1=Carol |last2=Baillie |first2=Brenda |last3=Thompson |first3=Dean |last4=Little |first4=Keith |title=The Risks Associated with Glyphosate-Based Herbicide Use in Planted Forests |journal=Forests |date=12 June 2017 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=208 |doi= 10.3390/f8060208 }}</ref> |
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Studies in a variety of amphibians have shown the toxicity of products containing POEA to amphibian larvae. These effects include interference with gill morphology and mortality from either the loss of osmotic stability or asphyxiation. At sub-lethal concentrations, exposure to POEA or glyphosate/POEA formulations have been associated with delayed development, accelerated development, reduced size at [[metamorphosis]], developmental malformations of the tail, mouth, eye and head, histological indications of intersex and symptoms of oxidative stress.<ref name="Mann" /> Glyphosate-based formulations can cause [[oxidative stress]] in bullfrog tadpoles.<ref name=iarcmono>{{cite web |url= http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol112/mono112-02.pdf |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20150905094833/http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol112/mono112-02.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-05 |title= IARC monograph on glyphosate |publisher=IARC |accessdate= September 27, 2015}}</ref> The use of glyphosate-based pesticides are not considered the major cause of amphibian decline, the bulk of which occurred prior to widespread use of glyphosate or in pristine tropical areas with minimal glyphosate exposure.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |vauthors= Wagner N, Reichenbecher W, Teichmann H, Tappeser B, Lötters S |title= Questions concerning the potential impact of glyphosate-based herbicides on amphibians |journal= Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry / SETAC |volume= 32 |issue=8 |pages= 1688–700 |date= Aug 2013 |pmid= 23637092 |doi= 10.1002/etc.2268 }}</ref> |
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==Carcinogenicity== |
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There is limited evidence that human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate, such as agricultural work, but no good evidence of such a risk from home use, such as in domestic gardening.<ref name=cruk>{{cite web |publisher=Cancer Research UK| title=Food Controversies—Pesticides and organic foods|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/food-controversies#food_controversies4 |date=2016 |access-date=28 November 2017}}</ref> The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity.<ref name="Ibrahim">{{cite journal |last1=Ibrahim |first1=Yehia A |title=A regulatory perspective on the potential carcinogenicity of glyphosate |journal=Journal of Toxicology and Health |date=2015 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1 |doi=10.7243/2056-3779-2-1 }}</ref><ref name=Tarazona>{{cite journal |last1=Tarazona |first1=Jose V. |last2=Court-Marques |first2=Daniele |last3=Tiramani |first3=Manuela |last4=Reich |first4=Hermine |last5=Pfeil |first5=Rudolf |last6=Istace |first6=Frederique |last7=Crivellente |first7=Federica |title=Glyphosate toxicity and carcinogenicity: a review of the scientific basis of the European Union assessment and its differences with IARC |journal=Archives of Toxicology |date=3 April 2017 |volume=91 |issue=8 |pages=2723–2743 |doi=10.1007/s00204-017-1962-5 |pmid=28374158 |pmc=5515989 }}</ref> Organizations such as the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) and the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]], [[European Commission]], Canadian Pest Management Regulatory Agency, and the German [[Federal Institute for Risk Assessment]]<ref>{{Cite web| title = The BfR has finalised its draft report for the re-evaluation of glyphosate - BfR| accessdate = 2018-08-18| url = https://www.bfr.bund.de/en/the_bfr_has_finalised_its_draft_report_for_the_re_evaluation_of_glyphosate-188632.html}}</ref> have concluded that there is no evidence that glyphosate poses a carcinogenic or [[genotoxic]] risk to humans.<ref name="Ibrahim"/> The final assessment of the [[Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority]] in 2017 was that "glyphosate does not pose a carcinogenic risk to humans".<ref name="Ibrahim"/><ref>{{Cite book| publisher = SAGE Publications, Inc.| isbn = 978-1-4129-6987-1| last1 = Guston| first1 = David| last2 = Ludlow| first2 = Karinne| title = Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Society| chapter = Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority| location = 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States| date = 2010| chapterurl = http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/nanoscience/n22.xml}}</ref> The EPA has classified glyphosate as Group E, meaning "evidence of non-carcinogenicity in humans".<ref name="Ibrahim"/><ref>{{Cite web| last = US EPA| first = OCSPP| title = EPA Releases Draft Risk Assessments for Glyphosate| work = US EPA| format = Announcements and Schedules| accessdate = 2018-08-18| date = 2017-12-18| url = https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/epa-releases-draft-risk-assessments-glyphosate}}</ref> Only one international scientific organization, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), affiliated with the WHO, has made claims of carcinogenicity in research reviews. The IARC has been criticized for its assessment methodology by failing to consider the broad literature and only assessing [[hazard]] rather than [[Risk#Health, safety, and environment|risk]].<ref name="Ibrahim"/> |
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==Ecologic effects== |
==Ecologic effects== |
Revision as of 20:01, 17 September 2018
Manufacturing status | |
---|---|
Manufacturer | Monsanto |
Type | Herbicide |
Introduced to market | 1976[1] |
Purposes | |
Agriculture | non-selective post-emergence weed control |
Herbicide properties | |
Surfactant | Polyethoxylated tallow amine(most common) |
Main active ingredient | isopropylamine salt of Glyphosate |
Mode of action | 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase(EPSPS) inhibitor |
Roundup is the brand name of a systemic, broad-spectrum herbicide produced by the U.S. company Monsanto, and contains the active ingredient glyphosate. Glyphosate is the most widely used herbicide in the USA,[2] and Roundup has been the number one selling herbicide worldwide since at least 1980.[3] As of 2009, sales of Roundup herbicides still represent about 10% of Monsanto's revenue despite competition from Chinese producers of other glyphosate-based herbicides;[4] the overall Roundup line of products (which includes GM seeds) represents about half of Monsanto's yearly revenue.[5]
Monsanto developed and patented the glyphosate molecule in the 1970s, and marketed Roundup from 1973. It retained exclusive rights to glyphosate in the US until its US patent expired in September, 2000; in other countries the patent expired earlier. The Roundup trademark is registered with the US Patent Office and still extant. However, glyphosate is no longer under patent, so similar products use it as an active ingredient.[6]
The main active ingredient of Roundup is the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate. Another ingredient of Roundup is the surfactant POEA (polyethoxylated tallow amine).
Monsanto also produces seeds which grow into plants genetically engineered to be tolerant to glyphosate, which are known as Roundup Ready crops. The genes contained in these seeds are patented. Such crops allow farmers to use glyphosate as a post-emergence herbicide against most broadleaf and cereal weeds.
Regulation
Beyond the glyphosate salts content, commercial formulations of Roundup contain surfactants, which vary in nature and concentration. As a result, the effects of this herbicide are not with the main active ingredient alone, but with complex and variable mixtures.[7]
Acute toxicity
Roundup contains the surfactant polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA), which makes it more toxic for aquatic species than some other glyphosate formulations.[8][9] Independent scientific reviews and regulatory agencies have regularly concluded that glyphosate-based herbicides do not lead to a significant risk for human or environmental health when the product label is properly followed.[10] A 2000 review concluded that "under present and expected conditions of new use, there is no potential for Roundup herbicide to pose a health risk to humans".[11][12]
Human
The acute oral toxicity for mammals is low,[8] but death has been reported after deliberate overdose of concentrated Roundup.[13] The surfactants in glyphosate formulations can increase the relative acute toxicity of the formulation.[14][15] Surfactants generally do not, however, cause synergistic effects (as opposed to additive effects) that increase the acute toxicity of glyphosate within a formulation.[14] The surfactant POEA is not considered an acute toxicity hazard, and has an oral toxicity similar to vitamin A and less toxic than asprin.[16] Deliberate ingestion of Roundup ranging from 85 to 200 ml (of 41% solution) has resulted in death within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms.[17] Consumption of over 85 ml of concentrated product is likely to cause serious symptoms in adults, including burns due to corrosive effects as well as kidney and liver damage. More severe cases lead to "respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, pulmonary edema, infiltration on chest X-ray, shock, arrhythmias, renal failure requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis, and hyperkalaemia" and death is often preceded by bradycardia and ventricular arrhythmias.[14]
Skin exposure can cause irritation, and photocontact dermatitis has been occasionally reported. Severe skin burns are very rare.[14] In a 2017 risk assessment, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) wrote: "There is very limited information on skin irritation in humans. Where skin irritation has been reported, it is unclear whether it is related to glyphosate or co-formulants in glyphosate-containing herbicide formulations." The ECHA concluded that available human data was insufficient to support classification for skin corrosion or irritation.[18]
Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, or tingling and irritation in the throat. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis. Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.[14]
Aquatic
Glyphosate formulations with POEA, such as Roundup, are not approved for aquatic use due to aquatic organism toxicity.[19] Due to the presence of POEA, glyphosate formulations only allowed for terrestrial use are more toxic for amphibians and fish than glyphosate alone.[19][20][21] Terrestrial glyphosate formulations that include the surfactants POEA and MON 0818 (75% POEA) may have negative impacts on various aquatic organisms like protozoa, mussels, crustaceans, frogs and fish.[8] Aquatic organism exposure risk to terrestrial formulations with POEA is limited to drift or temporary water pockets.[19] While laboratory studies can show effects of glyphosate formulations on aquatic organisms, similar observations rarely occur in the field when instructions on the herbicide label are followed.[10]
Studies in a variety of amphibians have shown the toxicity of products containing POEA to amphibian larvae. These effects include interference with gill morphology and mortality from either the loss of osmotic stability or asphyxiation. At sub-lethal concentrations, exposure to POEA or glyphosate/POEA formulations have been associated with delayed development, accelerated development, reduced size at metamorphosis, developmental malformations of the tail, mouth, eye and head, histological indications of intersex and symptoms of oxidative stress.[21] Glyphosate-based formulations can cause oxidative stress in bullfrog tadpoles.[22] The use of glyphosate-based pesticides are not considered the major cause of amphibian decline, the bulk of which occurred prior to widespread use of glyphosate or in pristine tropical areas with minimal glyphosate exposure.[23]
Carcinogenicity
There is limited evidence that human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate, such as agricultural work, but no good evidence of such a risk from home use, such as in domestic gardening.[24] The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity.[25][26] Organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization, European Commission, Canadian Pest Management Regulatory Agency, and the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment[27] have concluded that there is no evidence that glyphosate poses a carcinogenic or genotoxic risk to humans.[25] The final assessment of the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority in 2017 was that "glyphosate does not pose a carcinogenic risk to humans".[25][28] The EPA has classified glyphosate as Group E, meaning "evidence of non-carcinogenicity in humans".[25][29] Only one international scientific organization, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), affiliated with the WHO, has made claims of carcinogenicity in research reviews. The IARC has been criticized for its assessment methodology by failing to consider the broad literature and only assessing hazard rather than risk.[25]
Ecologic effects
A 2000 review of the toxicological data on Roundup concluded that "for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed nontarget organisms". It also concluded that there were some risks to aquatic organisms exposed to Roundup in shallow water.[30]
False advertising and falsification of test results
False advertising
In 1996, Monsanto was accused of false and misleading advertising of glyphosate products, prompting a law suit by the New York State attorney general.[31] Monsanto had made claims that its spray-on glyphosate based herbicides, including Roundup, were safer than table salt and "practically non-toxic" to mammals, birds, and fish.[32]
Environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case in France in 2001 accusing Monsanto of presenting Roundup as biodegradable and claiming that it left the soil clean after use; glyphosate, Roundup's main ingredient, is classed by the European Union as "dangerous for the environment" and "toxic for aquatic organisms". In January 2007, Monsanto was convicted of false advertising.[33] The result was confirmed in 2009.[34]
Falsification of test results
On two occasions, the United States Environmental Protection Agency detected falsification of test results at laboratories hired by Monsanto to study glyphosate.[35][36][37] In the first incident involving Industrial Biotest Laboratories, an EPA reviewer stated that after finding "routine falsification of data" that it was "hard to believe the scientific integrity of the studies when they said they took specimens of the uterus from male rabbits".[38][39][40] In the second incident in 1991, the owner of Craven Laboratories and three employees were indicted on 20 felony counts, the owner was sentenced to 5 years in prison and fined $50,000, the lab was fined $15.5 million d ollars and ordered to pay $3.7 million in restitution.[41][42][43] Monsanto has stated that the studies have since been repeated, and that Roundup's EPA certification does not now use any studies from Craven Labs or IBT. Monsanto also said that the Craven Labs investigation was started by the EPA after a pesticide industry task force discovered irregularities.[44]
Genetically modified crops
Roundup Ready is the Monsanto trademark for its patented line of crop seed that are resistant to its glyphosate-based herbicide, Roundup.
See also
- Glyphosate-based herbicides
- Pesticides in the United States
- Pesticide regulation in the United States
- Environmental impact of pesticides
- Health effects of pesticides
- Integrated pest management
- 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
References
- ^ "Monsanto ~ Who We Are ~ Company History". Monsanto.com. 2008-11-03. Archived from the original on April 23, 2008. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ US EPA 2000–2001 Pesticide Market Estimates Agriculture, Home and Garden
- ^ Documentary The World According to Monsanto
- ^ "The debate over whether Monsanto is a corporate sinner or saint". The Economist. 19 November 2009. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
- ^ Cavallaro, Matt (2009-06-26). "The Seeds Of A Monsanto Short Play". Forbes. Retrieved 2009-07-11.
- ^ "California Product/Label Database". Cdpr.ca.gov. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ Review article at of glyphosate poisoning at Pubmed by Bradberry SM, Proudfoot AT, Vale JA. of the National Poisons Information Service (Birmingham Centre) and West Midlands Poisons Unit, City Hospital, Birmingham, UK. National Institutes of Health
- ^ a b c Van Bruggen, A.H.C.; He, M.M.; Shin, K.; Mai, V.; Jeong, K.C.; Finckh, M. R.; Morris, J.G. (2018-03-01). "Environmental and health effects of the herbicide glyphosate". Science of the Total Environment. 616–617: 255–268. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.309. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 29117584. Retrieved 2018-08-15.
- ^ Effects of Surfactants on the Toxicity of Glyphosate, with Specific Reference to Rodeo (PDF), Syracuse Environmental Research Associates, Inc. (SERA), retrieved 2018-08-20
- ^ a b Rolando, Carol; Baillie, Brenda; Thompson, Dean; Little, Keith (12 June 2017). "The Risks Associated with Glyphosate-Based Herbicide Use in Planted Forests". Forests. 8 (6): 208. doi:10.3390/f8060208.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Williams GM, Kroes R, Munro IC (2000). "Safety evaluation and risk assessment of the herbicide Roundup and its active ingredient, glyphosate, for humans". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 31 (2): 117–165. doi:10.1006/rtph.1999.1371. PMID 10854122.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0178fact.pdf
- ^ Sribanditmongkol P, Jutavijittum P, Pongraveevongsa P, Wunnapuk K, Durongkadech P (Sep 2012). "Pathological and toxicological findings in glyphosate-surfactant herbicide fatality: a case report". The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 33 (3): 234–7. doi:10.1097/PAF.0b013e31824b936c. PMID 22835958.
- ^ a b c d e Bradberry SM, Proudfoot AT, Vale JA (2004). "Glyphosate poisoning". Toxicological Reviews. 23 (3): 159–67. doi:10.2165/00139709-200423030-00003. PMID 15862083.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
SERA2003
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Williams, Gary M.; Kroes, Robert; Munro, Ian C. (April 2000). "Safety Evaluation and Risk Assessment of the Herbicide Roundup and Its Active Ingredient, Glyphosate, for Humans". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 31 (2): 117–165. doi:10.1006/rtph.1999.1371.
- ^ Talbot AR, Shiaw MH, Huang JS, Yang SF, Goo TS, Wang SH, Chen CL, Sanford TR (Jan 1991). "Acute poisoning with a glyphosate-surfactant herbicide ('Roundup'): a review of 93 cases". Human & Experimental Toxicology. 10 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1177/096032719101000101. PMID 1673618.
- ^ Committee of Risk Assessment Opinion proposing harmonised classification and labelling at EU level of glyphosate (ISO); N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine
- ^ a b c "SS-AGR-104 Safe Use of Glyphosate-Containing Products in Aquatic and Upland Natural Areas" (PDF). University of Florida. Retrieved 13 August 2018.
- ^ Gary L. Diamond and Patrick R. Durkin February 6, 1997, under contract from the United States Department of Agriculture. Effects of Surfactants on the Toxicity of Glyphosate, with Specific Reference to RODEO
- ^ a b Mann RM, Hyne RV, Choung CB, Wilson SP (2009). "Amphibians and agricultural chemicals: Review of the risks in a complex environment". Environmental Pollution. 157 (11): 2903–2927. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2009.05.015.
- ^ "IARC monograph on glyphosate" (PDF). IARC. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-05. Retrieved September 27, 2015.
- ^ Wagner N, Reichenbecher W, Teichmann H, Tappeser B, Lötters S (Aug 2013). "Questions concerning the potential impact of glyphosate-based herbicides on amphibians". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry / SETAC. 32 (8): 1688–700. doi:10.1002/etc.2268. PMID 23637092.
- ^ "Food Controversies—Pesticides and organic foods". Cancer Research UK. 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
- ^ a b c d e Ibrahim, Yehia A (2015). "A regulatory perspective on the potential carcinogenicity of glyphosate". Journal of Toxicology and Health. 2 (1): 1. doi:10.7243/2056-3779-2-1.
- ^ Tarazona, Jose V.; Court-Marques, Daniele; Tiramani, Manuela; Reich, Hermine; Pfeil, Rudolf; Istace, Frederique; Crivellente, Federica (3 April 2017). "Glyphosate toxicity and carcinogenicity: a review of the scientific basis of the European Union assessment and its differences with IARC". Archives of Toxicology. 91 (8): 2723–2743. doi:10.1007/s00204-017-1962-5. PMC 5515989. PMID 28374158.
- ^ "The BfR has finalised its draft report for the re-evaluation of glyphosate - BfR". Retrieved 2018-08-18.
- ^ Guston, David; Ludlow, Karinne (2010). "Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority". Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Society. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4129-6987-1.
{{cite book}}
: External link in
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ US EPA, OCSPP (2017-12-18). "EPA Releases Draft Risk Assessments for Glyphosate" (Announcements and Schedules). US EPA. Retrieved 2018-08-18.
- ^ JP Giesy, KR Solomon, S Dobson (2000). "Ecotoxicological Risk Assessment for Roundup Herbicide". Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 167: 35-120
- ^ mindfully.org. "Attorney General of the State of New York. Consumer Frauds and Protection Bureau. Environmental Protection Bureau. 1996. In the matter of Monsanto Company, respondent. Assurance of discontinuance pursuant to executive law § 63(15). New York, NY, Nov". Mindfully.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ "Monsanto pulls Roundup advertising in New York", Wichita Eagle, Nov. 27, 1996.
- ^ "Monsanto Fined in France for 'False' Herbicide Ads - Organic Consumers Association". Organicconsumers.org. 2007-01-26. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ "Monsanto guilty in 'false ad' row". BBC. 2009-10-15. Retrieved 2009-10-16.
- ^ (US EPA Communications and Public Affairs 1991 Note to correspondents Washington DC Mar 1)
- ^ (US EPA Communications and Public Affairs 1991 Press Advisory. EPA lists crops associated with pesticides for which residue and environmental fate studies were allegedly manipulated. Washington DC Mar 29)
- ^ (U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. Com. on Gov. Oper. 1984. Problems palgue the EPA pesticide registration activities. House Report 98-1147)
- ^ (U.S. EPA 1978 Data validation. Memo from K LOcke, Toxicology Branch, to R Taylor, Registration Branch. Washington DC Aug 9)
- ^ (U.S. EPA Office of pesticides and Toxic Substances 1983, Summary of the IBT review program. Washington D.C. July)
- ^ Schneider, K. 1983. Faking it: The case against Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories. The Amicus Journal (Spring):14-26. Reproduced at Planetwaves
- ^ mindfully.org. "Glyphosate Factsheet (part 1 of 2) Caroline Cox / Journal of Pesticide Reform v.108, n.3 Fall98 rev.Oct00". Mindfully.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ (US Dept. of Justice. United States Attorney. Western District of Texas 1992. Texas laboratory, its president, 3 employees indicted on 20 felony counts in connection with pesticide testing. Austin TX Sept 29)
- ^ (US EPA Communications, Education, And Public Affairs 1994 Press Advisory. Craven Laboratories, owner, and 14 employees sentenced for falsifying pesticide tests. Washington DC Mar 4)
- ^ Backgrounder: Testing Fraud: IBT and Craven Labs, June 2005, Monsanto background paper on RoundUp [1]
Further reading
- Baccara, Mariagiovanna, et al. Monsanto's Roundup, NYU Stern School of Business: August 2001, Revised July 14, 2003.
- Pease W S et al. (1993) Preventing pesticide-related illness in California agriculture: Strategies and priorities. Environmental Health Policy Program Report. Berkeley, CA: University of California. School of Public Health. California Policy Seminar.
- Wang Y, Jaw C and Chen Y (1994) Accumulation of 2,4-D and glyphosate in fish and water hyaacinth. Water Air Soil Pollute. 74:397-403