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tim white is a G, trent gumley takes it from behind |
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[[Image:Pompejanischer Maler um 70 001.jpg|thumb|220px|Still life with fruit basket and vases ([[Pompeii]], ca. A.D. 70)]] |
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'''Roman cuisine''' changed over the long duration (over a thousand years) of their [[Ancient Rome|ancient civilization]]. These habits were affected by the influence of [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] culture, the political changes from kingdom to republic to empire, and the enormous expansion of the empire which brought many new culinary habits and cooking techniques from the provinces. In the beginning the differences between social classes were not very great, but the disparity grew as the empire grew. |
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==Meals== |
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Traditionally in the morning a [[breakfast]] was served, the ''ientaculum'' or ''iantaculum'', at noon the main meal of the day, the ''cena'', and in the evening the ''vesperna''. Due to the influence of Greek habits and also the increased import of and consumption of foreign foods, the ''cena'' increased in size and diversity and was consumed in the afternoon, the ''vesperna'' was abandoned, and a second breakfast was introduced around noon, the ''prandium''. |
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In the lower strata of society the old routine was preserved, because it corresponded more closely with the daily rhythm of manual labor. |
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===Ientaculum=== |
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Originally flat, round loaves made of [[emmer]] (a [[cereal]] grain closely related to wheat) with a bit of [[salt]] were eaten; in the higher classes also [[egg (food)|eggs]], [[cheese]] and [[honey]], along with [[milk]] and [[fruit]]. In the imperial period, around the beginning of the [[Common Era]], bread made of [[wheat]] was introduced and with time more and more baked products began to replace this emmer bread. |
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===Prandium=== |
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This second breakfast was richer and mostly consisted of the leftovers of the previous day's ''cena''. |
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===Cena=== |
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Among members of the upper classes, who did not engage in manual labor, it became customary to schedule all business obligations in the morning. After the ''prandium'' the last responsibilities would be discharged and then a visit would be made to the [[thermae|baths]]. Around 3 o'clock, the ''cena'' would begin. This meal could last until late in the night, especially if guests were invited, and would often be followed by a ''comissatio'' (a round of [[Alcoholic beverage#Distilled beverages|drinks]]). |
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Especially in the period of the kings and the early [[Roman Republic|republic]], but also in later periods (for the working classes), the ''cena'' essentially consisted of a kind of [[porridge]], the ''puls''. The simplest kind would be made from [[emmer]], water, [[salt]] and fat. The more sophisticated kind was made with [[olive oil]], with an accompaniment of assorted [[vegetable]]s whenever possible. The richer classes ate their ''puls'' with eggs, cheese and honey, and (only occasionally) [[meat]] or [[fish]]. |
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Over the course of the Republican period, the ''cena'' developed into two courses, a main course and a dessert with fruit and seafood (e.g. [[mollusc]]s, [[shrimp]]). By the end of the Republic, it was usual for the meal to be served in three parts: first course(gustatio), main course(cena), and dessert(secundae mensae). |
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==Table culture== |
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From [[300 BC]], Greek customs started to influence the culture of higher class Romans. Growing wealth led to ever larger and more sophisticated meals. Nutritional value was not regarded as important: on the contrary, the [[gourmet]]s preferred food with low [[food energy]] and nutrients. Easily digestible foods and [[diuretic]] stimulants were highly regarded. |
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At the table loose and easy clothing was worn (the ''vestis cenatoria''), and the dinner was consumed in a special dining room, which later was to be called ''triclinium''. Here one would lie down on a specially designed couch, the ''lectus triclinaris''. Around the round table, the ''mensa'', three of these ''lecti'' were arranged in the shape of a horseshoe, so that [[slavery|slave]]s could easily serve, and a maximum of three diners would recline at each ''lectus''. In imperial times, the only people allowed a place on a ''lectus'' were men. More tables for the beverages stood beside the couches. All heads were oriented towards the central table, with left elbows propped on a cushion and feet at the outside of the dinner-couch. In this fashion at most nine people could dine together at one table. Further guests had to sit on chairs. Slaves normally had to stand. |
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Feet and hands were washed before the ''cena''. The food would be taken with the fingertips and two kinds of spoons, the larger ''ligula'' and the smaller ''cochlear'' with a needle thin grip, which was used as prong when eating [[snail]]s and [[mollusc]]s, in practice substituting for the modern [[fork]]. At the table, larger pieces would be cut up to be served on smaller plates. After each course the fingers were washed again and napkins (''mappae'') were customary to wipe one's mouth. Guests could also bring their own ''mappae'' to take home the leftovers from the meal or small gifts (the ''apophoreta''). |
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A custom alien to many other cultures is that the [[culture of Ancient Rome|Romans]] threw everything that could not be eaten (e.g. bones and shells) onto the floor, from where it was swept away by a slave. |
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In summer, it was popular to eat outside. Many houses in [[Pompeii]] had stone couches at a particularly beautiful spot in the garden for just that purpose. People lay down to eat only on formal occasions. If the meal was routine, they ate while seated or even standing. |
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==Entertainment== |
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During a dinner for guests, musicians, acrobats or poets would perform and dinner conversation played an important role. Dances were not usual, as it was considered improper and would not mix well with table manners, although during the ''comissatio'' this habit was often disregarded. To leave the table for bodily functions was considered inappropriate and restraining oneself was considered good manners. After the main course, during a pause, an offering was made to the [[Lares]], the spirits of the house. This offering normally consisted of meat, cake and wine. The cake was usually coloured with [[saffron]]. |
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==Typical dishes== |
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===The starter=== |
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This part of the meal was called ''gustatio'' or ''promulsis''. It generally consisted of light, appetising dishes. The usual drink was ''mulsum'', a mixture of [[wine]] and [[honey]]. Eggs - mostly hens' eggs, but also [[duck]], [[goose]] and, on rare occasions, even [[peacock]]s' eggs - played an important part. Other essential constituents of the starter were [[salad]]s and [[vegetable]]s. |
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At large feasts several starter dishes were served one after another. |
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The usual salad and vegetable plants were: |
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* pulses such as [[Vicia faba|fava bean]]s, [[chick pea]]s, [[pea]]s and [[lupin]]s, although these were only appreciated by peasants, smiths, legionnaires and [[gladiator]]s; only [[lentil]]s imported from [[Egypt]] were liked by the upper class. |
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* several kinds of [[cabbage]] were usually enjoyed with [[vinegar]], [[kale]] was cooked in [[saltpetre]], and both the green and the white parts of [[chard]] were used. |
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* the leaves of many shrubs and weeds were cooked to a mush and strongly spiced; examples are [[elder]], [[mallow]], [[orache]], [[fenugreek]], [[nettle]]s and [[sorrel]]. |
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* pickled fruit and vegetables such as [[olive]]s, chicory, cardoons, mallows, broccoli, asparagus, artichokes,[[Leek (vegetable)|leeks]], carrots, turnips, parsnips, beets, peas, green beans, radishes, cauliflower, lettuces and field greens, [[onion]]s, squash, [[cucumber]]s, fennel,[[melon]]s, [[caper]]s and [[cress]] were called ''acetaria'' and were thought to be appetising. Spinach was not known until the 9th century. |
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Other starters were: |
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* [[Mushroom]]s, such as [[boletus]], [[field mushroom]] and [[truffle]]s. |
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* Stewed and salted [[snail]]s, raw or cooked [[clam]]s, [[sea urchin]]s and small fish |
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* After the Republican period, light meat dishes were also served as starters. One example is [[dormouse|dormice]], which were bred in special enclosures called ''gliaria'' before being fattened-up in clay pots. Small birds like [[Thrush (bird)|thrushes]] were also served. |
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===Main dish=== |
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Often, an intermediate dish was served before the real ''caput cenae''. The decoration of this dish could be more important than the actual ingredients. |
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The main dish usually consisted of meat. Common dishes were: |
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*[[Beef]], though not very popular as [[cattle]] were working animals, used for such tasks as ploughing or pulling carts, so that their meat was usually very tough and had to be cooked for a long time to make it edible. Even calf meat was not popular; only a few recipes for it are known. |
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*[[Pork]] was the most usual and best liked meat. All parts of the [[pig]] were eaten, and more unusual parts like the breasts and uterus of young sows were considered delicacies. |
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*Wild boar were also bred and fattened before slaughtering. |
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*Geese were bred and sometimes fattened. The technique of force-feeding was already known, and the [[Foie gras|liver of force-fed geese]] was a special delicacy, as it is today. |
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*Chicken was more expensive than duck. Other birds like peacocks and [[swan]]s were eaten on special occasions. [[Capon]]s and poulards (spayed hens) were considered special delicacies. In [[161 BC]], the Consul C. Fannius prohibited the consumption of poulards, though the ban was ignored. |
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*[[Sausage]]s, ''farcimen'', were made of beef and pork according to an astonishing diversity of recipes and types. Particularly widespread was the ''botulus'', a [[blood sausage]] which was sold on the streets. The most popular type of sausage was the ''lucanica'', a short, fat, rustic pork sausage, the recipe for which is still used today in Italy and other parts of the world. Also the [[Portuguese cuisine|Portuguese]] and [[Brazil]]ian ''linguiça'' is one of the heirs of this Roman sausage. |
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*For special effects, whole pigs were stuffed with sausages and fruit, roasted and then served on their feet. When cut the sausages would spill from the animal like entrails. Such a pig was called a ''porcus Troianus'' ("[[Troy|Trojan]] pig"), a humorous reference to the [[Trojan Horse]]. |
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*[[Hare]]s and [[rabbit]]s were bred, the former with little success, making them as much as four times more expensive than rabbits. Hares therefore were regarded as a luxury; shoulder of hare was especially favoured. |
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[[Fish]] was served only in later periods, and it remained more expensive than simpler meat types. Breeding was attempted in freshwater and saltwater ponds, but some kinds of fish could not be fattened in captivity. Among these was the most popular, ''mullus'', the [[goatfish]]. At a certain time this fish was considered the epitome of luxury, above all because its scales exhibit a bright red colour when it dies out of water. For this reason these fish were occasionally allowed to die slowly at the table. There even was a recipe where this would take place ''in garum'', in the [[sauce]]. At the beginning of the imperial era, however, this custom suddenly came to an end, which is why ''mullus'' in the feast of [[Trimalchio]] (see ''the [[Satyricon]]'') could be shown as a characteristic of the ''parvenu'', who bores his guests with an unfashionable display of dying fish. |
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There were no side dishes or accompaniments in today's sense, although [[bread]] was consumed by all classes following the introduction of wheat. Thereafter only the poorest, with no access to an oven, had to continue eating ''puls''. Bread, which existed in a large number of different varieties, quickly became exceptionally popular and public bakeries were established in Rome from 270 A.D. |
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''Garum'', also known as ''liquamen'', was the universal sauce added to everything. It was prepared by subjecting salted fish, in particular [[mackerel]] intestines, to a very slow thermal process. Over the course of two to three months, in an enzymatic process stimulated by heating, usually by exposure to the sun, the protein-laden fish parts decomposed almost entirely. The resulting mass was then filtered and the liquid traded as garum, the remaining solids as ''alec'' - a kind of savoury spread. Because of the smell it produced, the production of garum within the city was banned. Garum, supplied in small sealed [[amphora|amphorae]], was used throughout the Empire and totally replaced [[salt]] as a condiment. Today similar sauces are produced in [[Thailand]] and [[Vietnam]], usually sold abroad under the description "fish sauce". |
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[[Spice]]s, especially [[black pepper|pepper]], but hundreds of other kinds too, were imported on a large scale and used copiously. One very popular spice was [[silphium]]; however, as it could not be cultivated it finally became extinct through overcropping of the wild plant. The inherent flavours of vegetables and meat were completely masked by the heavy use of garum and other seasonings. It was considered an indication of the highest achievement in culinary art if a gourmet could tell neither by sight, nor smell, nor taste what the ingredients of a dish were. |
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===Dessert=== |
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Among fruits, [[grapes]] were the most preferred. The Romans distinguished between grapes for wine-making and grapes as food. Raisins were also produced. After grapes, [[fig]]s and [[Date (fruit)|date]]s played a major part and [[pomegranate]]s were eaten in many varieties. [[Quince]]s, various types of [[apple]]s, [[apricot]]s, peaches, cherries, pears, plums, currants, blackberries, melons, and azaroles were grown. The Romans ate walnuts, hazelnuts, almonds, chestnuts and pine nuts. Roman bakers were famous for the many varities of breads, rolls, fruit tarts, sweet buns and cakes. Unfortunately we have almost none of the recipes. |
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Cold clams and [[oyster]]s (which were bred on a large scale), which were originally dessert dishes, later became starters. |
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Cakes, made of wheat and usually soaked in honey, played a big part. Certain kinds of [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s were also available, and they were thrown at festivals much as sweets are today. |
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==Alcoholic drinks== |
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Besides water, which had been readily available in good quality throughout [[Rome]] since about [[300 BC]], and which could also be served warm or cooled with snow, there was [[wine]] of many types and origins. Wine was normally mixed with water before drinking. Wine was sometimes adjusted and "improved" by its makers: instructions survive for making white wine from red and vice versa, as well as for rescuing wine that is turning to vinegar. Wine was also variously flavoured. For example, there was ''[[passum]]'', a strong and sweet raisin wine, for which the earliest known recipe is of [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] origin; ''[[mulsum]]'', a freshly made mixture of wine and honey; and ''[[conditum]]'', a mixture of wine, honey and spices made in advance and matured. One specific recipe, ''conditum paradoxum'', is for a mixture of wine, honey, [[black pepper|pepper]], [[Bay laurel|laurel]], [[date (fruit)|dates]], [[mastic]], and [[saffron]]), cooked and stored for later use. |
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In a ''comissatio'' an ''arbiter bibendi'' or "master of the drinking" was chosen by a game of dice: he would establish the proportion of wine to water as well as how much everyone could drink. He could also demand [[poem]]s or other recitations or speeches from the participants. |
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The guests wore wreaths whose various aromas were intended to contribute to the health of diners and to the atmosphere of the banquet. These wreaths were made of many different flowers and perfumes. The type of wreath you wore represented the position you held within the upper-class. |
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==Vomitorium== |
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A popular misconception is that the Romans made use of a room called a ''vomitorium'' for the express purpose of [[vomiting]] between meals to make room for more food. Only a very small minority of the highest classes indulged in the practice of deliberately vomiting. A vomitorium is actually an entirely unrelated architectural feature – a passage situated below or behind a tier of seats in an [[amphitheatre]], through which the crowds could "spew out" at the end of a show. [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/021101.html] |
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Vomitoriums are still found in some theatres. The [[Oregon Shakespeare Festival]], for instance, has vomitoriums in two of its theatres, the outdoor Elizabethan Stage and the Angus Bowmer Theatre. The voms, as they are called, allow actors to mount the stage from passageways cut into the amphitheatre. |
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==Sources for recipes and menus== |
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* ''[[Apicius]]'', the Roman cookery book |
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* [[Marcus Porcius Cato Senior|Cato]]: ''[[De Agri Cultura]]'' ("On Farming") with recipes for farm products |
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* [[Petronius]]: "Cena Trimalchionis" (The feast of Trimalchio), a section of the ''[[Satyricon]]'': satirical sketch of a feast at the home of a rich former slave in the early imperial period |
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==External links== |
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*[http://www.resourcesforhistory.com/Roman_Food_in_Britain.htm resourcesforhistory.com: ''Food in Roman Britain] |
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* [http://www.livescience.com/history/ap_050525_pompeii.html In Pompeii, Eat Like it is A.D. 79] |
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*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/pompeii_art_gallery_04.shtml Picture of a Pompeii bakery] |
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[[Category:Ancient Roman food and drink| ]] |
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[[Category:Articles with invalid ISBNs]] |
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{{Link FA|de}} |
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{{Link FA|mk}} |
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[[de:Esskultur im Römischen Reich]] |
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[[mk:Јадење и пиење во Стариот Рим]] |
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[[fi:Rooman valtakunnan ruokakulttuuri]] |
Revision as of 17:18, 27 October 2006
tim white is a G, trent gumley takes it from behind