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{{Infobox_Monarch | name =Reza Shah Pahlavi |
{{Infobox_Monarch | name =Reza Shah Pahlavi |
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'''Reza Shah |
'''Reza Shah''', also '''Reza Pahlavi''' ({{lang-fa|رضا پهلوی}} ''Rez̤ā Pahlavī'') ([[March 16]], [[1878]] – [[July 26]], [[1944]]), styled '''His Imperial Majesty''', was [[Shah]] of [[Iran]] from [[December 15]], [[1925]] until [[September 16]], [[1941]] when he was [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran|forced to abdicate]] by British and Soviet forces. In 1935 he requested that the international community refer to the country by its local name, ''Iran'', instead of the international name, ''Persia''. |
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He was the first monarch of the [[Pahlavi dynasty]], and is credited with modernizing the nation.<ref name="post1925">[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ir0090) The Beginnings of Modernization: The Post-1925 Period] at the [[Library of Congress]]</ref> |
He was the first monarch of the [[Pahlavi dynasty]], and is credited with modernizing the nation.<ref name="post1925">[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ir0090) The Beginnings of Modernization: The Post-1925 Period] at the [[Library of Congress]]</ref> |
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==Name== |
==Name== |
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In the early stages of his life, Reza Shah was known as '''Reza Savad-Koohi''', because of his birth place (see below). Later on, when he joined the military, he became known as '''Reza Khan''', and later as '''Reza Khan Mirpanj''', his full military title at the time. Upon becoming minister of war, he was known as '''Reza Khan Sardar Sepah''', which in Persian roughly means ''Reza Khan, head of the armed forces''. Upon being elected the Shah of Persia, he chose the surname '''Pahlavi''' (surnames did not exist in Persia before this date, and were introduced as one of the modernization measures during his reign). From then on, he was referred to as '''Reza Shah Pahlavi''', and later on, |
In the early stages of his life, Reza Shah was known as '''Reza Savad-Koohi''', because of his birth place (see below). Later on, when he joined the military, he became known as '''Reza Khan''', and later as '''Reza Khan Mirpanj''', his full military title at the time. Upon becoming minister of war, he was known as '''Reza Khan Sardar Sepah''', which in Persian roughly means ''Reza Khan, head of the armed forces''. Upon being elected the Shah of Persia, he chose the surname '''Pahlavi''' (surnames did not exist in Persia before this date, and were introduced as one of the modernization measures during his reign). From then on, he was referred to as '''Reza Shah Pahlavi''', and later on, as a dictator he demanded the Parliament, which its members were hand-picked by himself to call him'''Reza Shah the Great'''. |
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==Early life== |
==Early life== |
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On [[February 21]], [[1921]], Reza Khan Mirpanj (Persian: رضا خان میرپنج) staged a [[coup d'état]] together with [[Seyyed Zia'eddin Tabatabaee]]. |
On [[February 21]], [[1921]], Reza Khan Mirpanj (Persian: رضا خان میرپنج) staged a [[coup d'état]] together with [[Seyyed Zia'eddin Tabatabaee]]. |
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⚫ | With the involvement of the British Empire and through the office of [[Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron Ironside|General Edmund Ironside]] Reza came to power in the 1920s. The popular view that the British were involved in the 1921 coup was noted as early as March 1921 by the American embassy and relayed to the Iran desk at the Foreign Office <ref>Zirinsky M.P. ''Imperial Power and dictatorship: Britain and the rise of Reza Shah 1921-1926''. [[International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies]]. 24, 1992. p.646</ref> A British Embassy report from 1932 concedes that the British put Reza Shah "on the throne". For sources on this matter see <ref>Sources: |
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⚫ | Commanding a [[USSR|Russian]]-trained Cossack Brigade, |
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* For fine discussions of this period and Ironsides's key role, see R.H. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations 1917-1921, 3 (Princeton, 1972) and D. Wright, The English amongst the Persians (London, 1977), pp. 180-84. Ironside's diary is the main document</ref> |
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⚫ | Commanding a [[USSR|Russian]]-trained Cossack Brigade, Reza Khan marched his troops from [[Qazvin (city)|Qazvin]], 150 kilometres to the west of [[Tehran]], and seized key parts of the capital city almost without opposition and forced the government to resign.<ref name="pahlera">''[http://www.sedona.net/pahlavi/pahlera.html The Pahlavi Era of Iran]'' para. 2, 3</ref> |
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With the success of the coup, Tabatabaee became the [[Prime Minister of Iran]]. Reza's first role in the new government was as commander of the army, which, in April 1921, he combined with the post of [[Defence minister|Minister of War]]. At the same time, he took the title '''Reza Khan Sardar Sepah''' (رضا خان سردار سپه). |
With the success of the coup, Tabatabaee became the [[Prime Minister of Iran]]. Reza's first role in the new government was as commander of the army, which, in April 1921, he combined with the post of [[Defence minister|Minister of War]]. At the same time, he took the title '''Reza Khan Sardar Sepah''' (رضا خان سردار سپه). |
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In 1921 there were many popular revolts against the coup. In May 1921, a nationalist government was established in Gilan by Mirza Kuchek Khan, a patriot from [[Rasht]], as the prime minister. [[Kurds]] of [[Khorsan]] also revolted in the same year. Anti-foreign and anti-government sentiment was ripe among the tribes and peasants to encourage the creation of an alternative government, based on a program of radical reforms for social progress. Reza used its superior army to brutally crack down these movements. |
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<ref> On these postwar movements see especially Cottam, Richard W Nationalism in Iran: Updated through 1978, 2nd ed. Pittsburg. University of Pittsburg Press. 1979</ref> |
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===Election to the Persian throne=== |
===Election to the Persian throne=== |
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[[Image:Reza shah flag.GIF|thumb|right|150px|Personal flag of Reza Shah from 1925 to 1964.]] |
[[Image:Reza shah flag.GIF|thumb|right|150px|Personal flag of Reza Shah from 1925 to 1964.]] |
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On [[October 26]], [[1923]], [[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] formally named him Prime Minister, and left to live in [[exile]] in [[Europe]]. The [[National Assembly]] of Iran, known as the [[Majlis of Iran|Majlis]], officially deposed the [[Qajar dynasty]] in 1925, four years after the coup had taken place. On [[December 12]], [[1925]], the Majlis, convening as a [[Constituent Assembly|constituent assembly]], voted to crown Reza Pahlavi as the new [[Iranian monarchy|Shah of Persia]].<ref name="pahlera">''[http://www.sedona.net/pahlavi/pahlera.html The Pahlavi Era of Iran]'' para. 2, 3</ref> |
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On [[October 26]], [[1923]], Reza had seized the real control of Iran and forced the young [[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] to exile in Europe. As the prime Minister Reza wanted to secure his power in opposition to any potential restoration of Qajar house. He now machinated for a republic and his military junta started a massive propaganda campaign for establishment of a republic. However, the idea of a republic was fiercely opposed by the powerful clergymen, and the feudal landlords. The nationalist leaders of the [[National Assembly]] of Iran, known as the [[Majlis of Iran|Majlis]], particularly [[Hassan Modarres]] and the young Dr. [[Mohammed Mossadegh]] forcefully opposed Reza’s plan to consolidate his autocracy. His supremacy was imposed by 1925 with the subjugation of all tribal insurrections and nationalists’ unrest. He maneuvered against Qajar dynasty and in October forced the parliament to depose the young King. He assured the landlords and the conservative clergy that he will defend Islamic law and will not undertake any radical reform. A constituent assembly, in [[December 12]], [[1925]], , declared him the Shah.<ref> see: Nikki R. Keddie with a section by Yann Richard, Roots of Revolution; An Interpretive History of Modern Iran, New Haven and London /Yale University Press, 1981</ref> |
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Three days later, on [[December 15]], [[1925]], he took his imperial oath and thus became the first Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty. However, it would not be until [[April 25]], [[1926]], that Reza Shah would receive his [[coronation]] and first place the [[Pahlavi Crown|Imperial Crown]] on his head. At the same ceremony, his son, [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], was proclaimed the [[Crown Prince]] of Persia – to rule after his father.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/806268.stm Timeline: Iran; A chronology of key events] at [[bbc.co.uk]]</ref> |
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==Reign and modernization== |
==Reign and modernization== |
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[[Image:OpeningCeremony-TehranUMedicine.jpg|thumb|200px|Reza Shah at the opening ceremony of the [[University of Tehran]]'s Faculty of Medicine.]] |
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During Reza Shah's sixteen years of rule, major developments, such as large road construction projects and the [[Trans-Iranian Railway]] were built, modern education was introduced and the [[University of Tehran]] was established.<ref>''[http://www.tufts.edu/as/stu-org/persian/irannew.html Iran]'': Recent History, The Education System</ref> The government sponsored European educations for many Iranian students.<ref>John Stanton, ''[http://www.counterpunch.org/stanton04222003.html Iran's Reza Pahlavi: A Puppet of the US and Israel?]''</ref> |
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By the late 1930s, Reza Shah had become increasingly despotic and disliked. The puppet parliament assented to his decrees, the free press was suppressed, and swift incarceration of the political leaders like [[Mossadegh]] and murder of some like [[Teymourtash]], and [[Davar]] halted the formation of any democratic process. He treated the urban midlle class, the managers and technocrats with iron-hand, as a result his state-owned industries remained unproductive and inefficient. The bureaucracy fell apart before him since anyone could be whisked away to prison at any moment for disobeying his whims. He cofiscated land from the Qajars and from the rivals to usurp it into his own estates. The corruption continued under his rule and even became institutionalized. Progress toward modernization was sptty and isolated. He become totally dependent on his military force, and the army in return, regularly received up to 50 percent of the public revenue to guarantee its loyalty. <ref>See: Barry Rubin Paved With Good Intentions: The American Experience and Iran, Oxford University Presss. Inc. 1980, and also Penguin Books 1981 pages 14 and 15</ref> |
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Under Reza Shah's watch, the country changed its name as well. According to The New York Times, "At the suggestion of the Persian Legation in [[Berlin]], the Teheran government, on the [[Persian New Year]], [[March 21]], [[1935]], substituted Iran for Persia as the official name of the country. It has been suggested that this decision was the result of the Nazi revival of interest in the so-called [[Aryan]] races, cradled in ancient Persia. As the Ministry of Foreign Affairs set forth in its memorandum on the subject, 'Perse,' the French designation of Persia, connoted the weakness and tottering independence of the country in the nineteenth century, when it was the chessboard of European imperialistic rivalry. 'Iran,' by contrast, conjured up memories of the vigor and splendor of its historic past."<ref>Oliver McKee Jr., ''New Names of Places: Change of Santo Domingo to Trujillo City Recalls Others,'' The New York Times, 26 June 1933, p. XX9.</ref> The very name “Iran” means “Land of the Aryans”. |
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Along with the modernization of the nation, Reza Shah was the ruler during the time of the Women's Awakening (1936-1941) where the issue of "unveiling" was couched in women's liberation, but was in fact a government controlled action to further the paternal image and give the appearance of modernity. The purpose of the Women’s Awakening was to create equilibrium between emancipating and controlling women because the Pahlavi regime prior to Reza Shah had brought male guardianship and modern Iranian womanhood to a critical point. Propaganda was used to explain that veils impeded physical exercise and the woman's ability to enter society in order to contribute to the progress of the nation. It was spoken of explicitly in religious terms, but more forcefully mentioned in pseudo-scientific and nationalistic terms. The unveiling issue and the Women's Awakening are linked to the Marriage Law of 1931 and the Second Congress of Eastern Women in Tehran in 1932. |
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At the expense of religion, the Shah backed a strong policy of [[Industrialisation|industrialization]] to ensure that the country was not dependent solely on its fossil fuel reserves and agricultural revenues. While Persia was once an advanced empire, the Iran of the early 20th century had become technologically backwards compared to the Western world. The Shah's new policies helped his country enter [[Modern Times (history)|modern times]].<ref name="post1925">[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ir0090) The Beginnings of Modernization: The Post-1925 Period] at the [[Library of Congress]]</ref> |
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Though his achievements were great, by the mid-1930s, Reza Shah's constructive, but dictatorial style of rule had caused intense dissatisfaction to the [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] [[Shi'a clergy|clergy]] throughout Iran, thus widening the gap between religion and government.<ref>Rajaee, Farhang, ''[http://webstorage1.mcpa.virginia.edu/library/mc/forums/published/americanvalues13.pdf Islamic Values and World View: Farhang Khomeyni on Man, the State and International Politics, Volume XIII]'' (PDF), University Press of America. ISBN 0-8191-3578-X</ref> He forbade photographing aspects of Iran he considered backwards, like [[camel]]s, he banned [[Iranian dress]] and [[chadors]] in favour of [[Western dress]]. <ref name="Kap">[[Ryszard Kapuściński|Kapuściński, Ryszard]]. ''[[Shah of Shahs]].'' Translated from Polish by William R. Brand and Katarzyna Mroczkowska-Brand. New York: Vintage International, 1992.</ref> Women who resisted this compulsory unveiling had their veils forcibly removed. He dealt harshly with opposition: troops were sent to massacre protesters at mosques and [[nomad]]s who refused to settle; newspapers were closed and liberals imprisoned.<ref name="Kap"/> He also used his power to vastly increase his fortune, becoming the biggest landowner in Iran, proprietor of nearly three thousand villages, as well as many factories and enterprises.<ref name="Kap"/> |
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==Deposition and death== |
==Deposition and death== |
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⚫ | Nazi Germany, desirous of the Persian Gulf oil, courted Reza throughout 1930s. They began to send a significant number of operatives into Iran. And helped Reza to develop an infant arm industry, and train his army, they built impressive edifices in Tehran to house the Iranian government, and they improved the railroads and other infrastructural projects. Furthermore, they convinced Reza of the Aryan origins of Persia. He changed the name of the country to Iran, mainly to signify the Aryan aspect of his regime. His futile hope was that by siding with victorious Germans he guarantees himself more power and fortune <ref> see William H. Sullivan, Mission to Iran, 1981, W.W. Norton & Company , New York, London. </ref> Fearing that Reza Shah was about to align his [[petroleum]]-rich country with Nazi Germany during the war, the United Kingdom and the [[Soviet Union]] [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran|occupied Iran]] and forced Reza Shah to [[abdication|abdicate]] in favour of his son (''see also [[Persian Corridor]]'').<ref>[http://www.people.virginia.edu/~jrw3k/middle_east_timeline/middle_east_timeline.htm Middle Eastern Timeline]: Western World, Persian and Arab World: 1941</ref> |
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During [[World War I]], [[Britain]] had ignored protests from the Qajar rulers and stationed troops in the province of [[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]]. When [[World War II]] began, the [[United Kingdom]] again wished to station troops in Khuzestan. |
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The Shah's son, [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], officially replaced his father on the throne on [[September 16]], [[1941]]. Reza Shah soon went into [[exile]], first to [[Mauritius]], then to [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]], where he died on [[July 26]], [[1944]], aged 66. After his death, a mausoleum was built in his honor in Iran, where his body was buried. His son later designated the title "the Great" to be added to his name. |
The Shah's son, [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], officially replaced his father on the throne on [[September 16]], [[1941]]. Reza Shah soon went into [[exile]], first to [[Mauritius]], then to [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]], where he died on [[July 26]], [[1944]], aged 66. After his death, a mausoleum was built in his honor in Iran, where his body was buried. His son later designated the title "the Great" to be added to his name. |
Revision as of 19:15, 3 February 2007
Reza Shah Pahlavi | |
---|---|
Shah of Iran | |
Reign | December 15, 1925 - September 16, 1941 |
Predecessor | Ahmad Shah Qajar |
Successor | Mohammad Reza Pahlavi |
Issue | Fatemeh, Shams, Mohammad, Ashraf, Ali, Gholam, Abdul, Ahmad, Mahmud, Fatimeh, Hamid Reza Pahlavi |
House | Pahlavi dynasty |
Father | Abbas Ali Khan |
Mother | Noush Afrin |
Reza Shah, also Reza Pahlavi (Persian: رضا پهلوی Rez̤ā Pahlavī) (March 16, 1878 – July 26, 1944), styled His Imperial Majesty, was Shah of Iran from December 15, 1925 until September 16, 1941 when he was forced to abdicate by British and Soviet forces. In 1935 he requested that the international community refer to the country by its local name, Iran, instead of the international name, Persia.
He was the first monarch of the Pahlavi dynasty, and is credited with modernizing the nation.[1]
Name
In the early stages of his life, Reza Shah was known as Reza Savad-Koohi, because of his birth place (see below). Later on, when he joined the military, he became known as Reza Khan, and later as Reza Khan Mirpanj, his full military title at the time. Upon becoming minister of war, he was known as Reza Khan Sardar Sepah, which in Persian roughly means Reza Khan, head of the armed forces. Upon being elected the Shah of Persia, he chose the surname Pahlavi (surnames did not exist in Persia before this date, and were introduced as one of the modernization measures during his reign). From then on, he was referred to as Reza Shah Pahlavi, and later on, as a dictator he demanded the Parliament, which its members were hand-picked by himself to call himReza Shah the Great.
Early life
Reza Pahlavi was born in the city of Alasht in Savad Kooh county, Mazandaran in 1878. His father, Colonel Abbas Ali Khan, had been a member of the provincial army. When Reza Khan was fifteen years old, he joined the Persian Cossack Brigade, in which, years later, he would become a commander.
He also served in the Iranian Army, where he gained the rank of gunnery sergeant under Qajar Prince Abdol Hossein Mirza Farmanfarma's command. He was also one of the last individuals to become an officer of the Nishan-e-Aqdas prior to the collapse of the Qajar dynasty in 1925.[2]
Rise to power
Overthrow of the Qajar dynasty
On February 21, 1921, Reza Khan Mirpanj (Persian: رضا خان میرپنج) staged a coup d'état together with Seyyed Zia'eddin Tabatabaee.
With the involvement of the British Empire and through the office of General Edmund Ironside Reza came to power in the 1920s. The popular view that the British were involved in the 1921 coup was noted as early as March 1921 by the American embassy and relayed to the Iran desk at the Foreign Office [3] A British Embassy report from 1932 concedes that the British put Reza Shah "on the throne". For sources on this matter see [4]
Commanding a Russian-trained Cossack Brigade, Reza Khan marched his troops from Qazvin, 150 kilometres to the west of Tehran, and seized key parts of the capital city almost without opposition and forced the government to resign.[5]
With the success of the coup, Tabatabaee became the Prime Minister of Iran. Reza's first role in the new government was as commander of the army, which, in April 1921, he combined with the post of Minister of War. At the same time, he took the title Reza Khan Sardar Sepah (رضا خان سردار سپه).
In 1921 there were many popular revolts against the coup. In May 1921, a nationalist government was established in Gilan by Mirza Kuchek Khan, a patriot from Rasht, as the prime minister. Kurds of Khorsan also revolted in the same year. Anti-foreign and anti-government sentiment was ripe among the tribes and peasants to encourage the creation of an alternative government, based on a program of radical reforms for social progress. Reza used its superior army to brutally crack down these movements. [6]
Election to the Persian throne
On October 26, 1923, Reza had seized the real control of Iran and forced the young Ahmad Shah Qajar to exile in Europe. As the prime Minister Reza wanted to secure his power in opposition to any potential restoration of Qajar house. He now machinated for a republic and his military junta started a massive propaganda campaign for establishment of a republic. However, the idea of a republic was fiercely opposed by the powerful clergymen, and the feudal landlords. The nationalist leaders of the National Assembly of Iran, known as the Majlis, particularly Hassan Modarres and the young Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh forcefully opposed Reza’s plan to consolidate his autocracy. His supremacy was imposed by 1925 with the subjugation of all tribal insurrections and nationalists’ unrest. He maneuvered against Qajar dynasty and in October forced the parliament to depose the young King. He assured the landlords and the conservative clergy that he will defend Islamic law and will not undertake any radical reform. A constituent assembly, in December 12, 1925, , declared him the Shah.[7]
Reign and modernization
By the late 1930s, Reza Shah had become increasingly despotic and disliked. The puppet parliament assented to his decrees, the free press was suppressed, and swift incarceration of the political leaders like Mossadegh and murder of some like Teymourtash, and Davar halted the formation of any democratic process. He treated the urban midlle class, the managers and technocrats with iron-hand, as a result his state-owned industries remained unproductive and inefficient. The bureaucracy fell apart before him since anyone could be whisked away to prison at any moment for disobeying his whims. He cofiscated land from the Qajars and from the rivals to usurp it into his own estates. The corruption continued under his rule and even became institutionalized. Progress toward modernization was sptty and isolated. He become totally dependent on his military force, and the army in return, regularly received up to 50 percent of the public revenue to guarantee its loyalty. [8]
Deposition and death
Nazi Germany, desirous of the Persian Gulf oil, courted Reza throughout 1930s. They began to send a significant number of operatives into Iran. And helped Reza to develop an infant arm industry, and train his army, they built impressive edifices in Tehran to house the Iranian government, and they improved the railroads and other infrastructural projects. Furthermore, they convinced Reza of the Aryan origins of Persia. He changed the name of the country to Iran, mainly to signify the Aryan aspect of his regime. His futile hope was that by siding with victorious Germans he guarantees himself more power and fortune [9] Fearing that Reza Shah was about to align his petroleum-rich country with Nazi Germany during the war, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union occupied Iran and forced Reza Shah to abdicate in favour of his son (see also Persian Corridor).[10]
The Shah's son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, officially replaced his father on the throne on September 16, 1941. Reza Shah soon went into exile, first to Mauritius, then to Johannesburg, South Africa, where he died on July 26, 1944, aged 66. After his death, a mausoleum was built in his honor in Iran, where his body was buried. His son later designated the title "the Great" to be added to his name.
Following the Iranian Revolution in 1979, Reza Shah's mausoleum was destroyed under the direction of Ayatollah Sadeq Khalkhali, which was sanctioned by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.[11]
Family
Reza Shah's first wife, whom he married in 1894, was Maryam Khanum (died 1904). They had one daughter:
- Princess Fatemeh Pahlavi (1903-1992) (see, Aga Khan III)
His second wife was Tadj ol-Molouk, by whom he had five children:
- Princess Shams Pahlavi (1917-1996)
- Shahanshah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1919-1980)
- Princess Ashraf Pahlavi (b. 1919)
- Prince Ali Reza Pahlavi (1922-1954)
In 1922 (divorced 1923), Reza Shah married Turan (Qamar al Molk) Amir Soleimani (1904 – 1995), by whom he had one son:[12]
Reza Shah's fourth wife was Esmat Dowlatshahi (1904-1995), by whom he had five children:
- Prince Abdul Reza Pahlavi (1924-2004)
- Prince Ahmad Reza Pahlavi (1925-1981)
- Prince Mahmud Reza Pahlavi (1926-2001)
- Princess Fatimeh Pahlavi (1928-1987)
- Prince Hamid Reza Pahlavi (1932-1992)
See also
- Amir Abdollah Tahmasebi
- Mohammad Hosein Airom
- Abdolhossein Teymourtash
- Sar Lashgar Buzarjomehri
- Mahmud Khan Puladeen
- Amanullah Jahanbani
- Colonel Pesian
- Khaz'al Khan
- Sepahbod Ahmad Amir-Ahmadi
- General Fazlollah Zahedi
References
- ^ The Beginnings of Modernization: The Post-1925 Period at the Library of Congress
- ^ Christopher Buyers, Persia, The Qajar Dynasty: Orders & Decorations
- ^ Zirinsky M.P. Imperial Power and dictatorship: Britain and the rise of Reza Shah 1921-1926. International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 24, 1992. p.646
- ^ Sources:
- FO 371 16077 E2844 dated 8 June 1932.
- The Memoirs of Anthony Eden are also explicit about Britain's role in putting Reza Khan in power.
- Ansari, Ali M. Modern Iran since 1921. Longman. 2003 ISBN 0-582-35685-7 p.26-31
- For fine discussions of this period and Ironsides's key role, see R.H. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations 1917-1921, 3 (Princeton, 1972) and D. Wright, The English amongst the Persians (London, 1977), pp. 180-84. Ironside's diary is the main document
- ^ The Pahlavi Era of Iran para. 2, 3
- ^ On these postwar movements see especially Cottam, Richard W Nationalism in Iran: Updated through 1978, 2nd ed. Pittsburg. University of Pittsburg Press. 1979
- ^ see: Nikki R. Keddie with a section by Yann Richard, Roots of Revolution; An Interpretive History of Modern Iran, New Haven and London /Yale University Press, 1981
- ^ See: Barry Rubin Paved With Good Intentions: The American Experience and Iran, Oxford University Presss. Inc. 1980, and also Penguin Books 1981 pages 14 and 15
- ^ see William H. Sullivan, Mission to Iran, 1981, W.W. Norton & Company , New York, London.
- ^ Middle Eastern Timeline: Western World, Persian and Arab World: 1941
- ^ Obituary: Ayatollah Sadeq Khalkhali – Hardline cleric known as the "hanging judge" of Iran by Adel Darwish, The Independent, Nov 29, 2003.
- ^ History of Iran: Reza Shah Pahlavi at the Iran Chamber Society