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A 1990 study published in the Japanese ''Journal of Industrial Health'', conducted at Sumitomo Heavy Industries by the Japanese Ministry of Labour and others, looked at Transcendental Meditation and its effect on mental health in industrial workers. In the study 447 employees learned the Transcendental Meditation technique and 321 employees served as controls. After a 5-month period the researchers found significant decreases in major physical complaints, impulsiveness, emotional instability, and anxiety amongst the meditators compared to controls. The meditators also showed significant decreases in digestive problems, depression, tendency toward psychosomatic disease, insomnia, and smoking.<ref>Haratani T, Henmi T. Effects of Transcendental Meditation on mental health of industrial workers. Japanese Journal of Industrial Health, 1990, 32: 656</ref> |
A 1990 study published in the Japanese ''Journal of Industrial Health'', conducted at Sumitomo Heavy Industries by the Japanese Ministry of Labour and others, looked at Transcendental Meditation and its effect on mental health in industrial workers. In the study 447 employees learned the Transcendental Meditation technique and 321 employees served as controls. After a 5-month period the researchers found significant decreases in major physical complaints, impulsiveness, emotional instability, and anxiety amongst the meditators compared to controls. The meditators also showed significant decreases in digestive problems, depression, tendency toward psychosomatic disease, insomnia, and smoking.<ref>Haratani T, Henmi T. Effects of Transcendental Meditation on mental health of industrial workers. Japanese Journal of Industrial Health, 1990, 32: 656</ref> |
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==Studies on adverse effects of Meditation== |
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A study done at SRI International published in 1985 was based on a 1971 random survey of 1,900 people practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique. The survey asked whether they had experienced adverse effects such as anxiety, confusion, tension or depression after beginning TM practice. The results appeared to show that those who had dropped out from TM practice had experienced fewer adverse effects while practicing TM than those who continued with TM practice. Among those who had practiced TM longest (18+ months), reports of adverse effects were somewhat more frequent than among recent beginners (3–6 months). Otis interpreted his data to mean that the longer a person stays in TM and the more committed a person becomes to TM as a way of life, the greater the likelihood that they will report adverse effects.<ref name=Shapiro>Shapiro, Deane H. and Walsh, Roger N. editors, ''Meditation: Classic and Contemporary Perspectives'' (New York: Aldine Publishing Co., 1984), ISBN 9780202362441, pp. 201–208</ref> |
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Persinger compared the Personal Philosophy Inventories of 221 meditators to 860 non-meditators. Of the meditators 65% to 70% practiced TM. This comparison showed that meditators displayed a wider range of epileptic-like signs. These included feeling vibrations, hearing their name being called and religious and paranormal phenomena, among other symptoms. The numbers of years practicing TM were found to lead to increased complex partial signs. Persinger concluded that "The results support the hypothesis that procedures which promote cognitive kindling enhance complex partial epileptic-like signs".<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8451153]</ref> |
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In his 1976 paper, "Psychiatric problems precipitated by transcendental meditation", Lazarus reported that psychiatric problems such as severe depression and schizophrenic breakdown may be precipitated by TM. He concluded by stating that while TM may have clinical benefits in certain cases it is clearly contraindicated in others.<ref>Lazarus, Arnold A. ''Psychiatric problems precipitated by transcendental meditation.'' Psychological Reports, 1976, pp601-602</ref> |
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Carrington and Ephron reported complaints from TM meditators who felt themselves overwhelmed by negative and unpleasant thoughts during meditation.<ref>Carrington, P.; Ephron, H.S.,''Meditation as an Adjunct of Psychotherapy''. 1975. The World Biennial of Psychotherapy and Psychiatry (III)</ref> |
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In a study by Glueck and Stroebel they found that while some subjects could cope with what they described as the release of repressed subconscious impressions from the TM practice, others were unable to. Indeed, of the 110 mentally ill subjects taking part in this study, two made independent suicide attempts in the first two days after beginning the TM program.<ref>Glueck, Bernard C.; Stroebel, Charles F., "Biofeedback and meditation in the treatment of psychiatric illnesses". 1975, Comprehensive Psychiatry 16 303-321</ref> |
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The 2008 metaanalysis on hypertension mentioned previously included in its scope data on adverse effects. The authors write, "The anecdotal reports of adverse psychological effects or increased seizures have not been documented in randomized controlled trials. Two of the randomized controlled trials in this review indicated that psychological function was improved with Transcendental Meditation, while another study collected information but did not mention differences in side effects between groups. Analyses of available data suggest that Transcendental Meditation tends to decrease anxiety and have other psychological benefits. Further analyses are required to assess these effects."<ref>James W. Anderson1, Chunxu Liu and Richard J. Kryscio, "Blood Pressure Response to Transcendental Meditation: A Meta-analysis," MARCH 2008 | VOLUME 21 NUMBER 3 | AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HYPERTENSION, pp. 315.</ref> |
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==Research funding from the NIH== |
==Research funding from the NIH== |
Revision as of 16:48, 7 December 2009
Research studies on the applications of Transcendental Meditation have been conducted at institutions and universities throughout the world.
Range of studies
Studies demonstrate correlations between the Transcendental Meditation technique and health-related physiological states, including improvement in lung function for patients with asthma,[1] reduction of high blood pressure,[2] an effect the researchers termed "younger biological age",[3] decreased insomnia,[4] reduction of high cholesterol,[5] reduced illness and medical expenditures,[6] decreased outpatient visits,[6] decreased cigarette smoking,[7] decreased alcohol use,[7] and decreased anxiety.[8]
Medical research
In 2005, the American Journal of Cardiology published a review of two studies, both lead by Robert H. Schneider, Director of the Institute of Natural Medicine and Prevention,[9] that looked at stress reduction with the Transcendental Meditation technique and mortality among patients receiving treatment for high blood pressure.[10] This study was a long-term, randomized trial. It evaluated the death rates of 202 men and women, average age 71, who had mildly elevated blood pressure. The study tracked subjects for up to 18 years and found that the group practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique had death rates that were reduced by 23%. Also in 2005, the American Journal of Hypertension published the results of a study that found the Transcendental Meditation technique may be useful as an adjunct in the long-term treatment of hypertension among African-Americans.[11] However, Dr. Peter Fenwick points out that the mean changes were only 10 millimetres Hg systolic and just over 6 mmHg for the diastolic, leaving the study population in high-risk category.[12]
In 2006, a study involving 103 subjects published in the American Medical Association's Archives of Internal Medicine found that coronary heart disease patients who practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique for 16 weeks showed improvements in blood pressure, insulin resistance, and autonomic nervous system tone, compared with a control group of patients who received health education.[13]
The American Heart Association has published two studies on the Transcendental Meditation technique. In 2000, the association's journal, Stroke, published a study involving 127 subjects that found that, on average, the hypertensive, adult subjects who practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique daily experienced reduced thickening of coronary arteries, thereby decreasing the risk of heart attack and stroke. After six to nine months, carotid intima-media thickness decreased in the group that was practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique as compared with matched control subjects.[14] Also in 1995, the association's journal Hypertension published the results of a randomized, controlled trial in which a group of older African-Americans practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique demonstrated a significant reduction in blood pressure.[15]
Also in 2006, a functional MRI study of 24 patients conducted at the University of California at Irvine, and published in the journal NeuroReport, found that the long-term practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique may reduce the affective/motivational dimension of the brain's response to pain.[16]
In June 2007, the United States National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine released an independent, meta-analysis of the state of meditation research, conducted by researchers at the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center. The report reviewed 813 studies, of which 230 were studies of TM or TM-Sidhi.[17] The report concluded that "[t]he therapeutic effects of meditation practices cannot be established based on the current literature," and "[f]irm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence (p. 6).[18]
In 2008, researchers at the University of Kentucky conducted a meta-analysis of nine qualifying RCT published studies which used Transcendental Meditation to address patients with hypertension, and found that on average across all nine studies the practice of TM was associated with approximate reductions of 4.7 mm (0 in) Hg systolic blood pressure and 3.2 mm (0 in) Hg diastolic blood pressure. The researchers concluded that "...Sustained blood pressure reductions of this magnitude are likely to significantly reduce risk for cardiovascular disease." The study was published in the March 2008 issue of the American Journal of Hypertension.[19] Using the Jadad scale, the researchers found that of the nine studies evaluated, three were of high quality with a score of 75% or greater, three were of acceptable quality, and three were of suboptimal quality.[20]
Research on cognitive function
A paper published in the Journal of Applied Psychology in 1978 found no effect on school grades.[21] A 1985 study in the British Journal of Educational Psychology, and a 1989 study in Education showed improved academic performance.[22][23]
A paper published in 2001 in the journal, Intelligence, reported the effects on 362 Taiwanese students of three randomized, controlled trials that used seven standardized tests. The trials measured the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique, a contemplative meditative technique from the Chinese tradition, and napping on a wide range of cognitive, emotional and perceptual functions. The three studies ranged in time from six months to one year. Results indicated that taken together, the Transcendental Meditation group had significant improvement on all seven measurements compared to the non-treatment and napping control groups. Contemplative meditation showed a significant result in two categories, and napping had no effect. The results included an increase in IQ, creativity, fluid intelligence, field independence, and practical intelligence.[24]
In 2003, a study in the journal, Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, reviewed 107 articles on TM and cognitive function of which only ten were randomized, controlled trials that fit the inclusion criteria. Four trials showed a significant positive effect on cognitive function, four were completely negative, and two were largely negative in outcome. Study authors, Canter and Ernst, noted that the four positive trials used subjects who had already intended to learn the Transcendental Meditation technique, and attributed the significant positive results to an expectation effect. They concluded that the claim that TM has a specific and cumulative effect on cognitive function is not supported by the evidence from randomised controlled trials.[25]
A 1977 study in the Journal of Clinical Psychology showed reduced anxiety in practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation technique compared to controls who relaxed passively.[26] A 1989 meta-analysis published in the Journal of Clinical Psychology compared 146 independent studies on the effect of different meditation and relaxation techniques in reducing trait anxiety. Transcendental Meditation was found to produce a larger effect than other forms of meditation and relaxation in the reduction of trait anxiety. Additionally, it was concluded that the difference between Transcendental Meditation and the other meditation and relaxation techniques appeared too large to be accounted for by the expectation effect.[27]
A 1990 study published in the Japanese Journal of Industrial Health, conducted at Sumitomo Heavy Industries by the Japanese Ministry of Labour and others, looked at Transcendental Meditation and its effect on mental health in industrial workers. In the study 447 employees learned the Transcendental Meditation technique and 321 employees served as controls. After a 5-month period the researchers found significant decreases in major physical complaints, impulsiveness, emotional instability, and anxiety amongst the meditators compared to controls. The meditators also showed significant decreases in digestive problems, depression, tendency toward psychosomatic disease, insomnia, and smoking.[28]
Research funding from the NIH
As of 2004, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) had spent more than $20 million funding research on the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on heart disease.[3] In 1999, the NIH awarded a grant of nearly $8 million to Maharishi University of Management to establish the first research center specializing in natural preventive medicine for minorities in the U.S.[29] The research institute, called the Institute for Natural Medicine and Prevention, was inaugurated on October 11, 1999, at the University's Department of Physiology and Health in Fairfield, Iowa.[30]
See also
Health applications and clinical studies of meditation
References
- ^ Wilson, AF., Honsberger, R., Chiu, JT., Novey, HS. "Transcendental meditation and asthma." Respiration, 1975, 74-80.
- ^ Schneider, R.H. et al., "A randomized controlled trial of stress reduction for hypertension in older African Americans", Hypertension 26: 820–827, 1995
- ^ Wallace, R.K. et al. "The effects of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program on the aging process", International Journal of Neuroscience 16: 53–58, 1982
- ^ Brooks, J.S. and Scarano, T., "Transcendental Meditation in the treatment of post-Vietnam adjustment", Journal of Counseling and Development 64: 212–215, 1985
- ^ Journal of Human Stress 5: 24-27, 1979
- ^ a b Orme-Johnson, D.W. and Herron, R.E., "An innovative approach to reducing medical care utilization and expenditures", The American Journal of Managed Care 3: 135–144, 1997
- ^ a b Alexander, C.N. et al., "Treating and preventing alcohol, nicotine, and drug abuse through Transcendental Meditation: A review and statistical meta-analysis", Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 11: 13–87, 1994
- ^ Eppley, K.R. et al., "Differential effects of relaxation techniques on trait anxiety: A meta-analysis", Journal of Clinical Psychology 45: 957–974, 1989
- ^ [1]
- ^ Schneider RH; et al. "Long-Term Effects of Stress Reduction on Mortality in Persons >55 Years of Age With Systemic Hypertension" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-09-12.
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ignored (help) - ^ Schneider RH; et al. "A randomized controlled trial of stress reduction in African Americans treated for hypertension for over one year". Retrieved 2006-09-12.
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- ^ Effects of a Randomized Controlled Trial of Transcendental Meditation on Components of the Metabolic Syndrome in Subjects With Coronary Heart Disease, Archives of Internal Medicine, Maura Paul-Labrador et al.,, Vol. 166 No. 11, June 12, 2006
- ^ Stroke. 2000 Mar;31(3):568-73.
- ^ A Randomized Controlled Trial of Stress Reduction for Hypertension in Older African Americans, Robert H. Schneider et al., Hypertension, 1995, 26: 820-827
- ^ Orme-Johnson DW; et al. "Neuroimaging of meditation's effect on brain reactivity to pain". NeuroReport. Retrieved 2006-09-12.
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ignored (help) - ^ The analysis reviewed studies of five broad categories of meditation: mantra meditation, mindfulness meditation, yoga, Tai Chi, and Qi Gong (p. 62).
- ^ Ospina MB, Bond TK, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Liang Y, Bialy L, Hooton N,Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Klassen TP. "Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research". Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 155. (Prepared by the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center under Contract No. 290-02-0023.) AHRQ Publication No. 07-E010. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. June 2007.
- ^ James W. Anderson1, Chunxu Liu and Richard J. Kryscio, "Blood Pressure Response to Transcendental Meditation: A Meta-analysis," MARCH 2008 | VOLUME 21 NUMBER 3 | AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HYPERTENSION, pp. 310-316
- ^ Anderson, p. 313
- ^ Carsello, C. J. and Creaser, J. W. "Does Transcendental Meditation Training Affect Grades?" Journal of Applied Psychology, 1978, 63, 644-645.
- ^ Nidich, S.I. and Nidich, R.J. Increased academic achievement at Maharishi School of the Age of Enlightenment: A replication study. Education 109: 302–304, 1989.
- ^ Kember, P. The Transcendental Meditation technique and postgraduate academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology 55: 164–166, 1985.
- ^ Intelligence (September/October 2001), Vol. 29/5, pp. 419-440
- ^ Canter, P., Ernst, E. (2003) The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function—a systematic review of randomised controlled trials Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2003 November 28;115(21-22):758-766
- ^ Dillbeck M. The effect of the Transcendental Meditation technique on anxiety level. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1977, 33: 1076-1078
- ^ Eppley K, Abrams A, Shear J. Differential effects of relaxation techniques on trait anxiety: a meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1989, 45: 957-74
- ^ Haratani T, Henmi T. Effects of Transcendental Meditation on mental health of industrial workers. Japanese Journal of Industrial Health, 1990, 32: 656
- ^ Vedic Medicine, Meditation Receive Federal Funds, U.S. Medicine,Matt Pueschel, July 2000
- ^ NIH Awards $8 Million Grant to Establish Research Center on Natural Medicine