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The Tughlaq army was defeated in the battle that ensued next day. Timur entered Delhi and learnt that a "great number of Hindus with their wives and children, and goods and valuables, had come into the city from all the country round". |
The Tughlaq army was defeated in the battle that ensued next day. Timur entered Delhi and learnt that a "great number of Hindus with their wives and children, and goods and valuables, had come into the city from all the country round". |
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===Bahmani sack of Vijayanagara=== |
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When Ramaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire was captured during the battle of Talikota he was dragged to the Muslim camp and the Sultan Adil Shah asked him to acknowledge Allah as the only god. Ramaraya instead cried "Narayana Krishna Bhagavanta", and Nizam Shah slit the Hindu king's throat and declared himself a Ghazi in Jihad. Ramaraya's severed head was then fixed to a pole and waved before the Hindu troops. |
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The Hindus panicked at the death of their commander and chaos broke out in their midst. After the defeat of the Vijayanagara dynasty by the Bahmani Sultanates at the battle of Talikota, the Muslim armies of Adil Shah ransacked the great city of Hampi, massacred its denizens and destroyed its temples and palaces and looted aways its riches. |
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De Couto writes - |
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"The third day saw the beginning of the end. The victorious Mussulmans had halted on the field of battle for rest and refreshment, but now they had reached the capital, and from that time forward for a space of five months Vijayanagar knew no rest. The enemy had come to destroy, and they carried out their object relentlessly. They slaughtered the people without mercy, broke down the temples and palaces; and wreaked such savage vengeance on the abode of the kings, that, with the exception of a few great stone-built temples and walls, nothing now remains but a heap of ruins to mark the spot where once the stately buildings stood. They demolished the statues, and even succeeded in breaking the limbs of the huge Narasimha monolith. Nothing seemed to escape them. They broke up the pavilions standing on the huge platform from which the kings used to watch the festivals, and overthrew all the carved work. They lit huge fires in the magnificently decorated buildings forming the temple of Vitthalasvami near the river, and smashed its exquisite stone sculptures. With fire and sword, with crowbars and axes, they carried on day after day their work of destruction. Never perhaps in the history of the world has such havoc been wrought, and wrought so suddenly, on so splendid a city; teeming with a wealthy and industrious population in the full plenitude of prosperity one day, and on the next seized, pillaged, and reduced to ruins, amid scenes of savage massacre and horrors beggaring description." Couto also states that amongst other treasures was found a diamond as large as a hen's egg, which was kept by the Adil Shah. |
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Caesaro Federici, an Italian traveller writes - |
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"The Citie of BEZENEGER is not altogether destroyed, yet the houses stand still, but emptie, and there is dwelling in them nothing, as is reported, but Tygres and other wild beasts." |
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===Sikh rule=== |
===Sikh rule=== |
Revision as of 09:25, 26 May 2013
Religious violence in India includes acts of violence by followers of one religious group against followers and institutions of another religious group, often in the form of rioting.[1] Religious violence in India, especially in recent times, has generally involved Hindus and Muslims, although incidents of violence have also involved Christians, Jews, and Sikhs.
Despite the secular and religiously tolerant constitution of India, broad religious representation in various aspects of society including the government, the active role played by autonomous bodies such as National Human Rights Commission of India and National Commission for Minorities, and the ground-level work being out by Non-governmental organizations, sporadic and sometimes serious acts of religious violence tend to occur as the root causes of religious violence often run deep in history, religious activities, and politics of India.[2][3][4][5]
Along with domestic organizations, international human rights organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch publish reports [6] on acts of religious violence in India.
Ancient India
Ancient India has no history of large scale religious violence.[7] However, King Pusyamitra of Sunga Empire is linked in legend with the persecution of Buddhists. There is some doubt as to whether he did or did not persecute Buddhists actively.[8]
The Divyavadana ascribes to him the razing of stupas and viharas built by Ashoka.[10] This account has however been described as "exaggerated".[10] Archaeological evidence is scarce and uncertain.[11] However to many scholars, Sunga kings were seen as more amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut.[12]
With the possible exception of reign of King Pusyamitra, Buddhism and Hinduism seem to have co-existed peacefully with almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta Caves, being built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings.[13]
There are also a few references to religious tension between Jains and Hindus in the medieval Tamil kingdoms, culminating in a large scale massacre of Jains by the king Koon Pandiyan.
Medieval India
Muhammad bin Qasim (8th century)
Muhammad bin Qasim, during his conquest of Sindh (in present day Pakistan), assaulted the town of Debal and destroyed its great temple .[14] He then built a mosque over the remains of the original temple at Debal and later in towns of Nerun and Sadusan (Sehwan)[14][15] After each battle all fighting men were executed and their wives and children enslaved. One fifth of the booty and slaves were dispatched back to Hajjaj and the Caliph.[14] Chach Nama also records instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at Nerun.
After the conquest, Muhammad bin Qasim adopted a controversial policy, asking for acceptance of Islamic Sharia law, in return for non-interference in their religious practice,.[16] No further mass conversions were attempted and the destruction of temples such as the Sun Temple at Multan was forbidden.[14]
Mahmud of Ghazni (11th century)
Mahmud of Ghazni was a Sultan who invaded the Indian subcontinent from present-day Afghanistan during the early 11th century. His campaigns across the gangetic plains are often cited for their iconoclastic plundering and destruction of Hindu temples such as those at Mathura, Dwarka, and others. In 1024 AD, Mahmud of Ghazni attacked and destroyed the third Somnath temple killing over 50,000 and personally destroying the Shiva lingam after stripping it of its gold.[17]
Iltutmish (11th century)
Another ruler of the sultanate, Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, conquered and subjugated the Hindu pilgrimage site Varanasi in the 11th century and he continued the destruction of Hindu temples and idols that had begun during the first attack in 1194.[18]
Qutb-ud-din Aibak (13th century)
Historical records compiled by Muslim historian Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul Hai attest to the iconoclasm of Qutb-ud-din Aybak. The first mosque built in Delhi, the "Quwwat al-Islam" was built after the demolition of the Hindu temple built previously by Prithvi Raj and certain parts of the temple were left outside the mosque proper.[19] This pattern of iconoclasm was common during his reign.[20]
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (14th century)
Firuz Shah Tughluq was the third ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. The "Tarikh-i-Firuz Shah" is a historical record written during his reign that attests to the systematic persecution of Hindus under his rule.[21] In particular, it records atrocities committed against Hindu Brahmin priests who refused to convert to Islam:
An order was accordingly given to the Brahman and was brought before Sultan. The true faith was declared to the Brahman and the right course pointed out. but he refused to accept it. A pile was risen on which the Kaffir with his hands and legs tied was thrown into and the wooden tablet on the top. The pile was lit at two places his head and his feet. The fire first reached him in the feet and drew from him a cry and then fire completely enveloped him. Behold Sultan for his strict adherence to law and rectitude.[21]
Under his rule, Hindus who were forced to pay the mandatory Jizya tax were recorded as infidels, their communities monitored and, if they violated Imperial ordinances and built temples, they were destroyed. In particular, an incident in the village of Gohana in Haryana was recorded in the "Insha-i-Mahry" (another historical record written by Amud Din Abdullah bin Mahru) where Hindus had erected a deity and were arrested, brought to the palace and executed en-masse.[21]
Ulugh Khan’s expedition and the sack of Srirangam (14th century)
In 1323 Ulugh Khan began his invasions of the Hindu kingdoms of South India. At Srirangam the invading army desecrated the shrine and killed 12,000 ascetics, including the great scholar Sri Sundarsana Bhatta. The illustrious Vaishnava philosopher Sri Vedanta Desika, hid himself amongst the corpses together with the sole manuscript of the Srutaprakasika, the magnum opus of Sri Sudarsana, and also the latter’s two sons. When the massacre was over, Sri Vedanta Desika and his followers fled to Satyamangalam in Mysore, where Sri Vedanta Desika published the Srutaprakasika.
Malik Kafur's raid of South India (14th century)
The Muslim army lead by Malik Kafur, a slave turned general of Allauddin Khilji attacked the beautiful temples of Hoysalas in the 14th century. The temple of Belur was protected and saved as soon as the attack started, so it didn't incur too much of damage. However, Halebid was destroyed to a great extent and is in a pretty dilapidated state.
In 1311, Malik Kafur entered the magnificent Srirangam temple. massacred the Brahmin priests of the temple who resisted the invasion for three days, plundered the temple treasury and the storehouse and desecrated and destroyed numerous religious icons.
Timur's massacre of Delhi (1398)
Timur's campaigns in India were marked by systematic slaughter and other atrocities on a truly massive scale inflicted mainly on the subcontinent's Hindu population. In Timur's own words in Tuzk-i-Timuri -
"About the year 800 A.H. (1398 A.D.), there arose in my heart the desire to lead an expedition against the infidels and to become a Champion of the Faith, for it had reached my ears that the slayer of infidels is a Champion and that, if he is slain, he becomes a martyr. It was for this reason that I formed my resolution, but I was undetermined in my mind whether I should direct my expedition against the infidels of China or against the infidels and polytheists of India. In this matter I sought an omen from the Koran, and the verse to which I opened was this: “O Prophet, make war upon infidels and unbelievers, and treat them with severity."
Timur stormed the fort of Kator on the border of Kashmir and ordered his soldiers "to kill all the men, to make prisoners of women and children, and to plunder and lay waste all their property". Next, he "directed towers to be built on the mountain of the skulls of those obstinate unbelievers". Soon after, he laid siege to Bhatnir defended by Rajputs. They surrendered after some fight, and were pardoned. But Islam did not bind Timur to keep his word given to the "unbelievers". His Tuzk-i-Timuri records:
"In a short space of time all the people in the fort were put to the sword, and in the course of one hour the heads of 10,000 infidels were cut off. The sword of Islam was washed in the blood of the infidels, and all the goods and effects, the treasure and the grain which for many a long year had been stored in the fort became the spoil of my soldiers. They set fire to the houses and reduced them to ashes, and they razed the buildings and the fort to the ground."
At Sarsuti, the next city to be sacked, "all these infidel Hindus were slain, their wives and children were made prisoners and their property and goods became the spoil of the victors". Timur was now moving through (modern day) Haryana, the land of the Jats. He directed his soldiers to "plunder and destroy and kill every one whom they met". And so the soldiers "plundered every village, killed the men, and carried a number of Hindu prisoners, both male and female".
Loni which was captured before he arrived at Delhi was predominantly a Hindu town. But some Muslim inhabitants were also taken prisoners. Timur ordered that "the Musulman prisoners should be separated and saved, but the infidels should all be dispatched to hell with the proselytizing sword".
By now Timur had captured 100,000 Hindus. As he prepared for battle against the Tughlaq army after crossing the Yamuna, his Amirs advised him "that on the great day of battle these 100,000 prisoners could not be left with the baggage, and that it would be entirely opposed to the rules of war to set these idolators and enemies of Islam at liberty". Therefore, "no other course remained but that of making them all food for the sword".
Tuzk-i-Timuri continues:
"I proclaimed throughout the camp that every man who had infidel prisoners should put them to death, and whoever neglected to do so should himself be executed and his property given to the informer. When this order became known to the ghazis of Islam, they drew their swords and put their prisoners to death. One hundred thousand infidels, impious idolators, were on that day slain. Maulana Nasiruddin Umar, a counselor and man of learning, who, in all his life, had never killed a sparrow, now, in execution of my order, slew with his sword fifteen idolatrous Hindus, who were his captives."
The Tughlaq army was defeated in the battle that ensued next day. Timur entered Delhi and learnt that a "great number of Hindus with their wives and children, and goods and valuables, had come into the city from all the country round".
Sikh rule
After ceasing control of Kashmir Maharaja Ranjit Singh appointed the first Hindu governor since 1354AD He raised the tax on Muslims, demolished the Jama Masjid of Srinagar and prohibited the cow slaughter. The punishment for cow slaughter was the death penalty without any exception. He abducted all the Pashtun and Uzbek women and infamously sold them into Hira Mandi, a very popular market in Lahore.[22]
In 1837 Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu was entrusted by Maharaja Ranjit Singh to suppress the revolt of Yousafzai tribe which forms the biggest proportion of Pashtun tribes. He offered 1 rupee for the head of every Yousafzai men brought to his feet. He made Katuha is headquarters, hunted Muslim Pashtun tribes like wild beasts, although he had some of the women spared. The most beautiful of these women were kept for Raja Gulab Singh's harem and rest were sold as slaves in Lahore and Jammu. It was reported that this expedition resulted in loss of tens of thousands of Pashtun rebels, civilians and thousands of women were sold into slavery.[23]
Hindu Dogra Rule
After acquiring Jammu and Kashmir through the Treaty of Kashmir, Dogra rulers continued the anti-Muslim policies of their Sikh allies. The worst atrocities perpetrated against Muslims in the state came in 1863 when the Dogra ruler Maharaja Ranbir Singh ordered a major invasion of the frontier areas of Yasin and Hunza to punish Muslim rebels. 3,000 troops were commanded by General Hooshiara Singh who invaded the frontier. The Dogras took all men as prisoner, and many Dogra soldiers entered the back portion of the Mandoori Hill which was full of Yasini and Hunza women and their children. Dogra soldiers drew their swords and cut the women and children into pieces. Those women who were injured but not dead were burnt alive and approximately 2000 Yasin villagers were killed overall. About 5,000 Yasinis were taken back to Srinagar for forced labor and all their women were included into the harems of Dogra Soldiers.[24][25]
Aurangzeb, Mughal Emperor (1658–1707)
Aurangzeb cherished the ambition of converting India into a land of Islam and his reign was particularly brutal. Aurangzeb banned Hindu festival of Diwali, placed a jizya (tax) on non-Muslims and killed the ninth Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur.
The Mughal Empire was marked by periods of tolerance of non-Muslims, such as Hindus and Sikhs, as well as periods of violent oppression and persecution of those people.[26] The reign of Aurangzeb was particularly brutal. No aspect of Aurangzeb's reign is more cited — or more controversial — than the numerous desecrations and even the destruction of Hindu temples.[26] Aurangzeb banned Diwali, placed a jizya (tax) on non-Muslims and martyred the ninth Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur.[26]
Aurangzeb destroyed a number of temples with figures varying from 80 to 60,000.[27] Indian historian Harbans Mukhia wrote that "In the end, as recently recorded in Richard Eaton's careful tabulation, some 80 temples were demolished between 1192 and 1760 (15 in Aurangzeb's reign) and he compares this figure with the claim of 60,000 demolitions, advanced rather nonchalantly by 'Hindu nationalist' propagandists,' although even in that camp professional historians are slightly more moderate."[28] Some temples were destroyed entirely; in other cases mosques were built on their foundations, sometimes using the same stones. Among the temples Aurangzeb destroyed were two that are most sacred to Hindus, in Varanasi and Mathura.[29] In both cases, he had large mosques built on the sites.[26]
The Kesava Deo temple in Mathura, marked the place that Hindus believe was the birthplace of Shri Krishna.[29] In 1661 Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of the temple, and constructed the Katra Masjid mosque. Traces of the ancient Hindu temple can be seen from the back of the mosque. Aurangzeb also destroyed what was the most famous temple in Varanasi- the Vishwanath Temple.[29] The temple had changed its location over the years, but in 1585 Akbar had authorized its location at Gyan Vapi. Aurangzeb ordered its demolition in 1669 and constructed a mosque on the site, whose minarets stand 71 metres above the Ganges. Traces of the old temple can be seen behind the mosque. Centuries later, emotional debate about these wanton acts of cultural desecration continues. Aurangzeb also destroyed the Somnath temple in 1706.[29]
Ram Puniyani states that Aurangzeb was not always fanatically anti-Hindu, and kept changing his policies depending on the needs of the situation. He banned the construction of new temples, but permitted the repair and maintenance of existing temples. He also made generous donations of jagirs to several temples to win the sympathies of his Hindu subjects. There are several firmans (orders) in his name, supporting temples and gurudwaras, including Mahakaleshwar temple of Ujjain, Balaji temple of Chitrakoot, Umananda Temple (Guwahiat) and the Shatrunjaya Jain temples.[30]
Hindu nationalists claim that Mughals destroyed the Ram Mandir in Ayodhya, located at the birthplace of Rama, and built the Babri Masjid on the holy site, which has since been a source of tension between the Hindu and Muslim communities.
Nadir Shah's massacre and plunder of Delhi (1738-39)
Emperor Nadir Shah, the Shah of Iran (1736–47) and founder of the Afsharid dynasty, invaded India with a fifty-five thousand strong army, eventually attacking Delhi in March 1739 where he sacked the city, after issuing orders for a general massacre to take place. His brutal and bloody actions gave rise to the word nadirshahi, meaning holocaust.
An enormous fine of 20 million rupees was levied on the people of Delhi. Muhammad Shah handed over the keys to the royal treasury, and lost the Peacock Throne, to Nadir Shah, which thereafter served as a symbol of Persian imperial might. Amongst a treasure trove of other fabulous jewels, Nadir also gained the Koh-i-Noor and Darya-ye Noor diamonds; they are now part of the British and Iranian Crown Jewels, respectively. Persian troops left Delhi at the beginning of May 1739. Nadir's soldiers also took with them thousands of elephants, horses and camels that were laden with the booty that they had seized.
Tipu Sultan, ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore (1782-1799)
The ruler of Mysore, Tipu Sultan is regarded to be anti-Christian by many historians.[31][32][33] The captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam, which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.[34]
The Bakur Manuscript reports him as having said: "All Musalmans should unite together, and considering the annihilation of infidels as a sacred duty, labor to the utmost of their power, to accomplish that subject."[35] Soon after the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784, Tipu gained control of Canara.[36] He issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara, confiscate their estates,[37] and deport them to Seringapatam, the capital of his empire, through the Jamalabad fort route.[38] However, there were no priests among the captives. Together with Father Miranda, all the 21 arrested priests were issued orders of expulsion to Goa, fined Rupees 2 lakhs, and threatened death by hanging if they ever returned.[35]
Tipu ordered the destruction of 27 Catholic churches, all beautifully carved with statues depicting various saints. Among them included the Church of Nossa Senhora de Rosario Milagres at Mangalore, Fr Miranda's Seminary at Monte Mariano, Church of Jesu Marie Jose at Omzoor, Chapel at Bolar, Church of Merces at Ullal, Imaculata Conceiciao at Mulki, San Jose at Perar, Nossa Senhora dos Remedios at Kirem, Sao Lawrence at Karkal, Rosario at Barkur, Immaculata Conceciao at Baidnur.[35] All were razed to the ground, with the exception of The Church of Holy Cross at Hospet, owing to the friendly offices of the Chauta Raja of Moodbidri.[39]
Capture of the Mangalorean Catholic community
According to Thomas Munro, a Scottish soldier and the first collector of Canara, around 60,000 people,[40] nearly 92 percent of the entire Mangalorean Catholic community, were captured; only 7,000 escaped. Francis Buchanan gives the numbers as 70,000 captured, from a population of 80,000, with 10,000 escaping. They were forced to climb nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) through the jungles of the Western Ghat mountain ranges. It was 210 miles (340 km) from Mangalore to Seringapatam, and the journey took six weeks.[41]
According to British Government records, 20,000 of them died on the march to Seringapatam. According to James Scurry, a British officer, who was held captive along with Mangalorean Catholics, 30,000 of them were forcibly converted to Islam. The young women and girls were forcibly made wives of the Muslims living there.[42] The young men who offered resistance were disfigured by cutting their noses, upper lips, and ears.[43] According to Mr. Silva of Gangolim, a survivor of the captivity, if a person who had escaped from Seringapatam was found, the punishment under the orders of Tipu was the cutting off of the ears, nose, the feet and one hand.[44]
The Archbishop of Goa wrote in 1800, "It is notoriously known in all Asia and all other parts of the globe of the oppression and sufferings experienced by the Christians in the Dominion of the King of Kanara, during the usurpation of that country by Tipu Sultan from an implacable hatred he had against them who professed Christianity."[35]
Tipu Sultan's rule of the Malabar coast had an adverse impact on the Syrian Malabar Nasrani community. Many churches in the Malabar and Cochin were damaged. The old Syrian Nasrani seminary at Angamaly which had been the centre of Catholic religious education for several centuries was razed to the ground by Tipu's soldiers. A lot of centuries old religious manuscripts were lost forever.[45] The church was later relocated to Kottayam where it still exists. The Mor Sabor church at Akaparambu and the Martha Mariam Church attached to the seminary were destroyed as well. Tipu's army set fire to the church at Palayoor and attacked the Ollur Church in 1790. Furthernmore, the Arthat church and the Ambazhakkad seminary was also destroyed. Over the course of this invasion, many Syrian Malabar Nasrani were killed or forcibly converted to Islam. Most of the coconut, arecanut, pepper and cashew plantations held by the Syrian Malabar farmers were also indiscriminately destroyed by the invading army. As a result, when Tipu's army invaded Guruvayur and adjacent areas, the Syrian Christian community fled Calicut and small towns like Arthat to new centres like Kunnamkulam, Chalakudi, Ennakadu, Cheppadu, Kannankode, Mavelikkara, etc. where there were already Christians. They were given refuge by Sakthan Tamburan, the ruler of Cochin and Karthika Thirunal, the ruler of Travancore, who gave them lands, plantations and encouraged their businesses. Colonel Macqulay, the British resident of Travancore also helped them.[45]
Captured British soldiers
Tipu's persecution of Christians extended to captured British soldiers. For instance, there were a significant number of forced conversions of British captives between 1780 and 1784. Following their disastrous defeat at the 1780 Battle of Pollilur, 7,000 British men along with an unknown number of women were held captive by Tipu in the fortress of Seringapatnam.[46]
Of these, over 300 were circumcised and given Muslim names and clothes and several British regimental drummer boys were made to wear ghagra cholis and entertain the court as nautch girls or dancing girls. After the 10 year long captivity ended, James Scurry, one of those prisoners, recounted that he had forgotten how to sit in a chair and use a knife and fork. His English was broken and stilted, having lost all his vernacular idiom. His skin had darkened to the swarthy complexion of negroes, and moreover, he had developed an aversion to wearing European clothes.[47]
During the surrender of the Mangalore fort which was delivered in an armistice by the British and their subsequent withdrawal, all the Mestizos and remaining non-British foreigners were killed, together with 5,600 Mangalorean Catholics. Those condemned by Tipu Sultan for treachery were hanged instantly, the gibbets being weighed down by the number of bodies they carried. The Netravati River was so putrid with the stench of dying bodies, that the local residents were forced to leave their riverside homes.[35]
Persecution of Hindus
Hindus, particularly the Nair and Kodava communities were also persecuted by Tipu Sultan. They were subjected to forcible conversions to Islam, death, and torture.[48][49] The Nairs were treated with extreme brutality by the Muslims due to their strong adherence to the Hindu faith and martial tradition.[50][51][52] The captivity ended when Nair troops from Travancore, with the help of the East India Company defeated Tippu Sultan in the Third Anglo-Mysore War.[53][54] It is estimated that out of the 30,000 Nairs put to captivity (including women and children), only a few hundred returned to Malabar alive.[54][55]
In 1783, the Kodavas erupted in revolt against Tippu Sultan and threw their forces out of Kodagu. In 1785, Tippu declared the Kodava of being guilty of polyandry.[56] He threatened the Kodavas that he would not revile or molest a single individual among them and instead make Ahmadis (Muslims) out of the whole of them, transplanting them from their homeland in the Coorg to Seringapatam.[57]
Tippu gave the task of implementing the orders to Runmust Khan, the Nawab of Kurool. This task was accomplished when in a surprise attack, the Kodavas were besieged by the invading Muslim army. 500 were killed and over 40,000 Kodavas fled to the woods and concealed themselves in the mountains.[57] Thousands of Kodava Hindus were seized along with the Raja, Dodda Vira-Rajendra, and held them captive at Seringapatam. They were also subjected to forcible conversions to Islam, death, and torture.[56]
Colonial Era
Goa Inquisition (1560-1774)
The first inquisitors, Aleixo Dias Falcão and Francisco Marques, established themselves in what was formerly the king of Goa's palace, forcing the Portuguese viceroy to relocate to a smaller residence. The inquisitor's first act was forbidding Hindus from the public practice of their faith through fear of death. Sephardic Jews living in Goa, many of whom had fled the Iberian Peninsula to escape the excesses of the Spanish Inquisition to begin with, were also persecuted. During the Goa Inquisition, described as "contrary to humanity" by Voltaire,[58] conversions to Catholicism occurred by force and 57 Goans were executed by the Portuguese between 1561 and 1774.[59][60]
The adverse effects of the inquisition were tempered somewhat by the fact that Hindus were able to escape Portuguese hegemony by migrating to other parts of the subcontinent.[61] Though officially repressed in 1774, it was reinstated by Queen Maria I in 1778. The last vestiges of the Goa Inquisition were finally swept away when the British occupied the city in 1812.
Indian Rebellion of 1857
In 1813, the East India Company charter was amended to allow for government sponsored missionary activity across British India.[62] The missionaries soon spread almost everywhere and started denigrating Hinduism and Islam, besides promoting Christianity, in order to seek converts.[63] Many officers of the British East India Company, such as Herbert Edwardes and Colonel S.G. Wheeler, openly preached to the Sepoys.[64] Such activities caused a great deal of resentment and fear of forced conversions among Indian soldiers of the Company and civilians alike.[63]
The perception that the company was trying to convert Hindus and Muslims to Christianity is often cited as one of the causes of the revolt. The revolt is considered by some historians as a semi-national and religious war seeking freedom from English bondage [65][66] though Saul David questions this interpretation.[67] The revolt started, among the Indian soldiers of British East India Company, when the British introduced new rifle cartridges, rumored to be greased with pig and cow fat — an abhorrent concept to Muslim and Hindu soldiers, respectively, for religious reasons. However, in the aftermath of the revolt, British reprisals were particularly severe with hundreds of thousands being killed. While the death toll is often debated by historians with figures ranging between one hundred thousand and one million, it is usually agreed that several hundred thousands were killed.[68]
Moplah Rebellion (1921)
Moplah Rebellion was an Anti Hindu rebellion conducted by the Muslim Mappila community (Moplah is a British spelling) of Kerala in 1921. Inspired by the Khilafat movement and the Karachi resolution; Moplahs murdered, pillaged, and forcibly converted thousands of Hindus.[69][70] 100,000 Hindus[71] were driven away from their homes forcing to leave their property behind, which were later took over by Mappilas. This greatly changed the demographics of the area, being the major cause behind today's Malappuram district being a Muslim majority district in Kerala.[72]
According to one view, the reasons for the Moplah rebellion was religious revivalism among the Muslim Mappilas, and hostility towards the landlord Hindu Nair, Nambudiri Jenmi community and the British administration that supported the latter. Adhering to view, British records call it a British-Muslim revolt. The initial focus was on the government, but when the limited presence of the government was eliminated, Moplahs turned their full attention on attacking Hindus. Mohommed Haji was proclaimed the Caliph of the Moplah Khilafat and flags of Islamic Caliphate were flown. Ernad and Walluvanad were declared Khilafat kingdoms.[73]
Annie Besant wrote about the riots: "They Moplahs murdered and plundered abundantly, and killed or drove away all Hindus who would not apostatise. Somewhere about a lakh (100,000) of people were driven from their homes with nothing but their clothes they had on, stripped of everything. Malabar has taught us what Islamic rule still means, and we do not want to see another specimen of the Khilafat Raj in India."[71]
Partition of British India (1947)
Direct Action Day, which started on 16 August 1946, there left approximately 3000 dead and 17000 injured.[74]
After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British followed a divide-and-rule policy, exploiting differences between communities, in order to prevent similar revolts from taking place. In that respect, Indian Muslims were encouraged to forge a cultural and political identity separate from the Hindus.[75] In the years leading up to Independence, Mohammad Ali Jinnah became increasingly concerned about minority position of Islam in an independent India largely composed of a Hindu majority.[76]
Although a partition plan was accepted, no large population movements were contemplated. As India and Pakistan become independent, 14.5 million people crossed borders to ensure their safety in an increasingly lawless and communal environment. With British authority gone, the newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border along communal lines. Estimates of the number of deaths range around roughly 500,000, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.[77]
Modern India
Constitutionally India is a secular state, [78] but large-scale violence has periodically occurred in India since independence. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent.
1984 Anti-Sikh Riots
For several decades after Partitions, Sikhs in Punjab had complained about domination by the Hindu majority.[79] In a 1975 court case, Indira Gandhi was found guilty of electoral malpractice which barred her from government offices for six years and opposition parties staged protests to demand her resignation. In response, she declared a State of Emergency during which she jailed thousands of opposition members, censored the press, postponed elections, and changed the constitutional law she was convicted of violating. During the Indian Emergency, thousands of Sikhs campaigning for autonomous government and against the "fascist tendency" of the Central Government[80] were imprisoned.[79] As a result of their "Campaign to Save Democracy", out of 140,000 people arrested without trial during the Indian Emergency, 40,000 were Sikhs.[81]
In later elections she supported the politics Jarnail Bhindranwale, a religious conservative, in an effort to undermine the Akali Dal, the largest Sikh political party. However, Bhindranwale began to oppose the central government and moved his political base to the environs of the Darbar Sahib in Amritsar, Punjab. While there he gained considerable political power and disrupted the local state machinery. In June 1984, under orders from Indira Gandhi, the Indian army attacked the Darbar Sahib with tanks and armoured vehicles.[82] Although the operation was militarily successful, it aroused tremendous controversy, and the government's justification for the timing and style of the attack are highly debated.[83] In response, some Sikhs and some Punjabi Hindus began a separatist campaign to free Punjab from the Indian Government.[84]
Indira Gandhi was assassinated on 31 October 1984 by two of her bodyguards in retaliation for the storming of the Golden temple. After the assassination the 1984 anti-Sikh pogroms took place in Delhi, where government and police officials aided Congress party worker gangs in "methodically and systematically" targeting Sikhs and Sikh homes.[85] As a result of the pogroms 10,000-17,000 were burned alive or otherwise killed, Sikh people suffered massive property damage, and "at least 50,000" Sikhs became displaced persons.[86] To date, the Government of India has not prosecuted any of the assailants.[85] The attack on the Harmandir Sahib and the 1984 Anti-Sikh pogroms led to the increasing popularity of the Khalistan movement. From 1987 until 1992, the Indian government dismissed the elected government of the state, banned elections and imposed direct rule.[87]
In the peak years of the insurgency, religious violence by separatists, government-sponsored groups, and the paramilitary arms of the government was endemic on all sides. Human Rights Watch reports that separatists were responsible for "massacre of civilians, attacks upon Hindu minorities in the state, indiscriminate bomb attacks in crowded places, and the assassination of a number of political leaders".[88] According to Human Rights Watch, the Indian Government's response "led to the arbitrary detention, torture, extrajudicial execution, and enforced disappearance of thousands of Sikhs".[88] The government generally targeted "young Sikh men on suspicion that they were involved in the militancy" but would later deny having them in custody, as a result, many of the victims of enforced disappearances are believed to have been killed.[88] The insurgency resulted in the paralyzation of Punjab's economy until normalization in 1993.[88]
Ethnic cleansing of Kashmiri Hindus
In the Kashmir region, approximately 300 Kashmiri Pandits were killed between September 1989 to 1990 in various incidents.[89] In early 1990, local Urdu newspapers Aftab and Al Safa called upon Kashmiris to wage jihad against India and ordered the expulsion of all Hindus choosing to remain in Kashmir.[89] In the following days masked men ran in the streets with AK-47 shooting to kill Hindus who would not leave.[89] Notices were placed on the houses of all Hindus, telling them to leave within 24 hours or die.[89]
Since March 1990, estimates of between 500,000 to 750,000 pandits have migrated outside Kashmir[citation needed] due to persecution by Islamic fundamentalists in the largest case of ethnic cleansing since the partition of India.[90] The proportion of Kashmiri Pandits in the Kashmir valley has declined from about 15% in 1947 to, by some estimates, less than 0.1% since the insurgency in Kashmir took on a religious and sectarian flavor.[91]
Many Kashmiri Pandits have been killed by Islamist militants in incidents such as the Wandhama massacre and the 2000 Amarnath pilgrimage massacre.[92][93][94][95][96] The incidents of massacring and forced eviction have been termed ethnic cleansing by some observers.[89]
Religious involvement in North-East India Militancy
Religion has begun to play an increasing role in reinforcing ethnic divides among the decades old militant separatist movements in north-east India.[97][98][99]
The separatist group National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT) seeks to convert all tribals in the state of Tripura, who are mostly Hindu or Buddhist, to Christianity. It has proclaimed bans on Hindu worship and has attacked animist Reangs and Hindu Jamatia tribesmen who resisted. Some resisting tribal leaders have been killed and their womenfolk raped. The RSS has attempted to counter Christian separatist groups by backing Reang and Jamatia tribals, and has called for the central government to help arm and fund them.[98]
Hindu nationalists, upset with the rapid spread of Christianity in the region, link the overt Christian religiosity of the groups and the local churches' liberation theology-based doctrine to allege church support for ethnic separatism.[98] Vatsala Vedantam identifies statements from the American Baptist Churches USA as endorsing the Naga separatist cause.[100]
According to The Government of Tripura, the Baptist Church of Tripura is involved in supporting the NLFT and arrested two church officials in 2000, one of them for possessing explosives.[101] In late 2004, the National Liberation Front of Tripura banned all Hindu celebrations of Durga Puja and Saraswati Puja.[102] The Naga insurgency, ethnic separtism reinforced in their identity by Christianity, has been repeatedly involved in violence against Hindus in the region.[103][104][105][106]
The United States does not designate as terrorist organizations most of those groups that continue violent separatist struggles in India’s northeastern states.[107]
Anti Muslim Violence
Two major anti-Muslim riots have happened in India since the 1990s and none since 2002. The history of modern India has many incidents of communal violence. Tensions between Hindu and Muslim started coming to light a few years before the independence of the Indian-sub continent,hatred of hindus by muslims led to the creation of Pakistan. This thought contrasts with the more widely held Two Nation Theory as the main reason. These riots were supposedly provoked by colonizers and politicians for personal gains and vested interests. India have risen[109] and has led to several major incidences of religious violence such as Hashimpura massacre (1987), Bombay riots, 1993 Bombay bombings, Godhra Train Burning, and 2002 Gujarat violence.
On 6 December 1992, members of the Vishva Hindu Parishad and the Bajrang Dal destroyed the 430 year old Babri Mosque in Ayodhya,[108] it was claimed by the Hindus that the mosque was built over the birthplace of the ancient deity Rama. This action caused humiliation to the Muslim community. The resulting religious riots caused at least 1200 deaths.[110][111] Reprisals against Hindu minorities also occurred in Pakistan and Bangladesh. Since then the Government of India has blocked off or heavily increased security at these disputed sites while encouraging attempts to resolve these disputes through court cases and negotiations.[112]
In the aftermatch of the destruction of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya by Hindu nationalists on 6 December 1992, riots took place between Hindus and Muslims in the city of Mumbai. Many hindus were mass murdered in the resulting violence. Four people died in a fire in the Asalpha timber mart at Ghatkopar, five were killed in the burning of Bainganwadi; shacks along the harbor line track between Sewri and Cotton Green stations were gutted; and a couple was pulled out of a rickshaw in Asalpha village and burnt to death.[113] The riots changed the demographics of Mumbai greatly, as Hindus moved to Hindu-majority areas and Muslims moved to Muslim-majority areas.
The Godhra train burning incident in which innocent Hindus were burned alive by Muslims by closing door of train, led to the 2002 Gujarat riots in which mostly Muslims were killed in an act of retaliation. According to the death toll given to the parliament on 11 May 2005 by the government, 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus were killed, and another 2,548 injured. 223 people are missing. The report placed the number of riot widows at 919 and 606 children were declared orphaned.[114][115][116] According to hone advocacy group, the death tolls were up to 2000.[117][118][119][120][121] According to the Congressional Research Service, up to 2000 people were killed in the violence.[122]
Tens of thousands were displaced from their homes because of the violence. . According to New York Times reporter Celia Williams Dugger, witnesses were "dismayed by the lack of intervention from local police", who often "watched the events taking place and took no action against the attacks on hindus and their property".[123] Sangh leaders[124][125] as well as the Gujarat government[126][127] maintain that the violence was rioting or inter-communal clashes — spontaneous and uncontrollable reaction to the Godhra train burning.
Anti-Christian violence
In recent years, there has been a sharp increase in violent attacks on Christians in India, often perpetrated by Hindu Nationalists.[128] Between 1964 and 1996, thirty-eight incidents of violence against Christians were reported.[129] In 1997, twenty-four such incidents were reported.[130] In 1998, it went up to ninety.[129] Between January 1998 and February 1999 alone, one hundred and sixteen attacks against Christians in India were reported by church.[131] Between 1 January and 30 July 2000, more than fifty-seven attacks on Christians were reported.[132] These acts of violence include forcible reconversion of converted Christians to Hinduism, distribution of threatening literature and destruction of Christian cemeteries.[128][129][132]
In some cases, anti-Christian violence has been co-ordinated, involving multiple attacks. In Orissa, starting December 2007, Christians have been attacked in Kandhamal and other districts, resulting in the deaths of two Hindus and one Christian, and the destruction of houses and churches. Hindu Extremists claim that, Christians first killed a Hindu saint Laxmananand. So the attacks on Christians supposedly were in retaliation. However there was no conclusive proof to support this claim.[133][134][135][136][137] Twenty people were arrested following the attacks on churches.[136] Similarly, starting 14 September 2008, there were numerous incidents of violence against the Christian community in Karnataka.
Foreign Christian missionaries have mostly been targets of attacks.[138] In a well-publicised case Graham Staines, an Australian missionary, was burnt to death while he was sleeping with his two sons Timothy (aged 9) and Philip (aged 7) in his station wagon at Manoharpur village in Keonjhar district in Orissa in January 1999.[128][138][139][140] In 2003, Dara Singh was convicted of leading the gang responsible.[141][142][143]
In its annual human rights reports for 1999, the United States Department of State criticised India for "increasing societal violence against Christians."[144] The report listed over 90 incidents of anti-Christian violence, ranging from damage of religious property to violence against Christian pilgrims.[144]
In 2007 and 2008 there was a further flare up of tensions in Orissa. Another church was attacked in BJP-ruled Madhya Pradesh, where unidentified persons set two Statues inside St Peter and Paul Church in Jabalpur on fire,[145] and more attacks in Karnataka,.[146] The archbishop, Bernard Moras, met the BJP CM BS Yeddyurappa after he had taken a decision to invoke the provisions of Goonda Act against those nabbed for vandalising churches as part of its strategy to salvage its image and to instill confidence. The Bajrang Dal convenor was arrested after the incidents of church burning in Mangalore.[147][148]
Anti-Hindu violence
There have been a number of more recent attacks on Hindu temples and Hindus by Muslim militants. Prominent among them are the 1998 Chamba massacre, the 2002 fidayeen attacks on Raghunath temple, the 2002 Akshardham Temple attack allegedly perpetrated by Islamic terrorist outfit Lashkar-e-Toiba[149] and the 2006 Varanasi bombings (supposedly perpetrated by Lashkar-e-Toiba), resulting in many deaths and injuries. Recent attacks on Hindus by Muslim mobs include Marad massacre, Godhra train burning etc.
In August 2000, Swami Shanti Kali, a popular Hindu priest, was shot to death inside his ashram in the Indian state of Tripura. Police reports regarding the incident identified ten members of the Christian militant organization, NLFT, as being responsible for the murder. On Dec 4, 2000, nearly three months after his death, an ashram set up by Shanti Kali at Chachu Bazar near the Sidhai police station was raided by Christian militants belonging to the NLFT. Eleven of the priest's ashrams, schools, and orphanages around the state were closed down by the NLFT.
In September 2008, Swami Laxmanananda, a popular regional Hindu Guru was murdered along with four of his disciples by unknown assailants (though a Maoist organization later claimed responsibility for that[150][151]), allegedly due to the Guru's provocative opposition of Christians' conversion activities and Missionary propaganda[citation needed]. Later the police arrested three Christians in connection with the murder.[152] Congress MP Radhakant Nayak has also been named as a suspected person in the murder, with some Hindu leaders calling for his arrest.[153]
Lesser incidents of religious violence happen in many towns and villages in India. In October 2005, five people were killed in Mau in Uttar Pradesh during Hindu-Muslim rioting, which was triggered by the proposed celebration of a Hindu festival.[154]
On 3 and 4 January 2002, three Hindus and two Muslims were killed in Marad, near Kozhikode due to scuffles between two groups that began after a dispute over drinking water.[155][156] On 2001 three Muslims were killed by Rashtreeys Sevak Sangam. in response of this incident On 2 May 2003, eight Hindus were killed by a Muslim mob, in what is believed to be a sequel to the earlier incident.[156][157] One of the attackers, Mohammed Ashker was killed during the chaos. The National Development Front (NDF), a right-wing militant Islamist organization, was suspected as the perpetrator of the Marad Massacre.[158]
In the 2010 Deganga riots after hundreds of Hindu business establishments and residences were looted, destroyed and burnt, dozens of Hindus were severely injured and several Hindu temples desecrated and vandalized by the Islamist mobs led by Trinamul Congress MP Haji Nurul Islam.[159] Three years later, during the 2013 Canning riots, several hundred Hindu businesses were targeted and destroyed by Islamist mobs in the Indian state of West Bengal.[160][161] Several Hindu temples desecrated and vandalized by the mobs. The Indian media puts on a blindfold to such incidents, it makes either very less or no reporting of incident. Very few media organisation covered the 2013 riots of West Bengal,India.
International Human Rights Reports
- The 2007 United States Department of State International Religious Freedom Report noted The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the National Government generally respected this right in practice. However, some state and local governments limited this freedom in practice. [162]
- The 2008 Human Rights Watch report notes: India claims an abiding commitment to human rights, but its record is marred by continuing violations by security forces in counterinsurgency operations and by government failure to rigorously implement laws and policies to protect marginalized communities. A vibrant media and civil society continue to press for improvements, but without tangible signs of success in 2007. [6]
- The 2007 Amnesty International report listed several issues concern in India and noted Justice and rehabilitation continued to evade most victims of the 2002 Gujarat communal violence.[163]
- The 2007 United States Department of State Human Rights Report [164] noted that the government generally respected the rights of its citizens; however, numerous serious problems remained. The report which has received a lot of controversy internationally,[165][166][167][168] as it does not include human rights violations of United States and its allies, has generally been rejected by political parties in India as interference in internal affairs,[169] including in the Lower House of Parliament.[170]
In film and literature
Religious violence in India have been a topic of various films and novels.
- Firaaq a film set in the aftermath of the 2002 Gujarat riots.
- Garam Hawa a film by M. S. Sathyu based on a story on partition written by Ismat Chugtai.
- Gandhi - a 1982 film which included portrayal of the Direct Action Day and Partition riots.
- Tamas A film on partition based on a book by Bhisham Sahni
- Bombay - a 1995 film centred on events during the period of December 1992 to January 1993 in India, and the controversy surrounding the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya.[171]
- Maachis a film by Gulzar about Punjab terrorism
- Earth - a 1998 film[172] portraying Partition violence in Lahore.
- Fiza - a 2000 film,[173] plot setup amidst Bombay riots.
- Hey Ram - a 2002 film[174] with a semi-fictional plot centres around Partition of India and related religious violence.
- Mr. and Mrs. Iyer - a 2002 film.[175] The story revolves around the relationship between two lead characters Meenakshi Iyer and Raja amidst Hindu-Muslim riots in India.
- Final Solution - a 2003 documentary film about the 2002 Gujarat violence, banned in India.[176]
- Hawayein - a 2003 film about the struggles of Sikhs during the 1984 anti-Sikh riots.
- Black Friday - a Hindi film on the 1993 serial bomb blasts in Mumbai, directed by Anurag Kashyap.[177]
- Amu - An award-winning film about a girl orphaned during the 1984 Anti-Sikh riots.
- Parzania - a 2007 film about the riots in Gujarat in 2002.[178] The film was purposely not released in Gujarat.[179][180] Cinema owners and distributors in Gujarat refused to screen the film out of fear of retaliation by Hindu activists.[181] Hindutva groups in Gujarat threatened to attack theaters that showed the film.[181]
- Train to Pakistan, a novel by Khushwant Singh set during the Partition of India and a movie based on the book-Train to Pakistan (film)
- Toba Tek Singh, a satire by the writer Saadat Hasan Manto set during the Partition of India.
See also
Notes
- ^ "Census of India: Population by religious communities". 2001.
- ^ Rao, Prabhakar (2007). "Should religions try to convert others?".
{{cite web}}
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ignored (help) - ^ "Teachings of religious tolerance and intolerance in world religions".
- ^ Subrahmaniam, Vidya (2003-11-06). "Ayodhya: India's endless curse".
- ^ "A new breed of missionary". 2--5-04-01.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ^ a b "India:Events of 2007".
- ^ Goel, Madan (2007-08-14). "Pluralism, Dissent and Democracy in India" (DOC). University of West Florida. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
- ^ Sarvastivada pg 38-39
- ^ "Who was responsible for the wanton destruction of the original brick stupa of Asoka and when precisely the great work of reconstruction was carried out is not known, but it seems probable that the author of the former was Pushyamitra, the first of the Sunga kings (184-148 BCE), who was notorious for his hostility to Buddhism, and that the restoration was affected by Agnimitra or his immediate successor." in John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, p. 38. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918).
- ^ a b Ashok, pg 91-93
- ^ Article on Deokothar Stupas possibly being targeted by Pushyamitra
- ^ Akira Hirakawa, Paul Groner, A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayan, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1996, ISBN 81-208-0955-6, p. 223
- ^ O'Neill, Tom (2008). India's Ancient Art. Benoy K. Behl. National Geographic Magazine.
The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings.
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ignored (help) - ^ a b c d Wink (2004) pg 201-205
- ^ Keay pg. 184
- ^ Appleby. pg. 291-292
- ^ Keay, J. India a History, HarperCollinsPublishers London, pg. 209
- ^ Elliot, Henry Miers (1953). The History of India: as told by its own historians; the Muhammadan period (Excerpt from Jamiu'l-Hikayat). University of Michigan.
- ^ Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul Hai "Hindustan Islami Ahad Mein" (Hindustan under Islamic rule), Eng Trans by Maulana Abdul Hasan Nadwi
- ^ Index_1200-1299,Columbia.edu
- ^ a b c Banerjee, Jamini (1967). History of Firuz Shah Tughluq. Munshiram Manoharlal.
- ^ http://books.google.co.in/books?id=dlBjzE-1ML8C&pg=PA39&dq=ranjit+singh+anti+muslim+kashmir&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cx8wT5DgIojyrQeSwOzhDA&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=ranjit%20singh%20anti%20muslim%20kashmir&f=false
- ^ http://books.google.co.in/books?id=PL_ACoFwJ2gC&pg=PA41&dq=raja+gulab+singh+revolt&hl=en&sa=X&ei=5VEwT9G8NoanrAfg-dmeBA&ved=0CGMQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=raja%20gulab%20singh%20revolt&f=false
- ^ http://books.google.co.in/books?id=EqZFsNIuVWEC&pg=PA16&dq=dogra+atrocities+yasin&hl=en&sa=X&ei=T0IwT7eSFcyxrAfZ2oTXDA&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=dogra%20atrocities%20yasin&f=false
- ^ http://books.google.co.in/books?id=n_4iFggmHdUC&pg=PA262&dq=dogra+atrocities&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4magUaqFCOfY0QX-lIGABA&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=dogra%20atrocities&f=false
- ^ a b c d The South Asian Aurangzeb profile
- ^ Eaton, Richard M. (2000). "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States" (PDF). p. 297.
- ^ Mukhia, Harbans. The Mughals of India. pp. 25–26.
- ^ a b c d Rajiv Varma Destruction of Hindu Temples by Aurangzeb
- ^ Communal politics: facts versus myths by Ram Puniyani, Page 60
- ^ Stephen Conway, The British Isles and the War of American Independence, Oxford University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-19-820659-3, M1 Google Print, p. 342.
- ^ N. Shyam Bhat, South Kanara, 1799-1860: a study in colonial administration and regional response, Mittal Publications, 1998, ISBN 81-7099-586-8, M1 Google Print, p. 2.
- ^ J. B. Prashant More, Religion and society in South India: Hindus, Muslims, and Christians, Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR, 2006, ISBN 81-88432-12-1, M1 Google Print, p. 117.
- ^ "Deportation & The Konkani Christian Captivity at Srirangapatna (1784 Feb. 24th Ash Wednesday)". Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
- ^ a b c d e Sarasvati's Children, Joe Lobo
- ^ Forrest 1887, pp. 314–316
- ^ The Gentleman's Magazine 1833, p. 388
- ^ "Christianity in Mangalore". Diocese of Mangalore. Archived from the original on 2008-06-22. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
- ^ John B. Monteiro. "Monti Fest Originated at Farangipet - 240 Years Ago!". Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore. Retrieved 2009-04-28.
- ^ Bowring, Lewin (1893). Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan and the struggle with the Musalman powers of the south (1974 ed.). Delhi: ADABIYAT-I DELLI. p. 126.
- ^ Scurry & Whiteway 1824, p. 103
- ^ Scurry & Whiteway 1824, p. 103
- ^ Scurry & Whiteway 1824, p. 104
- ^ Account of a Surviving Captive, A Mr. Silva of Gangolim (Letter of a Mr. L.R. Silva to his sister, a copy of which was given by an advocate, M.M. Shanbhag, to the author, Severino da Silva, and reproduced as Appendix No. 74: History of Christianity in Canara (1965))
- ^ a b K.L. Bernard, Kerala History , pp.78-79
- ^ William Dalrymple White Mughals (2006) p.28
- ^ William Dalrymple White Mughals (2006) p.28
- ^ Storm over Seringapatam: the incredible story of Hyder Ali & Tippu Sultan, Praxy Fernandes. Chapter 14
- ^ http://books.google.co.in/books?id=QuY-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA94
- ^ The real Tipu: a brief history of Tipu Sultan, Hari Dev Sharma. p.34-35
- ^ http://books.google.co.in/books?id=_7QIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA40
- ^ Tipu Sultan, R. D. Palsokar. p.75-79
- ^ http://books.google.co.in/books?id=uMhLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161
- ^ a b http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Ad9PAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA494
- ^ Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999). Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians. I.J.A. Publications. p. 250. ISBN 978-81-86778-25-8.
- ^ a b Cariappa 1981, p. 48
- ^ a b Prabhu 1999, p. 223
- ^ Voltaire, Lettres sur l'origine des sciences et sur celle des peuples de l'Asie (first published Paris, 1777), letter of 15 December 1775
- ^ Salomon, H. P. and Sassoon, I. S. D., in Saraiva, Antonio Jose. The Marrano Factory. The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians, 1536-1765 (Brill, 2001), pp. 345-7.
- ^ Hunter, William W, The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Trubner & Co, 1886
- ^ Shirodhkar, P. P., Socio-Cultural life in Goa during the 16th century, p. 123
- ^ Seth, Vijay. "Secular Enlightenment and Christian Conversion: Missionaries and Education in Colonial India" (PDF). p. 28.
- ^ a b Mahajan, V D. Modern Indian History. p. 188. ISBN 81-219-0935-X.
- ^ A. N. Wilson (2003). The Victorians. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 202. ISBN 0-393-04974-4.
- ^ Hukum Chand. History of Medieval India. Anmol Publications PVT LTD. p. 424,433. ISBN 81-261-2313-3.
"It was a semi-national and a religious war which had for its object freedom from English bondage and establishment of Mughal Empire with Empror Bahadur Shah as the head although the latter objective was not so common as the former.
- ^ Stephen Neill (2002). A history of Christianity in India. Cambridge University Press. p. 471. ISBN 0-521-89332-1.
"What began as a fight for religion ended as a war of independence
- ^ The Indian Mutiny, Saul David, Viking 2002, page398
- ^ Ramesh, Randeep (2007-08-27). "Millions died in Indian Mutiny of 1857".
- ^ Hindu culture during and after Muslim rule: survival and subsequent challenges
- ^ http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/may/09rajeev.htm
- ^ a b Besant, Annie. The Future Of Indian Politics: A Contribution To The Understanding Of Present-Day Problems P252. Kessinger Publishing, LLC. ISBN 1-4286-2605-0.
- ^ O P Ralhan (1996). Encyclopaedia of Political Parties: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh : National, Regional, Local. Anmol Publications PVT . LTD. p. 297.
- ^ O P Ralhan (1996). Encyclopaedia of Political Parties: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh : National, Regional, Local. Anmol Publications PVT . LTD. p. 297.
- ^ Wavell to Pethick Lawrence, 21 August 1946, Mansergh, Transfer of Power, Vol. VIII, P.274
- ^ Lal, Vinay. "The Partition of India".
- ^ Death toll in the partition
- ^ Death toll in the partition
- ^ "Constitution of India as of 29 July 2008" (PDF). The Constitution Of India. Ministry of Law & Justice. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- ^ a b Charny, Israel W. (1999). Encyclopedia of genocide. ABC-CLIO. pp. 516–517. ISBN 978-0-87436-928-1. Retrieved 21 February 2011.
- ^ J.S. Grewal, The Sikhs of the Punjab, (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990) 213
- ^ J.S. Grewal, The Sikhs of the Punjab, (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990) 214; Inder Malhotra, Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography, (London/Toronto, Hodder and Stoughton, 1989) 178
- ^ Ahmad, Ishtiaq (1996). State, Nation, and Ethnicity in the Contemporary South Asia. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 130. ISBN 1-85567-578-1.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ Praagh, David Van (2003). The Greater game: India's Race With Destiny and China. India: McGill-Queen's University Press (MQUP). ISBN 0-7735-1639-5.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Review: Punjab Terrorism: Truth Still Uncovered by Pritam Singh, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 36, No. 40 (Oct. 6-12, 2001), pp. 3829-3831
- ^ a b Kaur, Jaskaran; Crossette, Barbara (2006). Twenty years of impunity: the November 1984 pogroms of Sikhs in India (PDF) (2nd ed.). Portland, OR: Ensaaf. pp. 3–5. ISBN 0-9787073-0-3.
- ^ Mukhoty, Gobinda; Kothari, Rajni (1984). "Who are the Guilty ?" (Document). People's Union for Civil LibertiesTemplate:Inconsistent citations
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ US State Department, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, “Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 1992: India,” p. 1133.
- ^ a b c d Protecting the Killers: A Policy of Impunity in Punjab, India (PDF). Vol. Volume 19, No. 14(C). Human Right Watch. OCTOBER 17, 2007. pp. 1â2.
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(help) - ^ a b c d e When Kashmiri pandits fled Islamic Terror
- ^ "Kashmiri Pandits in Nandimarg decide to leave Valley". Outlook. 30 March 2003. Retrieved 2007-11-30.
- ^ Kashmir: The scarred and the beautiful. New York Review of Books, 1 May 2008, p. 14.
- ^ "'I heard the cries of my mother and sisters'". Rediff. 27 January 1998. Retrieved 2007-11-30.
- ^ "Migrant Pandits voted for end of terror in valley". The Tribune. 27 April 2004. Retrieved 2007-11-30.
- ^ "At least 58 dead in 2 attacks in Kashmir". CNN. 2 August 2000. Retrieved 2007-11-30.
{{cite news}}
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suggested) (help) [dead link] - ^ "City shocked at killing of Kashmiri Pandits". The Times of India. 25 March 2003. Retrieved 2007-11-30.
- ^ Phil Reeves (25 March 2003). "Islamic militants kill 24 Hindus in Kashmir massacre". The Independent. Retrieved 2007-11-30.
- ^ Fernandes, Edna (2006). "Part II: The Crusaders, Chapter 11: 'Nagaland for Christ'". Holy Warriors: A Journey Into the Heart of Indian Fundamentalism. Penguin Global. ISBN 978-0-670-05870-9.
- ^ a b c Subir Bhaumik (May 2004). "Religious Radicalism and Security in South Asia" (Document). Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies.
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ignored (help) - ^ Anatomy of an Insurgency Ethnicity & Identity in Nagaland
- ^ Vatsala Vedantam (14 April 1999). "Privilege and resentment: Religious conflict in India" (Document). Christian Century.
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ignored (help) - ^ "Church backing Tripura rebels". BBC. 18 April 2000. Retrieved 2007-11-30.
- ^ 'Church backing Tripura rebels' BBC News - 18 April 2000
- ^ Parratt (2003). "Christianity, ethnicity and structural violence: The north-east India case". Kangla Online. Retrieved 2008-03-10.
... it is clear that the Naga insurgency movements in India ... have to a degree a Christian ideological base... It is significant the Rev Michael Scott, one of the members of the earlier abortive Peace Mission, was widely perceived as being the Nagas' spokesman. Phizo (the first Naga independence leader) was a convinced Baptist. In the earlier period a substantial number of pastors joined the underground. The insurgents did not fight on Sundays unless attacked (Horam 1988:76-77). The slogan "Nagaland for Christ" was a recognised rallying cry, and to some extent still is. Overtly Christian elements have appeared in official statements. The Constitution of the Federal Government of Nagaland, while it guaranteed free profession and practice of any religion, declared that Christianity would be the religion of the Naga state (Horam 1988:61). It was not averse to using religion as propaganda tool either, when it claimed that the "Hindu government" of India had adopted a policy of stopping Nagas eating meat. In the earlier days of the movement (Phanjoubam 1993:125) volunteer gospel teams preached under armed guard (one might almost say gun in one hand Bible in the other), and the conduct of the jungle camps was (and to some extent remains, like those in Myanmar) ordered by Christian spiritual activities. As with the non-Christian Meitei movements, the NSCN tended towards puritannical life style, banning alcohol and drugs, and discouraging sexual immorality. Provision of social amenities, like schools and clinics, goes hand in hand with religious teaching.
- ^ Horam, B (1988) Naga Insurgency (New Delhi)
- ^ Horam, B (1977) Social and cultural life of the Nagas (New Delhi)
- ^ Phanjoubam, Tarapot (1993) Insurgency Movement in North Eastern India (New Delhi 1993)
- ^ http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl32259.pdf This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ a b The Context of Anti-Christian Violence
- ^ Tully, Mark (5 December 2002). "Tearing down the Babri Masjid". BBC News. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^ Gargan, Edward (16 December 1992). "India, Acting on Militants, Ousts Local Rulers". New York Times. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
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specified (help) - ^ Serrill, Michael (21 December 1992). "The Unholy War". New York Times. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
{{cite news}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help); More than one of|author=
and|last=
specified (help) - ^ "Ayodhya excavation: Digging for trouble". 2003-03-13.
- ^ Bombay Riots (1993),The Times Group
- ^ Gujarat riot death toll revealed,BBC
- ^ BJP cites govt statistics to defend Modi,Indian Express
- ^ 254 Hindus, 790 Muslims killed in post-Godhra riots,Indiainfo.com
- ^ Human Rights Watch 2006, p. 265 .
- ^ Why is Narendra Modi in Wembley?,The Guardian
- ^ India's Calculated Ethnic Violence
- ^ Communal violence and nuclear stand-off
- ^ India in crisis
- ^ India-U.S. Relations
- ^ Dugger, Celia W. muslim Rioters Kill 60 hindus in India New York Times. New York, N.Y.:1 March 2002.
- ^ "People Wanted Revenge And Got It". Outlook. 18 March 2002.
- ^ "Muslim forum flays RSS resolution". Chennai, India: The Hindu. 19 March 2002.
- ^ "Sectarian violence in India". The Economist. 1 May 2002.
- ^ "NGO says Gujarat riots were planned". BBC News Online. 19 March 2002. Retrieved 4 January 2010.
- ^ a b c "Anti-Christian Violence on the Rise in India".
- ^ a b c "Anti-Christian Violence in India".
- ^ Ram Puniyani (2003). Communal Politics: Facts Versus Myths. SAGE. pp. p167. ISBN 0-7619-9667-2.
{{cite book}}
:|pages=
has extra text (help) - ^ Indian Christians are victims of a 'concerted campaign'
- ^ a b Violence against Christians continues
- ^ "Orissa carnage: Christian group demands CBI probe". The Times Of India. 30 December 2007.
- ^ "India: Stop Hindu-Christian Violence in Orissa".
- ^ "Stop the hate crime".
- ^ a b "Fresh violence in Orissa, curfew continues".
- ^ "Church Attack: Indefinite curfew in Orissa".
- ^ a b Hindu Extremists Attack Indian Churches, Torch Home of Prominent Christian
- ^ Catholic priest killed in Mathura
- ^ INDIA
- ^ The Staines case verdict V. Venkatesan, Frontline Magazine, Oct 11-23, 2003
- ^ "Foreign News: Ex-Butterfly". Time. 6 June 1932. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^ http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=fbf5c6e5-48ea-48c5-9949-7e95d318eacf&&Headline=His+faith%2C+our+faith
- ^ a b "US rights report slams India for anti-Christian violence". 1999-02-27. Retrieved 2007-12-17.
- ^ "150-yr-old church set afire in Madhya Pradesh". The Times Of India. 20 September 2008.
- ^ http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/protest-in-delhi-over-violence-against-christians_100100429.html
- ^ http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=52f4a9cd-b459-4b3b-9f71-be329f169618&ParentID=b0abd3c0-c5b7-4c09-aee8-7754ffc67491&&Headline=Christians+in+K'taka+hurt%3a+Archbishop
- ^ Karnataka Bajrang Dal head gets bail, refuses it
- ^ Bajrang Dal launches campaign,The Tribune
- ^ "We killed Swami, Maoists say again" (Press release). The Times of India. 6 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
- ^ 'Majority of Maoist supporters in Orissa are Christians' The Hindu - 5 October 2008
- ^ 3 arrested in Laxmanananda murder case Indian Express - 7 October 2008
- ^ Net closes in on Cong MP for Orissa swami’s murder Indian Express - 27 December 2008
- ^ Human Rights Watch World Report 2006
- ^ "Kerala Communal Clashes: 62 get life for killing 8". The Tribune. 15 January 2009. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
- ^ a b Marad can yet be retrieved
- ^ IMC India - 8 Hindus hacked to death by muslim mob in kerala
- ^ NDF behind Marad massacre?
- ^ Bandyopadhyay, Sabyasachi (September 14, 2010). "Riot-scarred Deganga says Trinamool MP 'main villain'". Kolkata: Indian Express. Retrieved September 14, 2010.
- ^ Caesar Mandal (2013-02-20). "Violence after villager murder". Retrieved 2013-02-24.
- ^ "West Bengal: 200 homes torched, shops ransacked in riots". Oneindia News. 21 February 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2007 - India". 2007.
- ^ "http://thereport.amnesty.org/document/15". 2007.
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- ^ "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices".
The government generally respected the rights of its citizens; however, numerous serious problems remained
- ^ "ANNUAL U.S. HUMAN RIGHTS REPORT GARNERS CRITICISM/PRAISE, EXPOSES U.S. 'DOUBLE STANDARD'". "US Office of Research & Media Reaction. 1999-03-05.
- ^ ANDRES OPPENHEIMER (2006-03-13). "U.S. Rights Report Should Include U.S. Abuses". Salt Lake Tribune.
- ^ "US human rights report spares allies". Melbourne: The Age. 2006-03-10.
- ^ "U.S. rights report shows double standards: Russia". Reuters. 2008-03-12.
- ^ "CPI(M) terms US report on West Bengal 'interference' in India".
- ^ "India not bound by Bush administration: Lok Sabha". ExpressIndia. 2008-03-14.
Responding to the point made by Dasgupta, Speaker Somnath Chatterjee observed the report should be 'ignored with contempt it deserves'. "We are not bound by the Bush administration," he said.
- ^ Bumbai (1995) IMDB
- ^ Earth (1998) IMDB
- ^ Fiza (2000) IMDB
- ^ Hey Ram (2000) IMDB
- ^ Mr. and Mrs. Iyer (2002) IMDB
- ^ Final Solution (2003) IMDB
- ^ Black Friday (2004) IMDB
- ^ Parzania (2005) IMDB
- ^ Parzania not screened in Gujarat
- ^ Cinema at its very best... and then some not quite so at all
- ^ a b "International Religious Freedom Report 2007:India".
http://domesticviolences.com/violence-against-women/
References
- Violence against Christians continues
- Next Stop Orissa
- Template:PDFlink
- Sangh Parivar makes it a bloodthirsty Sunday for Muslims and Christians
- Vandals in Orissa
- Communal Violence and the Denial of Justice
- The Danger of Hindutva to Secular India
- UK charities scam linked to Sangh Parivar
External links
- Varshney-Wilkinson Dataset on Hindu-Muslim Violence in India, 1950-1995, Version 2
- Religion based violence and communalism, People's Union for Civil Liberties