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==Jews== |
==Jews== |
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King [[Casimir III the Great]] brought Jews to Poland during [[the crusades]] at a time when Jewish communities were being persecuted and expelled from all over Europe. As a result of better life conditions, by the mid-16th century, 80% of the world's Jews lived in Poland.<ref name="JVL">[https://web.archive.org/web/20160414192825/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Poland.html "Poland – Virtual Jewish History Tour" at ''Jewish Virtual Library''] via Internet Archive.</ref><ref name="history1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120129091908/http://polishjews.org/history1.htm "Polish Jews History", at PolishJews.org] via Internet Archive. |
King [[Casimir III the Great]] brought Jews to Poland during [[the crusades]] at a time when Jewish communities were being persecuted and expelled from all over Europe. As a result of better life conditions, by the mid-16th century, 80% of the world's Jews lived in Poland.<ref name="JVL">[https://web.archive.org/web/20160414192825/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Poland.html "Poland – Virtual Jewish History Tour" at ''Jewish Virtual Library''] via Internet Archive.</ref><ref name="history1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120129091908/http://polishjews.org/history1.htm "Polish Jews History", at PolishJews.org] via Internet Archive.</ref> During the 15th century in the royal capital of [[Kraków]], extremist clergymen advocated violence towards the Jews, who in a gradual process lost their positions. In 1469 Jews were expelled from their old settlement to Spiglarska Street. In 1485 Jewish elders were forced into a renunciation of trade in Kraków, which led many Jews to leave for [[Kazimierz]] that did not fall under the restrictions due to its status as a royal town. Following the 1494 fire in Kraków, a wave of anti-Jewish attacks took place. King [[John I Albert]] forced the remaining Jews of Kraków to move to Kazimierz.<ref>[https://books.google.co.il/books?id=U-0U7NozDDoC&pg=PA5&dq=1495+Jews+Kazimierz+fire&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjYysrnnrviAhUEIVAKHeRQA-IQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=1495%20Jews%20Kazimierz%20fire&f=false The Torah Ark in Renaissance Poland: A Jewish Revival of Classical Antiquity], Ilia M. Rodov, Brill, pages 2-6</ref> |
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In the [[Second Polish Republic]], from the 1920s the Polish government excluded Jews from receiving government bank credits, public sector employment, and obtaining business licenses in government controlled sphere of the economy. From the 1930s limits were placed on Jewish enrollment in university education, Jewish shops, Jewish export firms, [[Shechita]], Jewish admission to the medical and legal professions, Jews in business associations, etc. While in 1921-22 25% of students were Jews, by 1938-9 the proportion went down to 8%. The far-right [[National Democracy]] (Endeks) organized anti-Jewish boycotts. Following the death of Poland's ruler [[Józef Piłsudski]] in 1935, the Endeks intensified their efforts and in 1937 declared that their "main aim and duty must be to remove the Jews from all spheres of social, economic, and cultural life in Poland", which lead to violence in a few cases pogroms in smaller towns. The government in response organized the [[Camp of National Unity]] (OZON), which in 1938 took control of the Polish parliament. The Polish parliament then drafted anti-Jewish legislation similar to [[anti-Jewish laws]] in Germany, Hungary, and Romania. OZON advocated mass emigration of Jews from Poland, boycott of Jews, [[Numerus clausus#Poland|numerus clausus]] (see also [[Ghetto benches]]), and other limitation on Jewish rights. While the Polish regime fell short of [[Fascism]], by 1939 Polish Jews were threatened with conditions similar to those in Germany.<ref name="Hagen">[https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/600769?journalCode=jmh Hagen, William W. "Before the" final solution": Toward a comparative analysis of political anti-Semitism in interwar Germany and Poland." The Journal of Modern History 68.2 (1996): 351-381.]</ref> |
In the [[Second Polish Republic]], from the 1920s the Polish government excluded Jews from receiving government bank credits, public sector employment, and obtaining business licenses in government controlled sphere of the economy. From the 1930s limits were placed on Jewish enrollment in university education, Jewish shops, Jewish export firms, [[Shechita]], Jewish admission to the medical and legal professions, Jews in business associations, etc. While in 1921-22 25% of students were Jews, by 1938-9 the proportion went down to 8%. The far-right [[National Democracy]] (Endeks) organized anti-Jewish boycotts. Following the death of Poland's ruler [[Józef Piłsudski]] in 1935, the Endeks intensified their efforts and in 1937 declared that their "main aim and duty must be to remove the Jews from all spheres of social, economic, and cultural life in Poland", which lead to violence in a few cases pogroms in smaller towns. The government in response organized the [[Camp of National Unity]] (OZON), which in 1938 took control of the Polish parliament. The Polish parliament then drafted anti-Jewish legislation similar to [[anti-Jewish laws]] in Germany, Hungary, and Romania. OZON advocated mass emigration of Jews from Poland, boycott of Jews, [[Numerus clausus#Poland|numerus clausus]] (see also [[Ghetto benches]]), and other limitation on Jewish rights. While the Polish regime fell short of [[Fascism]], by 1939 Polish Jews were threatened with conditions similar to those in Germany.<ref name="Hagen">[https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/600769?journalCode=jmh Hagen, William W. "Before the" final solution": Toward a comparative analysis of political anti-Semitism in interwar Germany and Poland." The Journal of Modern History 68.2 (1996): 351-381.]</ref> |
Revision as of 08:27, 1 August 2019
Racism in Poland is present like in all countries, even though a race-based worldview has had little chance to develop. Racism has persisted alongside the fact that ethnic minorities have made up a significant proportion of the population since the founding of the Polish state. Throughout most of its one thousand-year history, Poland has experienced very limited immigration; apart from the immigration of the Jews while they were having been expelled from other parts of the Europe. Poland has never had overseas colonies.[1][note 1] For a lengthy period the country was regarded as having a very tolerant society vowing to "constant evidence for numerous varieties of religious nonconformity, sectarians, schism, and heterodoxy."[1]
Poland experienced an extreme racism under the Nazi German occupation during World War II. The Jews and Romani people were exterminated (the genocides of the Holocaust and Porajmos). The Poles themselves together with other Slavic peoples were classified as subhuman by Nazis and were to be enslaved and subject to cultural genocide. Robert Gellately wrote that the intent of the Nazis was "to erase the Polish state, nation, and culture from the face of the Earth" and described this intent as "serial genocide". [2]
Jews
King Casimir III the Great brought Jews to Poland during the crusades at a time when Jewish communities were being persecuted and expelled from all over Europe. As a result of better life conditions, by the mid-16th century, 80% of the world's Jews lived in Poland.[3][4] During the 15th century in the royal capital of Kraków, extremist clergymen advocated violence towards the Jews, who in a gradual process lost their positions. In 1469 Jews were expelled from their old settlement to Spiglarska Street. In 1485 Jewish elders were forced into a renunciation of trade in Kraków, which led many Jews to leave for Kazimierz that did not fall under the restrictions due to its status as a royal town. Following the 1494 fire in Kraków, a wave of anti-Jewish attacks took place. King John I Albert forced the remaining Jews of Kraków to move to Kazimierz.[5]
In the Second Polish Republic, from the 1920s the Polish government excluded Jews from receiving government bank credits, public sector employment, and obtaining business licenses in government controlled sphere of the economy. From the 1930s limits were placed on Jewish enrollment in university education, Jewish shops, Jewish export firms, Shechita, Jewish admission to the medical and legal professions, Jews in business associations, etc. While in 1921-22 25% of students were Jews, by 1938-9 the proportion went down to 8%. The far-right National Democracy (Endeks) organized anti-Jewish boycotts. Following the death of Poland's ruler Józef Piłsudski in 1935, the Endeks intensified their efforts and in 1937 declared that their "main aim and duty must be to remove the Jews from all spheres of social, economic, and cultural life in Poland", which lead to violence in a few cases pogroms in smaller towns. The government in response organized the Camp of National Unity (OZON), which in 1938 took control of the Polish parliament. The Polish parliament then drafted anti-Jewish legislation similar to anti-Jewish laws in Germany, Hungary, and Romania. OZON advocated mass emigration of Jews from Poland, boycott of Jews, numerus clausus (see also Ghetto benches), and other limitation on Jewish rights. While the Polish regime fell short of Fascism, by 1939 Polish Jews were threatened with conditions similar to those in Germany.[6]
In the mid-20th century, notable incidents of antisemitism in Poland included Jedwabne pogrom of 1941 in the presence of German Ordnungspolizei (police officers)[7] and Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–46, attributed to postwar lawlessness as well as an anti-communist insurrection against the new pro-Soviet government immediately after the end of World War II in Europe,[8] and the "Żydokomuna" (Jewish communism) stereotype.[9] Another major event took place during the 1968 Polish political crisis.
The Jewish community in Poland consisted of about 10% of the general population by 1939, but was all but eradicated during the Holocaust following the German invasion of Poland in 1939 at the onset of World War II.[10]. During the Polish census of 2011, 7,353 persons declared Jewish ethnicity (including the second one).
In 2017, the University of Warsaw’s Center for Research on Prejudice found an increase in antisemitic views in Poland, possibly due to growing Islamophobia and anti-migrant sentiment.[11] Later that year, the European Jewish Congress accused the Polish government of "normalizing" the phenomenon in the country.[12]
Sub-Saharan Africans
The most common word in Polish for a black person is "murzyn". It is generally regarded as a neutral word which was used for centuries to describe a person of black (Sub-Saharan African) ancestry, but nowadays some black Africans consider it to be pejorative, though the majority of people in Poland see it as a neutral term regardless.[13]
One of the high-profile events regarding blacks in Poland was the death of Maxwell Itoya in 2010, a Nigerian street vendor from a mixed marriage who was selling counterfeit goods.[14] He was shot in the upper leg by a policeman during a street brawl that followed a screening check at a market in Warsaw and died of a severed artery.[15] The event led to a media debate regarding policing and racism.[16]
There have been other cases of violence against blacks in recent years. In Strzelce Opolskie, Black soccer players from LZS Piotrówka club were attacked in a bar by fans of the opposing team Odra Opole in 2015 and two young men were arrested.[17] At least six men were sentenced. [18] In a Łódź dance-club, a black student was attacked in a men's washroom.[19][20]
Roma
In June 1991 the Mława riot happened, which was a series of violent incidents against Polska Roma after a Polish man was killed and another one permanently harmed by a Romani teenager in a luxury car in a hit-and-run accident.[21] After that a rioting mob attacked Romani residents of the Polish town of Mława where hundreds fled out of fear. The Mlawa officials insisted that the event was caused by jealousy to the prosperity of the Romani, whose predominant occupation was gold and automobile trade. However the racial motive of the events is commonly recognized. [22]
Among coverage of the riot, a change of ethnic stereotypes about Roma in Poland was mentioned: A Roma is no longer poor, dirty, or cheerful. They also do not beg or pretend to be lowly. Nowadays a Roma drives a high status car, lives in a fancy mansion, flaunts his wealth, brags that the local authorities and the police are on his pay and thus he is not afraid of anybody. At the same time he is, as before, a swindler, a thief, a hustler, a dodger of military service and of a legal, decent job.[23] Negative "metastereotypes" – or the Romas' own perceptions regarding the stereotypes that members of the dominant groups hold about their own group – were described by the Polish Roma Society in an attempt to intensify the dialogue about exclusionism.[24]
Ethnic Poles
When part of Poland was under the rule of the German Empire, the Polish population was discriminated against by racist policies. These policies gained popularity among German nationalists, some of whom were members of the Völkisch movement, leading to the expulsion of Poles by Germany. This was fueled by Anti-Polish sentiment, especially during the age of partitions.[25][26][27]
Poland was under German and Soviet occupation during World War II. At this period Polish people were harshly discriminated against in their own occupied country. The Nazi German regime saw the Poles as "subhumans" (untermenschen). Nazi policy towards ethnic Polish was and eventually the genocide and destruction of whole Polish nation, as well as cultural genocide[28],[29] which involved Germanisation, as well as the suppression or murder of religious, cultural, intellectual, and political leadership.On March 15, 1940, Heinrich Himmler stated “All Polish specialists will be exploited in our military-industrial complex. Later, all Poles will disappear from this world. It is imperative that the great German nation considers the elimination of all Polish people as its chief task.”[30]The Nazi goal in this policy was to prevent effective Polish resistance and to exploit Polish people as unskilled laborers.[31] Polish forced laborers in Nazi Germany were forced to wear identifying red tags with the letter P that were sewn to their clothing. Sexual relations with Germans (rassenschande or "racial defilement") were punishable by death.[32] During the war, thousands of Polish men were executed for their relations with German women.[33]
Other than that, during World War II, Polish people became the primary targets of ethnicity-based massacres by Ukrainian Insurgent Army, then in the territory of occupied Poland.[34] A considerable element of cultural genocide of Poles were Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946) and especially the Katyn massacre in 1940 by the Soviet Union.
- See also: Polish operation of the NKVD, a systematic political repression of the Poles in the Soviet Union in 1937-1938, including even the Communist Party of Poland refugees from Poland.
Modern Poland
2008 EVS survey
An analysis based on the European Values Survey (EVS), which took place in 2008, compares Poland to other European nations. Poland had very high levels of political tolerance (lack of extremist political attitudes), relatively high levels of ethnic tolerance (based on attitudes towards Muslims, immigrants, Romas, and Jews) and at the same time low levels of personal tolerance (based on attitudes towards people considered "deviant" or "threatening"). From 1998 to 2008, there was a marked increase in political and ethnic tolerance, but a decrease in personal tolerance.[35]
In 1990, due partly to the political euphoria accompanying the fall of communism, Poland was the most tolerant nation in Central Europe. However, over the course of the '90s, tolerance decreased. By 1999, EVS recorded Poland as having one of the highest rates of xenophobia in Europe, while antisemitism also increased during this time. The factors behind these decreases in tolerance and the radicalization in attitudes towards other ethnic groups during this time likely included the country's economic problems associated with a costly transition from Communism (for example, high unemployment), ineffectual government and possibly an increase in immigration from outside.[35]
These attitudes began to change after 2000, possibly due to Poland's entry into the European Union, increased travel abroad and more frequent encounters with people of other races. By 2008, the EVS showed Poland as one of the least xenophobic countries in Central and Eastern Europe. The negative attitudes towards Jews have likewise returned to their lower 1990s level, although they do remain somewhat above the European average.[35] During the same time period, ethnic tolerance and political tolerance increased in Southern Europe (Spain, Greece) and decreased in other parts of Northern Europe (Netherlands).[35]
While the Roma group was listed as most rejected, the level of exclusion was still lower than elsewhere in Europe, most likely due the long history of Roma (see Polska Roma) and their relatively low numbers in the country.[35]
State and racism
In 2004, the government took some initiatives in order to tackle the problem of racism. They adopted the "National Programme to Prevent Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance 2004-2009" ("Krajowy Program Przeciwdziałania Dyskryminacji Rasowej, Ksenofobii i Związanej z Nimi Nietolerancji 2004 – 2009"[36]) and also established the Monitoring Team on Racism and Xenophobia within the Ministry of Interior and Administration. The Implementation Report (2010)[37] stated that the programme suffered from various obstacles, including lacking and unclear funding, and eventually some planned tasks were completed, while others were not.[38]
Islamophobia
Initially Poland's small Muslim community, some 0.1% of the population, were treated equally unlike other minorities, Jews in particular, that have faced hostility and suspicion. During communist rule the censorship office barred unfavorable portrayals of Muslims due to Poland's geopolitical alignment with Arab countries during this period.[39] Following the European migrant crisis, Islamophobia has been on the rise in Poland according to Dr. Konrad Pedziwiatr.[40] In 2016, the wSieci magazine ran a cover with a white women assaulted by dark males under the title "The Islamic rape of Europe" which evoked outrage,[41] and has been compared to WWII propaganda with the same imagery.[42][43] While the moderate wing of the Catholic Church has espoused toleration, conservative voices, associated with the conservative wing of the Church, expressed in Fronda.pl and Polonia Christiana (PCh24.pl) have been significant in their contribution to the stereotyping of refugees and Muslims.[39] Whereas the normal age distribution of prejudice is tilted towards older people, the opposite is true in Poland: A 2015 opinion poll showed 59 percent of 18 to 24 years associated Islam with dangers contrasted with 37 percent of those older than 65.[42]
Countering racism
"Never Again" Association
The "Never Again" Association is an a-political anti-racist organization, based in Warsaw. The organization has its roots in an in-formal anti-Nazi youth group that was active since 1992, and was formally founded in 1996 at Bydgoszcz by Marcin Kornak . As of 2010, there were several hundred members in the organization, of which some 80% were in Poland and 20% were in other European countries.[44][45] "Never Again" publishes, since 1994, the "Never Again" magazine.[44] The magazine is focused on countering intolerance, fascism, racism and xenophobia.[46] "Never Again" publishes the Brown Book (Polish: „Brunatna Księga”),[47] which compiles xenophobic, racist, and anti-gay incidents.[48][49]
Notes
- ^ With a marginal exception of Couronian colonisation of the Americas when the Duchy of Courland was a vassal of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
References
- ^ a b Norman Davies (2005). God's Playground A History of Poland. OUP Oxford. pp. 126–131. ISBN 0199253390.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ Robert Gellately "The Third Reich, the Holocaust, and Visions of Serial Genocide" in: The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0521527503, pp. 253, 256. Quotes: "Genocidal intent seems to have been more or less assumed in discussions of the Poles by a wide range of Nazi officials and planners".By "intent" I mean that was a desire to erase the Polish state, nation, and culture from the face of the Earth." "Given these percentages, it would have been impossible for any of these nations to survive as cultures or nations in any meaningful sense, so that these plans explicitly accept that all four of these nations would for all intents and purposes would cease to exist. These plans in effect, therefore, called for nothing less than serial genocide."
- ^ "Poland – Virtual Jewish History Tour" at Jewish Virtual Library via Internet Archive.
- ^ "Polish Jews History", at PolishJews.org via Internet Archive.
- ^ The Torah Ark in Renaissance Poland: A Jewish Revival of Classical Antiquity, Ilia M. Rodov, Brill, pages 2-6
- ^ Hagen, William W. "Before the" final solution": Toward a comparative analysis of political anti-Semitism in interwar Germany and Poland." The Journal of Modern History 68.2 (1996): 351-381.
- ^ Piotr Wróbel (2006). Polish-Jewish Relations. Northwestern University Press. pp. 391–396. ISBN 0-8101-2370-3.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ August Grabski. "Book review of Stefan Grajek: Po wojnie i co dalej? Żydzi w Polsce, w latach 1945−1949 translated from Hebrew by Aleksander Klugman, 2003" (PDF). Central and Eastern European Online Library (CEEOL) (in Polish). Kwartalnik Historii Żydów (Jewish History Quarterly). p. 240 – via direct download, 1.03 MB.
- ^ Marek Jan Chodakiewicz, After the Holocaust Polish-Jewish Conflict in the Wake of World War II, Columbia University Press, New York 2003, ISBN 0-88033-511-4.
- ^ Lukas, Richard, PhD. (1989). Out of the Inferno: Poles Remember the Holocaust. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 5, 13, 111, 201.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link); also in Lukas (2012) [1986]. The Forgotten Holocaust: Poles Under Nazi Occupation 1939-1944. New York: University of Kentucky Press/Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-7818-0901-0. - ^ AFP; AP; Gambrell, Jon; AFP; RANDOLPH, Eric; Noorani, Ali; Gross, Judah Ari (January 25, 2017). "Anti-Semitism seen on the rise in Poland". The Times of Israel. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
- ^ "Anti-Semitism being 'normalised' in Poland, Jewish Congress warns". The Telegraph. August 31, 2017. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
- ^ Piróg, Patrycja. ""Murzynek Bambo w Afryce mieszka", czyli jak polska kultura stworzyła swojego "Murzyna"". opposite.uni.wroc.pl. Retrieved 17 June 2016.
"Murzyn", który zdaniem wielu Polaków, w tym także naukowców, nie jest obraźliwy, uznawany jest przez osoby czarnoskóre za dyskryminujący i uwłaczający.
- ^ Joanna, Podgorska. "Wdowa po Nigeryjczyku". Polityka.
W tym roku miał dostać polski paszport.
- ^ Piotr Machajski (28 June 2013), Milion zł za zastrzelonego męża? Żona chce odszkodowania. Wyborcza.pl.
- ^ "Poland: Reflections on the death of a street vendor". No Racism.net. Retrieved April 8, 2012.
- ^ TVN 24 Wrocław (7 April 2015), Pobicie czarnoskórych piłkarzy. Dwóch zatrzymanych. News byte.
- ^ [1]
- ^ Antoni Bohdanowicz. "W Łodzi pobito czarnoskórego studenta". naTemat.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 2016-05-05 – via Google translate.
- ^ "8 pseudokibiców odpowie za pobicie czarnoskórych piłkarzy". 2016-04-12. 8 hooligans answer for beating black players of LZS Piotrówka at a beer parlour Browar Centrum. Retrieved 2016-05-05 – via Google translate.
- ^ Rebecca Jean Emigh; Iván Szelényi (2001). Poverty, Ethnicity, and Gender in Eastern Europe During the Market Transition. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 101–102. ISBN 978-0-275-96881-6. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
- ^ "Poles Vent Their Economic Rage on Gypsies". The New York Times. July 25, 1991. Retrieved January 26, 2011.
- ^ Anna Giza-Poleszczuk, Jan Poleszczuk, Raport "Cyganie i Polacy w Mławie - konflikt etniczny czy społeczny?" (Report "Romani and Poles in Mława - Ethnic or Social Conflict?") commissioned by Centre for Public Opinion Research, Warsaw, December 1992, pp. 16- 23, Sections III and IV "Cyganie w PRL-u stosunki z polską większością w Mławie" and "Lata osiemdziesiąte i dziewięćdziesiąte".
- ^ "Romowie. Rozprawa o poczuciu wykluczenia". Stowarzyszenie Romów w Polsce.
Okazuje się, że ów metastereotyp – rodzaj wyobrażenia Romów o tym, jak są postrzegani przez "obcych" – jest wizerunkiem nasyconym prawie wyłącznie cechami negatywnymi.
{{cite web}}
: Cite uses deprecated parameter|authors=
(help) - ^ Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Routledge. p. 156 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Eh9KQTrOckC&q=page+156#v=onepage&q=page%20156&f=false
- ^ Batt, Judy; Wolczuk, Kataryna (2002). Region, State and Identity in Central and Eastern Europe. Routledge. p. 153.
- ^ Sinkoff, Nancy (2004). Out of the Shtetl: Making Jews Modern in the Polish Borderlands. Society of Biblical Literature. p. 271.
- ^ Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identities and Cultural Differences. Rodopi. 1999. p. 32-33.
{{cite book}}
: Cite uses deprecated parameter|authors=
(help) - ^ William Schabas, Genocide in international law: the crimes of crimes, Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-78790-4, Google Print, p.179
- ^ Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947 by Tadeusz Piotrowski page 23 2007
- ^ "Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 2005-11-28. Retrieved January 25, 2014.
{{cite web}}
: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help); Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ Helen Boak. "Nazi policies on German women during the Second World War - Lessons learned from the First World War?". pp. 4–5.
- ^ Nazi Ideology and the Holocaust. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. January 2007. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-89604-712-9.
- ^ Mikolaj Terles (1 July 2008). Ethnic Cleansing of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia: 1942–1946. Alliance of the Polish Eastern Provinces, Toronto Branch, 1993. ISBN 0-9698020-0-5 – via Google Books, search inside.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ a b c d e "Tolerance in Poland: Polish attitudes towards ethnic minorities and immigrants" (PDF). Focus on Sociology. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 15, 2014. Retrieved September 14, 2014.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ http://wiadomosci.ngo.pl/files/rownosc.ngo.pl/public/prawo_polskie/KP_przec_dyskr_ras.pdf Krajowy Program Przeciwdziałania Dyskryminacji Rasowej, Ksenofobii i Związanej z Nimi Nietolerancji 2004 – 2009 (retrieved December 8, 2016)
- ^ [http://www.spoleczenstwoobywatelskie.gov.pl/sites/default/files/sprawozdanie_przyjete_przez_rm_7_maja_proram_.pdf "SPRAWOZDANIE Z REALIZACJI KRAJOWEGO PROGRAMU PRZECIWDZIAŁANIA DYSKRYMINACJI RASOWEJ, KSENOFOBII I ZWI�ZANEJ Z NIMI NIETOLERANCJI ZA LATA 2004-2009"] (retrieved December 8, 2016)
- ^ Racism in Poland: Report on Research Among Victims of Violence with Reference to National, Racial, or Ethnic Origin, by Agnieszka Mikulska, Helsinki Human Rights Foundation , 2010 (retrieved December 8, 2016)
- ^ a b Pędziwiatr, Konrad. "The Catholic Church in Poland on Muslims and Islam." Patterns of Prejudice 52.5 (2018): 461-478.
- ^ How big an issue is Islamophobia in Poland?, Shafik Mandhai, Al Jazeera, 14 November 2017
- ^ Polish magazine's 'Islamic rape of Europe' cover sparks outrage, The Guardian, 16 February 2016
- ^ a b Goździak, Elżbieta M., and Péter Márton. "Where the wild things are: Fear of Islam and the anti-refugee rhetoric in Hungary and in Poland." Central and Eastern European Migration Review 17.2 (2018): 125-151.
- ^ The so-called 'Islamic rape of Europe' is part of a long and racist history, Washington Post, 16 February 2016
- ^ a b Tatar, Anna. "The association “Never Again” and its activities." Politeja-Pismo Wydziału Studiów Międzynarodowych i Politycznych Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego 7.14 (2010): 599-607.
- ^ Konze, Andre. "Deredicalisation of foreign fighters", Criminal Justice and Security in Central and Eastern Europe 351.352: 281-282.
- ^ Cosmopolitanism, Nationalism, and Modern Paganism: chapter Only Slavic Gods: Nativeness in Polish Rodzimowierstwo, chapter by Scott Simpson, Palgrave Studies in New Religions and Alternative Spiritualities, page 73
- ^ „Brunatna Księga” on nigdywiecej
- ^ Transforming the Transformation?: The East European Radical Right in the political process, edited by By Michael Minkenberg
- ^ European Islamophobia Report 2015, edited by Enes Bayraklı, Farid Hafez, page 436