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<!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: [[Image:Mao book.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Chinese poster saying: "Chairman Mao is the Red sun in our hearts.", 1966.]] -->'''Propaganda in the People's Republic of China''' refers to the [[People's republic of China|PRC]]'s use of [[propaganda|distributing information to the general public]] |
<!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: [[Image:Mao book.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Chinese poster saying: "Chairman Mao is the Red sun in our hearts.", 1966.]] -->'''Propaganda in the People's Republic of China''' refers to the [[People's republic of China|PRC]]'s use of [[propaganda|distributing information to the general public]]. |
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Mao-era China is known for its constant use of mass campaigns to legitimate the state and the policies of leaders. It was the first Chinese government to successfully make use of modern mass propaganda techniques, adapting them to the needs of a country which had a largely rural and illiterate population.<ref name=mitter /> |
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Since the post-1989 period, propaganda and thought work have become the "life blood" of the Party-State, and one of the key means for guaranteeing the Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) continued legitimacy and hold on power, according to Anne-Marie Brady, an Associate Professor at the University of Canterbury’s School of Political Science and Communication.<ref name=brady08>Anne-Marie Brady, Marketing dictatorship: propaganda and thought work in contemporary China, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008, p. 1</ref> |
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==History== |
==History== |
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{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2009}} |
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The origins of the PRC propaganda system can be traced to the [[Yan'an Rectification Movement|Yan’an and the rectification |
The origins of the PRC propaganda system can be traced to the [[Yan'an Rectification Movement|Yan’an and the rectification movements carried out there]]<ref name="Frederick">{{cite book|last=C. Teiwes|first= Frederick |title=Politics and Purges in China|publisher=Armonk: M. E. Sharpe|date=1993|edition=2nd|chapter=1,2}}</ref> following which it became a key mechanism in the Party's campaigns.<ref name="Solomon">{{cite book|last=Solomon|first=Richard|title=Mao’s Revolution and the Chinese Political Culture|publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press|date=1971}}</ref> |
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The propaganda system, considered a central part of CCP’s “control system”<ref name="Franz2 ">{{cite book|last=Schurmann’s |first=Franz |title= Ideology and Organization in Communist China|publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press|date=1966}}</ref>, drew much from Soviet, Nazi and other totalitarian states’ propaganda methods<ref name="David">{{cite book|last=Welch|first=David |title=The Third Reich: Politics and Propaganda|publisher=New York: Routledge|date=1993}}</ref>. It represented a quintessential [[agitprop|Leninist “transmission belt” for indoctrination and mass mobilization]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Inkeles|first=Alex|title=Public Opinion in Soviet Russia: A Study in Mass Persuasion |publisher=Cambridge: Harvard University Press|date=1950}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kenez|first=Peter |title=The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization |publisher=Cambridge: Cambridge University Press|date=1985}}</ref>. |
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Propaganda and indoctrination are considered to have been a hallmark of the |
Propaganda and indoctrination are considered to have been a hallmark of the maoist state<ref name=Franz2/><ref name="Frederick"/> and [[Mao]] a “master propagandist” in his own right. His regime employed a variety of “thought control” techniques including incarceration for brainwashing, construction of models to be emulated, mass mobilization campaigns and creation of study groups and ideological monitors throughout society, promulgation of articles to be memorized, control of the educational system, a nationwide system of loudspeakers that reached into every village, control of and propaganda through media, and creation of propaganda teams to indoctrinate segments of the population, among other methods. <ref name="Shambaugh">{{cite journal|last=Shambaugh|first=David |title=CHINA’S PROPAGANDA SYSTEM: INSTITUTIONS, PROCESSES AND EFFICACY}}</ref> |
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[[China Central Television]] has traditionally served as a major national conduit for televised propaganda, while the ''[[People's Daily]]'' newspaper has served as a medium for print propaganda. |
[[China Central Television]] has traditionally served as a major national conduit for televised propaganda, while the ''[[People's Daily]]'' newspaper has served as a medium for print propaganda. |
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Propaganda produced by the [[Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China]] of the ruling |
Propaganda produced by the [[Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China]] of the ruling [[Communist Party of China]] (CPC) has been disseminated through state-controlled print and electronic media, and the CPC has made prolific use of the Internet as a means of distributing propaganda to both Chinese citizens and foreigners in the modern age. |
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[[Image:Pi lin pi kong.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A poster during the [[Criticize Lin Biao, Criticize Confucius]] campaign. It reads, "The criticism of Lin and Kong (Confucius) is a matter of prime importance to the country and armed forces".]] |
[[Image:Pi lin pi kong.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A poster during the [[Criticize Lin Biao, Criticize Confucius]] campaign. It reads, "The criticism of Lin and Kong (Confucius) is a matter of prime importance to the country and armed forces".]] |
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Political |
[[Political scientist]]s believe that propaganda in the PRC is being utilized by the CPC to nurture the development of [[Chinese nationalism]] and of loyalty to the PRC, the CPC, and the Beijing government in general. Many also believe that the PRC government, having embarked on a program of capitalist-style economic reform and modernization in the late 1970s, is keen to use propaganda to portray the CPC as a nationalistic and patriotic party, rather than simply as a party that builds [[socialism]] or implements [[Marxism-Leninism]] in China, since these have largely been abandoned in practice and thus can no longer serve as effective bases for loyalty to the regime. Common themes in the new nationalistic propaganda of the PRC include the lionizing of the CPC's [[People's Liberation Army]] and its individual soldiers for their exploits and sacrifices during the 1937-1945 [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] and the allegedly seamless unity of the [[Nationalities of China|nation's 56 officially recognized ethnic groups]]. |
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In previous decades, PRC propaganda was crucial to the formation and promotion of the [[cult of personality]] centered around Chairman [[Mao Zedong]]. It also served as a useful tool for mobilizing popular participation in national campaigns such as the 1958 [[Great Leap Forward]] and the 1966-76 [[Cultural Revolution]]. Following the death of Mao in 1976, propaganda was used to blacken the character of the notorious [[Gang of Four]], which was seen as responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. Past propaganda also encouraged the Chinese people to emulate selfless model workers and soldiers such as the famous Comrade [[Lei Feng]], suicidal [[Chinese Civil War]] hero Dong Cunrui, self-sacrificing [[Korean War]] hero Yang Gensi, and Dr. [[Norman Bethune]], a Canadian doctor who assisted the Communist [[Eighth Route Army]] during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It also praised [[Third World]] revolutionaries and close foreign allies such as [[Albania]] and [[North Korea]] while vilifying both the United States "[[imperialists]]" and the Soviet "revisionists" (the latter of whom was seen as having betrayed Marxism-Leninism). One of the most famous |
In previous decades, PRC propaganda was crucial to the formation and promotion of the [[cult of personality]] centered around Chairman [[Mao Zedong]]. It also served as a useful tool for mobilizing popular participation in national campaigns such as the 1958 [[Great Leap Forward]] and the 1966-76 [[Cultural Revolution]]. Following the death of Mao in 1976, propaganda was used to blacken the character of the notorious [[Gang of Four]], which was seen as responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. Past propaganda also encouraged the Chinese people to emulate selfless model workers and soldiers such as the famous Comrade [[Lei Feng]], suicidal [[Chinese Civil War]] hero Dong Cunrui, self-sacrificing [[Korean War]] hero Yang Gensi, and Dr. [[Norman Bethune]], a Canadian doctor who assisted the Communist [[Eighth Route Army]] during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It also praised [[Third World]] revolutionaries and close foreign allies such as [[Albania]] and [[North Korea]] while vilifying both the United States "[[imperialists]]" and the Soviet "revisionists" (the latter of whom was seen as having betrayed Marxism-Leninism). One of the most famous propagandist who went sidetracked was [[Zhang Zhixin]]. Her loyalty to the party as well as opposition to the ultra-left, singled her out to severe punishment, yet her story provides a good example of how propaganda is delivered. |
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During the era of economic reform and modernization that was initiated by paramount leader [[Deng Xiaoping]], propaganda promoting "socialism with Chinese characteristics" was distributed. The later reign of President [[Jiang Zemin]] saw the creation of propaganda demonizing [[Falun Gong]] as |
During the era of economic reform and modernization that was initiated by paramount leader [[Deng Xiaoping]], propaganda promoting "socialism with Chinese characteristics" was distributed. The later reign of President [[Jiang Zemin]] saw the creation of propaganda demonizing [[Falun Gong]] as a [[cult]] and promoting his "[[Three Represents]]" theory. One of the most controversial events was the [[Tiananmen Square self-immolation incident]] of 2001. |
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==Propaganda on the Internet== |
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⚫ | In later years the Internet has played a key role for the CCP to spread propaganda to the Chinese diaspora. PRC-based Internet sites are a leading source of Chinese language and China-related news for overseas Chinese. The Internet is an extremely effective tool for guiding and organizing overseas Chinese public opinion, according to Anne-Marie Brady. She cites an example of the role of the Internet in organizing popular protests by overseas Chinese in 2008 against the perceived bias of the Western media in its coverage of unrest in Tibetan areas in March 2008 and, a month later, in organizing a series of worldwide demonstrations in support of China during the Olympic torch relay. |
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⚫ | "These protests and the later demonstrations were genuine and popular, which shows the effectiveness of China’s efforts to rebuild positive public opinion within the Chinese diaspora, but it should be noted that they received official support, both symbolic and practical."<ref name=bradycongress>Anne-Marie Brady, http://www.uscc.gov/hearings/2009hearings/written_testimonies/09_04_30_wrts/09_04_30_brady_statement.php China’s Propaganda and Perception Management Efforts, Its Intelligence Activities that Target the United States, and the Resulting Impacts on U.S. National Security], U.S.-China Economic & Security Review Commission, April 30, 2009</ref>There was no compulsion for overseas Chinese not to attend the rallies, but those who did were given free t-shirts, souvenirs, transport, and in some cases accommodation, all courtesy of local embassy officials and China-based donors. These demonstrations successfully drowned out the protests of human rights groups. |
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⚫ | China is also known for using internet "[[Spin (public relations)|spin doctors]]" to influence people's opinion. These specially trained internet users comment on blogs, public forums or [[wiki]]s, to shift the debate in favor of the Communist Party. The BBC reports that there could be tenth of thousands of spin doctors currently operating on the internet. They are often known as the "50-cent party" because they are paid 50 Chinese cents for each positive posting they make.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7783640.stm</ref> |
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==Chinese connotations of the term== |
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{{Section OR|date=March 2008}} |
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While in the Western world the word 'propaganda' bears negative connotations, the Chinese word 宣传, which is liberally translated as "propaganda", actually means "to broadcast" or "to [[:w:propagate|propagate]] (information)", with no negative connotations that would imply bias or untruthfulness. This explains why many English speakers would consider the use of such a term as an outright acknowledgement of the biased nature of Chinese propaganda, although the term can in fact be used in politically neutral contexts. This is congruent with the pre-WW1 usage of the term in Western Europe, which also does not connotate deception. For example, Chinese "propaganda" has also served to raise public awareness about the law, the need for common courtesy, the importance of embracing science and technology, the need to take preventive measures against [[SARS]] and [[AIDS]]. |
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For example: |
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'''宣传安全知识''' would, in accordance with the literal dictionary definition of "宣传", be translated as ''propagating public safety awareness''. There are absolutely no political connotations surrounding the use of this word, as might be present in |
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'''宣传毛泽东思想''' translated as ''propagating [[Mao Zedong Thought]]''. |
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This can be likened to the use of '[[Agitprop]]' specifically as political propaganda, and the Spanish word 'propaganda', which simply means advertising. |
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⚫ | |||
<!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[Image:Cultrev.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A poster during the Cultural Revolution. The message reads, "The Chinese [[People's Liberation Army]] is the great school of [[Mao Zedong Thought]]."]] --> |
<!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[Image:Cultrev.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A poster during the Cultural Revolution. The message reads, "The Chinese [[People's Liberation Army]] is the great school of [[Mao Zedong Thought]]."]] --> |
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<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Nanjingcapitolpropaganda.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A 1976 propaganda painting depicting the fall of the [[ROC]] Nanjing Presidential Palace; incorporates elements of [[Impressionism]] and [[Realism (arts)|Realism]]]] --> |
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Nanjingcapitolpropaganda.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A 1976 propaganda painting depicting the fall of the [[ROC]] Nanjing Presidential Palace; incorporates elements of [[Impressionism]] and [[Realism (arts)|Realism]]]] --> |
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In the realm of the arts, the theory of [[socialist realism]] that was adopted by the [[USSR]] and the PRC of Mao Zedong explicitly states as its goal the education of the people in the objectives and the meaning of the ideology of [[communism]]. One of the official goals of the 1966-76 Cultural Revolution in the PRC was "to transform literature and art." |
In the realm of the arts, the theory of [[socialist realism]] that was adopted by the [[USSR]] and the PRC of Mao Zedong explicitly states as its goal the education of the people in the objectives and the meaning of the ideology of [[communism]]. One of the official goals of the 1966-76 Cultural Revolution in the PRC was "to transform literature and art." |
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The |
The CPC [[Central Propaganda Department]], together with the state censorship organizations, which include the [[General Administration of Press and Publication]], the [[State Administration of Radio, Film and Television]], and the [[State Council Information Office]], oversee all printing for consistency with official political doctrines under detailed regulations, such as the "Regulations Regarding Strengthening the Administration of Publications Describing Major Party and National Leaders" (1990), which states in part: |
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<blockquote> |
<blockquote> |
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The publication and distribution of these types of books and essays must be solemn and discreet. The description of historical facts must be accurate, and the point of view must conform with the spirit of the Party's "Decision Regarding Certain Historical Problems," "Decision Regarding Certain Historical Problems Since the Establishment of the Party" and related Party documents. All responsible agencies and publishing units must strictly guard against violations, and anything that does not conform to the above mentioned requirements may not be published and distributed. |
The publication and distribution of these types of books and essays must be solemn and discreet. The description of historical facts must be accurate, and the point of view must conform with the spirit of the Party's "Decision Regarding Certain Historical Problems," "Decision Regarding Certain Historical Problems Since the Establishment of the Party" and related Party documents. All responsible agencies and publishing units must strictly guard against violations, and anything that does not conform to the above mentioned requirements may not be published and distributed. |
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</blockquote> |
</blockquote> |
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== |
==Taiwan terminology== |
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Both the PRC and the ROC government, now located on [[Taiwan]], formally claim to be the sole legitimate government of all China, but neither, in formal contexts, accept the other as a legitimate government or that either Taiwan is a sovereign country separate from the other. As such, both have adopted a set of political terminology to refer to the other side, its government, and civil and military offices and officials. |
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⚫ | In later years the Internet has played a key role for the CCP to spread propaganda to the Chinese diaspora. PRC-based Internet sites are a leading source of Chinese language and China-related news for overseas Chinese. The Internet is an extremely effective tool for guiding and organizing overseas Chinese public opinion, according to Anne-Marie Brady. She cites an example of the role of the Internet in organizing popular protests by overseas Chinese in 2008 against the perceived bias of the Western media in its coverage of unrest in Tibetan areas in March 2008 and, a month later, in organizing a series of worldwide demonstrations in support of China during the Olympic torch relay. |
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Within the PRC, this policy is strongly adhered to by the government and government-controlled media. For example, as a result of the fact that both the ROC and the PRC adhered to the [[One-China policy]], the PRC is commonly referred to in both Taiwan and the PRC as ''dalu'' ({{zh|t=大陸|s=大陆|p=dàlù}}) meaning "[[mainland China|mainland]]"; sometimes, as in Hong Kong, it is also referred to as "內地", meaning "interior territory". In both cases, the terms are used to avoid describing the PRC as "China" and the ROC as "Taiwan", as is commonly done in English. When Taiwan joins international organizations, China forces Taiwan to participate under names other than "Republic of China" or "Taiwan", such as [[Chinese Taipei]] or " [[Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Kinmen and Matsu]]", in order to avoid describing Taiwan as a country. |
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⚫ | "These protests and the later demonstrations were genuine and popular, which shows the effectiveness of China’s efforts to rebuild positive public opinion within the Chinese diaspora, but it should be noted that they received official support, both symbolic and practical."<ref name=bradycongress>Anne-Marie Brady, http://www.uscc.gov/hearings/2009hearings/written_testimonies/09_04_30_wrts/09_04_30_brady_statement.php China’s Propaganda and Perception Management Efforts, Its Intelligence Activities that Target the United States, and the Resulting Impacts on U.S. National Security], U.S.-China Economic & Security Review Commission, April 30, 2009</ref>There was no compulsion for overseas Chinese not to attend the rallies, but those who did were given free t-shirts, souvenirs, transport, and in some cases accommodation, all courtesy of local embassy officials and China-based donors. These demonstrations successfully drowned out the protests of human rights groups. |
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⚫ | China is also known for using internet "[[Spin (public relations)|spin doctors]]" to influence people's opinion. These specially trained internet users comment on blogs, public forums or [[wiki]]s, to shift the debate in favor of the Communist Party. The BBC reports that there could be tenth of thousands of spin doctors currently operating on the internet. They are often known as the "50-cent party" because they are paid 50 Chinese cents for each positive posting they make.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7783640.stm</ref> |
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:''See also: [[Political status of Taiwan]]'' |
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==Thought reform== |
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Propaganda in the PRC is often associated with "thought reform" (思想改造). Biderman and Meyers write that while some kind of thought reform is a characteristic aim of all totalitarian regimes, the CCP "set about it more purposefully, more massively, and more intensively than have other ruling groups," including applying known techniques in new ways. An example given is in daily meetings for self and mutual criticism during the 60s, surveillance and overt sanctions were tied in with education to "expose, censure, and correct shortcomings of attitude and conduct." At the same time, Communist leaders attacked all personal connections between soldiers that were not based on political convictions. "By these and other techniques they exploit social pressures and personal anxieties brilliantly to ensure conformity," they write.<ref name=bidermanmeyers>Meyers, Samuel M. and Albert D Biderman. Mass behaviour in battle and captivity: The communist soldier in the Korean war. (1968), Chicago University Press. p.99</ref> |
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== |
== PRC propaganda films == |
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===Films=== |
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*''[[Red Detachment of Women]]'', a pre-Cultural Revolution-era play, later extolled during the Cultural Revolution, about the women of [[Hainan Island]] who rose up in resistance on behalf of the CPC |
*''[[Red Detachment of Women]]'', a pre-Cultural Revolution-era play, later extolled during the Cultural Revolution, about the women of [[Hainan Island]] who rose up in resistance on behalf of the CPC |
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*''[[Two Stage Sisters]]'' |
*''[[Two Stage Sisters]]'' |
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*''[[Grenade War]] |
*''[[Grenade War]] |
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== Famous propaganda songs == |
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===Songs === |
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[[Guoyue|Propaganda songs]] and music have a long and storied history in the PRC and also in Nepal and Pakistan, and they figured prominently in the popular culture of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Many of these songs were collected and performed as modern rock adaptations for several albums that were released during the 1990s, including "[[Red Rock]]" and "Red Sun: Mao Zedong Praise Songs New Revolutionary Medley". The latter sold 6-10 million copies in China (see the external link on "Rethinking Cultural Revolution Culture"). Most of the older songs praise Mao, the CPC, the 1949 revolution, the Chinese Red Army and the [[People's Liberation Army]], the unity of the ethnic groups of China, and the various ethnic groups' devotion to Mao and the CPC. |
[[Guoyue|Propaganda songs]] and music have a long and storied history in the PRC and also in Nepal and Pakistan, and they figured prominently in the popular culture of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Many of these songs were collected and performed as modern rock adaptations for several albums that were released during the 1990s, including "[[Red Rock]]" and "Red Sun: Mao Zedong Praise Songs New Revolutionary Medley". The latter sold 6-10 million copies in China (see the external link on "Rethinking Cultural Revolution Culture"). Most of the older songs praise Mao, the CPC, the 1949 revolution, the Chinese Red Army and the [[People's Liberation Army]], the unity of the ethnic groups of China, and the various ethnic groups' devotion to Mao and the CPC. |
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==References== |
==References== |
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===Bibliography=== |
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*Min, Anchee, Duo, Duo, Landsberger, Stefan R., ''Chinese Propaganda Posters'', 245 x 370 mm, 320 pp., ISBN 3-8228-2619-7 (softcover) |
*Min, Anchee, Duo, Duo, Landsberger, Stefan R., ''Chinese Propaganda Posters'', 245 x 370 mm, 320 pp., ISBN 3-8228-2619-7 (softcover) |
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*[[Michael Wolf|Wolf, Michael]] ''Chinese Propaganda Posters: From the Collection of Michael Wolf'', 2003, ISBN 3-8228-2619-7 |
*[[Michael Wolf|Wolf, Michael]] ''Chinese Propaganda Posters: From the Collection of Michael Wolf'', 2003, ISBN 3-8228-2619-7 |
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*Hunter, Edward. ''Brain-washing in Red China: the calculated destruction of men's minds''. New York, N.Y., USA.: Vanguard Press, 1951, 1953, |
*Hunter, Edward. ''Brain-washing in Red China: the calculated destruction of men's minds''. New York, N.Y., USA.: Vanguard Press, 1951, 1953, |
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*Lincoln Cushing and Ann Tompkins, ''Chinese Posters: Art from the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution'', San Francisco, CA : Chronicle Books, 2007, ISBN 978-0-8118-5946-2 |
*Lincoln Cushing and Ann Tompkins, ''Chinese Posters: Art from the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution'', San Francisco, CA : Chronicle Books, 2007, ISBN 978-0-8118-5946-2 |
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===Footnotes=== |
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== External links == |
== External links == |
Revision as of 03:43, 11 February 2010
Propaganda in the People's Republic of China refers to the PRC's use of distributing information to the general public.
History
The origins of the PRC propaganda system can be traced to the Yan’an and the rectification movements carried out there[1] following which it became a key mechanism in the Party's campaigns.[2] The propaganda system, considered a central part of CCP’s “control system”[3], drew much from Soviet, Nazi and other totalitarian states’ propaganda methods[4]. It represented a quintessential Leninist “transmission belt” for indoctrination and mass mobilization[5][6].
Propaganda and indoctrination are considered to have been a hallmark of the maoist state[3][1] and Mao a “master propagandist” in his own right. His regime employed a variety of “thought control” techniques including incarceration for brainwashing, construction of models to be emulated, mass mobilization campaigns and creation of study groups and ideological monitors throughout society, promulgation of articles to be memorized, control of the educational system, a nationwide system of loudspeakers that reached into every village, control of and propaganda through media, and creation of propaganda teams to indoctrinate segments of the population, among other methods. [7]
China Central Television has traditionally served as a major national conduit for televised propaganda, while the People's Daily newspaper has served as a medium for print propaganda.
Propaganda produced by the Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China of the ruling Communist Party of China (CPC) has been disseminated through state-controlled print and electronic media, and the CPC has made prolific use of the Internet as a means of distributing propaganda to both Chinese citizens and foreigners in the modern age.
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/19/Pi_lin_pi_kong.jpg/200px-Pi_lin_pi_kong.jpg)
Political scientists believe that propaganda in the PRC is being utilized by the CPC to nurture the development of Chinese nationalism and of loyalty to the PRC, the CPC, and the Beijing government in general. Many also believe that the PRC government, having embarked on a program of capitalist-style economic reform and modernization in the late 1970s, is keen to use propaganda to portray the CPC as a nationalistic and patriotic party, rather than simply as a party that builds socialism or implements Marxism-Leninism in China, since these have largely been abandoned in practice and thus can no longer serve as effective bases for loyalty to the regime. Common themes in the new nationalistic propaganda of the PRC include the lionizing of the CPC's People's Liberation Army and its individual soldiers for their exploits and sacrifices during the 1937-1945 Second Sino-Japanese War and the allegedly seamless unity of the nation's 56 officially recognized ethnic groups.
In previous decades, PRC propaganda was crucial to the formation and promotion of the cult of personality centered around Chairman Mao Zedong. It also served as a useful tool for mobilizing popular participation in national campaigns such as the 1958 Great Leap Forward and the 1966-76 Cultural Revolution. Following the death of Mao in 1976, propaganda was used to blacken the character of the notorious Gang of Four, which was seen as responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. Past propaganda also encouraged the Chinese people to emulate selfless model workers and soldiers such as the famous Comrade Lei Feng, suicidal Chinese Civil War hero Dong Cunrui, self-sacrificing Korean War hero Yang Gensi, and Dr. Norman Bethune, a Canadian doctor who assisted the Communist Eighth Route Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It also praised Third World revolutionaries and close foreign allies such as Albania and North Korea while vilifying both the United States "imperialists" and the Soviet "revisionists" (the latter of whom was seen as having betrayed Marxism-Leninism). One of the most famous propagandist who went sidetracked was Zhang Zhixin. Her loyalty to the party as well as opposition to the ultra-left, singled her out to severe punishment, yet her story provides a good example of how propaganda is delivered.
During the era of economic reform and modernization that was initiated by paramount leader Deng Xiaoping, propaganda promoting "socialism with Chinese characteristics" was distributed. The later reign of President Jiang Zemin saw the creation of propaganda demonizing Falun Gong as a cult and promoting his "Three Represents" theory. One of the most controversial events was the Tiananmen Square self-immolation incident of 2001.
Propaganda on the Internet
In later years the Internet has played a key role for the CCP to spread propaganda to the Chinese diaspora. PRC-based Internet sites are a leading source of Chinese language and China-related news for overseas Chinese. The Internet is an extremely effective tool for guiding and organizing overseas Chinese public opinion, according to Anne-Marie Brady. She cites an example of the role of the Internet in organizing popular protests by overseas Chinese in 2008 against the perceived bias of the Western media in its coverage of unrest in Tibetan areas in March 2008 and, a month later, in organizing a series of worldwide demonstrations in support of China during the Olympic torch relay.
"These protests and the later demonstrations were genuine and popular, which shows the effectiveness of China’s efforts to rebuild positive public opinion within the Chinese diaspora, but it should be noted that they received official support, both symbolic and practical."[8]There was no compulsion for overseas Chinese not to attend the rallies, but those who did were given free t-shirts, souvenirs, transport, and in some cases accommodation, all courtesy of local embassy officials and China-based donors. These demonstrations successfully drowned out the protests of human rights groups.
China is also known for using internet "spin doctors" to influence people's opinion. These specially trained internet users comment on blogs, public forums or wikis, to shift the debate in favor of the Communist Party. The BBC reports that there could be tenth of thousands of spin doctors currently operating on the internet. They are often known as the "50-cent party" because they are paid 50 Chinese cents for each positive posting they make.[9]
Chinese connotations of the term
While in the Western world the word 'propaganda' bears negative connotations, the Chinese word 宣传, which is liberally translated as "propaganda", actually means "to broadcast" or "to propagate (information)", with no negative connotations that would imply bias or untruthfulness. This explains why many English speakers would consider the use of such a term as an outright acknowledgement of the biased nature of Chinese propaganda, although the term can in fact be used in politically neutral contexts. This is congruent with the pre-WW1 usage of the term in Western Europe, which also does not connotate deception. For example, Chinese "propaganda" has also served to raise public awareness about the law, the need for common courtesy, the importance of embracing science and technology, the need to take preventive measures against SARS and AIDS.
For example: 宣传安全知识 would, in accordance with the literal dictionary definition of "宣传", be translated as propagating public safety awareness. There are absolutely no political connotations surrounding the use of this word, as might be present in 宣传毛泽东思想 translated as propagating Mao Zedong Thought. This can be likened to the use of 'Agitprop' specifically as political propaganda, and the Spanish word 'propaganda', which simply means advertising.
Ideological background
In the realm of the arts, the theory of socialist realism that was adopted by the USSR and the PRC of Mao Zedong explicitly states as its goal the education of the people in the objectives and the meaning of the ideology of communism. One of the official goals of the 1966-76 Cultural Revolution in the PRC was "to transform literature and art."
The CPC Central Propaganda Department, together with the state censorship organizations, which include the General Administration of Press and Publication, the State Administration of Radio, Film and Television, and the State Council Information Office, oversee all printing for consistency with official political doctrines under detailed regulations, such as the "Regulations Regarding Strengthening the Administration of Publications Describing Major Party and National Leaders" (1990), which states in part:
The publication and distribution of these types of books and essays must be solemn and discreet. The description of historical facts must be accurate, and the point of view must conform with the spirit of the Party's "Decision Regarding Certain Historical Problems," "Decision Regarding Certain Historical Problems Since the Establishment of the Party" and related Party documents. All responsible agencies and publishing units must strictly guard against violations, and anything that does not conform to the above mentioned requirements may not be published and distributed.
Taiwan terminology
Both the PRC and the ROC government, now located on Taiwan, formally claim to be the sole legitimate government of all China, but neither, in formal contexts, accept the other as a legitimate government or that either Taiwan is a sovereign country separate from the other. As such, both have adopted a set of political terminology to refer to the other side, its government, and civil and military offices and officials.
Within the PRC, this policy is strongly adhered to by the government and government-controlled media. For example, as a result of the fact that both the ROC and the PRC adhered to the One-China policy, the PRC is commonly referred to in both Taiwan and the PRC as dalu (simplified Chinese: 大陆; traditional Chinese: 大陸; pinyin: dàlù) meaning "mainland"; sometimes, as in Hong Kong, it is also referred to as "內地", meaning "interior territory". In both cases, the terms are used to avoid describing the PRC as "China" and the ROC as "Taiwan", as is commonly done in English. When Taiwan joins international organizations, China forces Taiwan to participate under names other than "Republic of China" or "Taiwan", such as Chinese Taipei or " Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Kinmen and Matsu", in order to avoid describing Taiwan as a country.
- See also: Political status of Taiwan
PRC propaganda films
- Red Detachment of Women, a pre-Cultural Revolution-era play, later extolled during the Cultural Revolution, about the women of Hainan Island who rose up in resistance on behalf of the CPC
- Two Stage Sisters
- Grenade War
Famous propaganda songs
Propaganda songs and music have a long and storied history in the PRC and also in Nepal and Pakistan, and they figured prominently in the popular culture of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Many of these songs were collected and performed as modern rock adaptations for several albums that were released during the 1990s, including "Red Rock" and "Red Sun: Mao Zedong Praise Songs New Revolutionary Medley". The latter sold 6-10 million copies in China (see the external link on "Rethinking Cultural Revolution Culture"). Most of the older songs praise Mao, the CPC, the 1949 revolution, the Chinese Red Army and the People's Liberation Army, the unity of the ethnic groups of China, and the various ethnic groups' devotion to Mao and the CPC.
The titles of some of the more well-known propaganda songs are as follows:
- "Nanniwan" (a 1943 revolutionary song)
- "The East is Red" (the de facto national anthem of the PRC during the Cultural Revolution)
- "Socialism is Good", a modern rock adaptation of which was performed by Zhang Qu and featured on the 1990s album Red Rock.
- "Song of the People's Liberation Army" (中国解放軍军歌)–
- "Battle Hymn of the Chinese People's Volunteers" (中国人民志愿军战歌)–a well-known song from the Korean War period
- "Red Sun Shining Over the Border" (紅太陽照邊疆)–a song from the Yanbian in Jilin
- "A Wa People Sing New Songs" (阿佤唱新歌曲)–a song attributed to the Wa ethnic minority of Yunnan
- "Laundry Song" (洗衣歌)–a song celebrating the liberation of Tibet
- "Liuyang River" (浏阳河)–a song about a river near Mao Zedong's hometown of Shaoshan in Hunan
- "Saliha Most Obeys Chairman Mao" (薩利哈最聽毛主席的話)–a song attributed to the Kazakh minority of the Xinjiang
- "The Never-Setting Sun Rises Over the Grassland" (草原上升起不落的太陽–from Inner Mongolia
- "Xinjiang is Good" (新疆好)–attributed to the ethnic Uyghurs of Xinjiang
- "I Love Beijing Tiananmen" (我爱北京天安门)–claimed to have been translated into over 50 languages, this song is frequently taught to schoolchildren in the PRC
- "Zhuang Brocade Dedicated to Chairman Mao" (莊錦獻給毛主席)–a song attributed to the Zhuang ethnic minority of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region
- "Sweet-Scented Osmanthus Blooms With the Arrival of Happiness" (attributed to the Miao, or Chinese Hmong, ethnic minority group)
- "Generations Remember Chairman Mao's Kindness" (a song celebrating the "liberation" of the ethnic Xibe people)
- "Salaam Chairman Mao" (薩拉姆毛主席)–a Xinjiang song praising Mao, a modern version of which was performed by Chinese rock singer Dao Lang
- "Song of Mount Erlangshan" (歌唱二郎山)–a 1950s song celebrating the development of Tibet, which made Mount Erlangshan in western Sichuan famous
- "Story of the Spring" (春天的故事)–a song performed by Dong Wenhua, initially at the 1997 CCTV New Year's Gala, days before his death, dedicated to late Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping
- "The Cultural Revolution is Just Great" (无产阶级文化大革命就是好)–a song praising the Cultural Revolution
- "On the Golden Mountains of Beijing" (北京的金山上)–a song attributed to the Tibetan people praising Mao as the shining sun
- "Sing a Song of Praise to the Motherland" (歌唱祖国)–This general patriotic song continues to be sung at national and regional celebrations and galas.
Most of the songs listed above are no longer used as propaganda by the CPC, but are exhibited in mainland China as a means of reviving popular nostalgia for the "old times" and sentiments of nationalism.
See also
- Censorship in the People's Republic of China
- Media in the People's Republic of China
- Persecution of Falun Gong
- Propaganda in the Republic of China
- Propaganda Poster Art Centre, Shanghai, China
- Western propaganda
- Jin Jing
References
- ^ a b C. Teiwes, Frederick (1993). "1,2". Politics and Purges in China (2nd ed.). Armonk: M. E. Sharpe.
- ^ Solomon, Richard (1971). Mao’s Revolution and the Chinese Political Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- ^ a b Schurmann’s, Franz (1966). Ideology and Organization in Communist China. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- ^ Welch, David (1993). The Third Reich: Politics and Propaganda. New York: Routledge.
- ^ Inkeles, Alex (1950). Public Opinion in Soviet Russia: A Study in Mass Persuasion. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- ^ Kenez, Peter (1985). The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Shambaugh, David. "CHINA'S PROPAGANDA SYSTEM: INSTITUTIONS, PROCESSES AND EFFICACY".
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(help) - ^ Anne-Marie Brady, http://www.uscc.gov/hearings/2009hearings/written_testimonies/09_04_30_wrts/09_04_30_brady_statement.php China’s Propaganda and Perception Management Efforts, Its Intelligence Activities that Target the United States, and the Resulting Impacts on U.S. National Security], U.S.-China Economic & Security Review Commission, April 30, 2009
- ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7783640.stm
- Min, Anchee, Duo, Duo, Landsberger, Stefan R., Chinese Propaganda Posters, 245 x 370 mm, 320 pp., ISBN 3-8228-2619-7 (softcover)
- Wolf, Michael Chinese Propaganda Posters: From the Collection of Michael Wolf, 2003, ISBN 3-8228-2619-7
- Harriet Evans, Stephanie Donald (eds.), Picturing Power in the People's Republic of China, ISBN 0-8476-9511-5
- Stefan Landsberger, Chinese Propaganda Posters: From Revolution to Reform, ISBN 90-5496-009-4
- Hunter, Edward. Brain-washing in Red China: the calculated destruction of men's minds. New York, N.Y., USA.: Vanguard Press, 1951, 1953,
- Lincoln Cushing and Ann Tompkins, Chinese Posters: Art from the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, San Francisco, CA : Chronicle Books, 2007, ISBN 978-0-8118-5946-2
External links
- Morning Sun: A Film and Website about the Cultural Revolution
- Maopost.com: Vintage Chinese Propaganda Posters
- Stefan Landsberger's Chinese Propaganda Poster Pages
- Rethinking Cultural Revolution Culture
- Jon Sigurdson’s Collection of Posters 1963-1983
- University of Westminster Collection
- Ann Tompkins (Tang Fandi) and Lincoln Cushing Chinese Poster Collection
- Artemoto Collection of Chinese Propaganda Posters
- Chinese Propaganda posters