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{{Short description|Philosophical and artistic movement}} |
{{Short description|Philosophical and artistic movement}} |
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{{About|the movement|the architectural style|Postmodern architecture|the condition or state of being|Postmodernity|other uses|Postmodernism (disambiguation)}} |
{{About|the movement|the architectural style|Postmodern architecture|the condition or state of being|Postmodernity|other uses|Postmodernism (disambiguation)}} |
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{{Postmodernism}} |
{{Postmodernism}} |
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{{Semiotics}} |
{{Semiotics}} |
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'''Postmodernism''' is a broad movement that developed in the mid-to-late 20th century across |
'''Postmodernism''' is a broad movement that developed in the mid-to-late 20th century across philosophy, [[the arts]], architecture, and criticism, marking a departure from [[modernism]]. The term has been more generally applied to describe [[Postmodernity|a historical era said to follow after modernity]] and the tendencies of this era. |
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⚫ | Postmodern thinkers frequently describe [[knowledge]] claims and [[value system]]s as [[contingency (philosophy)|contingent]] or [[social conditioning|socially-conditioned]], framing them as products of political, historical, or cultural [[discourse]]s and [[hierarchies]]. These thinkers often view personal and spiritual needs as being best fulfilled by improving social conditions and adopting more fluid [[Discourse#Poststructuralism_(Foucault)|discourses]], in contrast to |
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⚫ | Postmodern thinkers frequently describe [[knowledge]] claims and [[value system]]s as [[contingency (philosophy)|contingent]] or [[social conditioning|socially-conditioned]], framing them as products of political, historical, or cultural [[discourse]]s and [[hierarchies]]. These thinkers often view personal and spiritual needs as being best fulfilled by improving social conditions and adopting more fluid [[Discourse#Poststructuralism_(Foucault)|discourses]], in contrast to modernism, which places a higher degree of emphasis on maximizing [[progress]] and which generally regards the promotion of [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objective truths]] as an ideal form of discourse. Some philosophers assert that those who employ postmodernist discourse are prey to a performative contradiction and a paradox of self-reference, as their critique would be impossible without the concepts and methods that modern reason provides.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |title=The philosophical discourse of modernity : twelve lectures |publisher=MIT Press |year=1987 |isbn=0262581027 |location=Cambridge, Mass}}</ref> |
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⚫ | Postmodernism is generally defined by an attitude of [[philosophical skepticism|skepticism]], [[irony]], or rejection toward what it describes as the [[meta-narrative|grand narratives]] and [[ideology|ideologies]] associated with modernism, often criticizing [[the Enlightenment|Enlightenment rationality]] and focusing on the role of |
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⚫ | Postmodernism is generally defined by an attitude of [[philosophical skepticism|skepticism]], [[irony]], or rejection toward what it describes as the [[meta-narrative|grand narratives]] and [[ideology|ideologies]] associated with modernism, often criticizing [[the Enlightenment|Enlightenment rationality]] and focusing on the role of ideology in maintaining political or economic power. Common targets of postmodern criticism include [[universalism|universalist]] ideas of [[objective reality]], [[moral universalism|morality]], [[truth]], [[human nature]], [[reason]], science, [[language]], and [[social progress]]. Accordingly, postmodern thought is broadly characterized by tendencies to [[self-consciousness]], [[self-reference|self-referentiality]], [[epistemological relativism|epistemological]] and [[moral relativism]], [[pluralism (philosophy)|pluralism]], and irreverence. |
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⚫ | Postmodern critical approaches gained popularity in the 1980s and 1990s, and have been adopted in a variety of academic and theoretical disciplines, including [[cultural studies]], [[philosophy of science]], |
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⚫ | Postmodern critical approaches gained popularity in the 1980s and 1990s, and have been adopted in a variety of academic and theoretical disciplines, including [[cultural studies]], [[philosophy of science]], economics, [[linguistics]], architecture, [[feminist theory]], and [[literary criticism]], as well as [[Postmodern art|art movements]] in fields such as [[postmodern literature|literature]], [[contemporary art]], and music. Postmodernism is often associated with schools of thought such as [[deconstruction]], [[post-structuralism]], and [[institutional critique]], as well as philosophers such as [[Jacques Derrida]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], and [[Fredric Jameson]]. |
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[[Criticism of postmodernism|Criticisms of postmodernism]] are intellectually diverse and include arguments that postmodernism promotes [[obscurantism]], is [[Nihilism|meaningless]], and that it adds nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge. |
[[Criticism of postmodernism|Criticisms of postmodernism]] are intellectually diverse and include arguments that postmodernism promotes [[obscurantism]], is [[Nihilism|meaningless]], and that it adds nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge. |
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== Definition == |
== Definition == |
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Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or mode of discourse<ref>Nuyen, A.T., 1992. The Role of Rhetorical Devices in Postmodernist Discourse. Philosophy & Rhetoric, pp.183–194.</ref><ref>{{ |
Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or mode of discourse<ref>Nuyen, A.T., 1992. The Role of Rhetorical Devices in Postmodernist Discourse. Philosophy & Rhetoric, pp.183–194.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Torfing |first=Jacob |title=New theories of discourse : Laclau, Mouffe, and Z̆iz̆ek |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |year=1999 |isbn=0-631-19557-2 |location=Oxford, UK Malden, Mass}}</ref> defined by an attitude of [[philosophical skepticism|skepticism]] toward what it describes as the [[meta-narrative|grand narratives]] and [[ideology|ideologies]] of [[modernism]], as well as opposition to [[epistemological|epistemic]] certainty and the stability of [[meaning (semiotics)|meaning]].<ref name="SEP-2015" /> It questions or criticizes viewpoints associated with [[the Enlightenment|Enlightenment rationality]] dating back to the 17th century,<ref name="britannica" /> and is characterized by [[irony]], [[eclecticism]], and its rejection of the "universal validity" of [[binary opposition]]s, stable [[identity (philosophy)|identity]], [[hierarchy]], and [[categorization]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=postmodernism |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=postmodernism&submit.x=48&submit.y=25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615004714/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=postmodernism |archive-date=15 June 2018 |access-date=5 May 2019 |website=American Heritage Dictionary |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin, Harcourt |via=AHDictionary.com |quote=Of or relating to an intellectual stance often marked by eclecticism and irony and tending to reject the universal validity of such principles as hierarchy, binary opposition, categorization, and stable identity.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bauman |first=Zygmunt |url=https://archive.org/details/intimationspostm00baum |title=Intimations of postmodernity |publisher=Routledge |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-415-06750-8 |location=London New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/intimationspostm00baum/page/n54 26] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Postmodernism is associated with [[relativism]] and a focus on ideology in the maintenance of economic and political power.<ref name="britannica" /> Postmodernists are generally "skeptical of explanations which claim to be valid for all groups, cultures, traditions, or races," and describe truth as relative.<ref name="faithandreason" /> It can be described as a reaction against attempts to explain reality in an objective manner by claiming that reality is a mental construct.<ref name="faithandreason">{{Cite web |date=11 September 1998 |title=Postmodernism Glossary |url=https://www.pbs.org/faithandreason/gengloss/postm-body.html |access-date=10 June 2019 |website=Faith and Reason |via=PBS.org}}</ref> Access to an [[the Real|unmediated reality]] or to objectively rational knowledge is rejected on the grounds that all interpretations are contingent on the perspective from which they are made;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Ian |title=Adult Education and the Postmodern Challenge: Learning Beyond the Limits |last2=Rennie Johnston |last3=Robin Usher |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |page=203}}</ref> as such, claims to objective fact are dismissed as naive [[Philosophical realism|realism]].<ref name="britannica" /> |
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Postmodern thinkers frequently describe [[knowledge]] claims and [[value system]]s as [[contingency (philosophy)|contingent]] or [[social conditioning|socially-conditioned]], describing them as products of political, historical, or cultural [[discourse]]s and hierarchies.<ref name="britannica"/> Accordingly, postmodern thought is broadly characterized by tendencies to [[self-reference|self-referentiality]], [[epistemological relativism|epistemological]] and [[moral relativism]], [[pluralism (philosophy)|pluralism]], and irreverence.<ref name="britannica"/> Postmodernism is often associated with [[School of thought|schools of thought]] such as [[deconstruction]] and [[post-structuralism]].<ref name="britannica"/> Postmodernism relies on [[critical theory]], which considers the effects of ideology, society, and history on culture.<ref>{{ |
Postmodern thinkers frequently describe [[knowledge]] claims and [[value system]]s as [[contingency (philosophy)|contingent]] or [[social conditioning|socially-conditioned]], describing them as products of political, historical, or cultural [[discourse]]s and hierarchies.<ref name="britannica" /> Accordingly, postmodern thought is broadly characterized by tendencies to [[self-reference|self-referentiality]], [[epistemological relativism|epistemological]] and [[moral relativism]], [[pluralism (philosophy)|pluralism]], and irreverence.<ref name="britannica" /> Postmodernism is often associated with [[School of thought|schools of thought]] such as [[deconstruction]] and [[post-structuralism]].<ref name="britannica" /> Postmodernism relies on [[critical theory]], which considers the effects of ideology, society, and history on culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kellner |first=Douglas |title=Media culture : cultural studies, identity, and politics between the modern and the postmodern |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |isbn=0-415-10569-2 |location=London / New York}}</ref> Postmodernism and critical theory commonly criticize [[universalism|universalist]] ideas of [[objective reality]], [[moral universalism|morality]], [[truth]], [[human nature]], [[reason]], language, and [[social progress]].<ref name="britannica">{{Cite web |last=Duignan |first=Brian |title=Postmodernism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/postmodernism-philosophy |access-date=24 April 2016 |website=[[Britannica]].com}}</ref> |
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Initially, postmodernism was a mode of discourse on literature and literary criticism, commenting on the nature of literary text, meaning, author and reader, writing, and reading.<ref>{{ |
Initially, postmodernism was a mode of discourse on literature and literary criticism, commenting on the nature of literary text, meaning, author and reader, writing, and reading.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lyotard |first=Jean-François |title=The Lyotard reader |publisher=Blackwell |year=1989 |isbn=0-631-16339-5 |location=Oxford, UK / Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref> Postmodernism developed in the mid- to late-twentieth century across philosophy, [[the arts]], architecture, and criticism as a departure or rejection of modernism.<ref name="Oxford">{{Cite web |title=postmodernism |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/postmodernism |website=Oxford Dictionary (American English) |via=oxforddictionaries.com}}</ref><ref name="Mura2012">{{Cite journal |last=Mura |first=Andrea |year=2012 |title=The Symbolic Function of Transmodernity |journal=Language and Psychoanalysis |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=68–87 |doi=10.7565/landp.2012.0005 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=postmodern |encyclopedia=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/26/P0472600.html |date=2000 |edition=4th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209075319/http://www.bartleby.com/61/26/P0472600.html |archive-date=9 December 2008 |url-status=dead |via=Bartleby.com}}</ref> Postmodernist approaches have been adopted in a variety of academic and theoretical disciplines, including [[political science]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hutcheon |first=Linda |title=The politics of postmodernism |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-203-42605-0 |location=London New York}}</ref> [[organization theory]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hatch |first=Mary |title=Organization theory : modern, symbolic, and postmodern perspectives |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-964037-9 |location=Oxford}}</ref> [[cultural studies]], [[philosophy of science]], economics, linguistics, [[Postmodern architecture|architecture]], [[feminist theory]], and [[literary criticism]], as well as [[Postmodern art|art movements]] in fields such as [[postmodern literature|literature]] and music. As a critical practice, postmodernism employs concepts such as [[hyperreality]], [[simulacrum]], [[trace (deconstruction)|trace]], and [[difference (philosophy)|difference]], and rejects abstract principles in favor of direct experience.<ref name="faithandreason" /> |
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[[Criticism of postmodernism|Criticisms of postmodernism]] are intellectually diverse, and include arguments that postmodernism promotes [[obscurantism]], is meaningless, and adds nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge.<ref>{{ |
[[Criticism of postmodernism|Criticisms of postmodernism]] are intellectually diverse, and include arguments that postmodernism promotes [[obscurantism]], is meaningless, and adds nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hicks |first=Stephen |title=Explaining postmodernism : skepticism and socialism from Rousseau to Foucault |publisher=Ockham's Razor Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-9832584-0-7 |location=Roscoe, Illinois}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Callum |title=Postmodernism for historians |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-315-83610-2 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bruner |first=Edward M. |year=1994 |title=Abraham Lincoln as Authentic Reproduction: A Critique of Postmodernism |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d1cd/4b9f32b1bf020eb847c93dcc91cf8bd2194e.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=397–415 |doi=10.1525/aa.1994.96.2.02a00070 |jstor=681680 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227133603/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d1cd/4b9f32b1bf020eb847c93dcc91cf8bd2194e.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2020 |s2cid=161259515}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Callinicos |first=Alex |title=Against postmodernism : a marxist critique |publisher=Polity Press |year=1989 |isbn=0-7456-0614-8 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> Some philosophers, beginning with the pragmatist philosopher [[Jürgen Habermas]], say that postmodernism contradicts itself through self-reference, as their critique would be impossible without the concepts and methods that modern reason provides.<ref name="SEP-2015" /> Various authors have criticized postmodernism, or trends under the general postmodern umbrella, as abandoning [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] rationalism or scientific rigor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devigne |first=Robert |title=Recasting conservatism : Oakeshott, Strauss, and the response to postmodernism |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-300-06868-9 |location=New Haven, Connecticut |chapter=Introduction}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sokal |first=Alan |title=Intellectual impostures : postmodern philosophers' abuse of science |last2=Bricmont |first2=Jean |publisher=Profile |year=1999 |isbn=1-86197-124-9 |location=London |author-link=Alan Sokal |author-link2=Jean Bricmont}}</ref> |
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==Origins of term== |
==Origins of term== |
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The term ''postmodern'' was first used in 1870.<ref>{{Cite book | |
The term ''postmodern'' was first used in 1870.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Welsch |first=Wolfgang |title=International Postmodernism |last2=Sandbothe |first2=Mike |year=1997 |isbn=978-90-272-3443-8 |series=Comparative History of Literatures in European Languages |volume=XI |page=76 |chapter=Postmodernity as a Philosophical Concept |doi=10.1075/chlel.xi.07wel |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n_Eqx2Gr1vUC&pg=PA76}}</ref> John Watkins Chapman suggested "a Postmodern style of painting" as a way to depart from French [[Impressionism]].<ref>[[Ihab Hassan|Hassan, Ihab]], ''The Postmodern Turn, Essays in Postmodern Theory and Culture'', Ohio University Press, 1987. p. 12ff.</ref> J. M. Thompson, in his 1914 article in ''[[The Hibbert Journal]]'' (a quarterly philosophical review), used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion, writing: "The raison d'être of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of [[Modernism (Roman Catholicism)|Modernism]] by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition."<ref>Thompson, J. M. "Post-Modernism," ''[[The Hibbert Journal]]''. Vol XII No. 4, July 1914. p. 733</ref> |
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In 1942 H. R. Hays described postmodernism as a new literary form.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} |
In 1942 H. R. Hays described postmodernism as a new literary form.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} |
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In 1926, [[Bernard Iddings Bell]], president of St. Stephen's College (now [[Bard College]]), published ''Postmodernism and Other Essays'', marking the first use of the term to describe the historical period following Modernity.<ref>''Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'', 2004</ref><ref>{{Cite book |
In 1926, [[Bernard Iddings Bell]], president of St. Stephen's College (now [[Bard College]]), published ''Postmodernism and Other Essays'', marking the first use of the term to describe the historical period following Modernity.<ref>''Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'', 2004</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Madsen |first=Deborah |title=Postmodernism: A Bibliography |publisher=Rodopi |year=1995 |location=Amsterdam; Atlanta, Georgia}}</ref> The essay criticizes the lingering socio-cultural norms, attitudes, and practices of the Age of Enlightenment. It also forecasts the major cultural shifts toward Postmodernity and (Bell being an Anglican Episcopal priest<ref>https://www.google.com/books/edition/Russell_Kirk/YPzGCgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=bernard+bell+%22anglican+priest%22&pg=PT228&printsec=frontcover</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Russello |first=Gerald J. |date=25 October 2007 |title=The Postmodern Imagination of Russell Kirk |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=98j0s2YVOSkC&pg=PA181&lpg=PA181&dq=bernard+bell+%22episcopal+priest%22&source=bl&ots=G84yYBEEWZ&sig=ACfU3U2QvZlks6rkOoMlVaaZhmag7p4n3Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwihjJnamd7zAhVQnGoFHQ96ADkQ6AF6BAgZEAM#v=onepage&q=bernard+bell+%22episcopal+priest%22&f=false |publisher=University of Missouri Press |via=Google Books}}</ref>) suggests orthodox religion as a solution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bell |first=Bernard Iddings |title=Postmodernism and Other Essays |publisher=Morehouse Publishing Company |year=1926 |location=Milwaukie}}</ref> However, the term postmodernity was first used as a general theory for a historical movement in 1939 by [[Arnold J. Toynbee]]: "Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914–1918".<ref>Arnold J. Toynbee, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QGQ9AQAAIAAJ&q= ''A study of History'', Volume 5], Oxford University Press, 1961 [1939], p. 43.</ref> |
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[[File:Portland Building 1982.jpg|right|thumb|[[Portland Building]] (1982), by architect [[Michael Graves]], an example of [[Postmodern architecture]]]] |
[[File:Portland Building 1982.jpg|right|thumb|[[Portland Building]] (1982), by architect [[Michael Graves]], an example of [[Postmodern architecture]]]] |
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In 1949 the term was used to describe a dissatisfaction with [[modern architecture]] and led to the |
In 1949 the term was used to describe a dissatisfaction with [[modern architecture]] and led to the postmodern architecture movement<ref>''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', 2004</ref> in response to the modernist architectural movement known as the [[International Style (architecture)|International Style]]. Postmodernism in architecture was initially marked by a re-emergence of surface ornament, reference to surrounding buildings in urban settings, historical reference in decorative forms (eclecticism), and non-orthogonal angles.<ref>Seah, Isaac. [https://www.academia.edu/22440367 "Post Modernism in Architecture"].</ref> |
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Author [[Peter Drucker]] suggested the transformation into a post-modern world happened between 1937 and 1957 and described it as a "nameless era" characterized as a shift to a conceptual world based on pattern, purpose, and process rather than a mechanical cause. This shift was outlined by four new realities: the emergence of an Educated Society, the importance of [[international development]], the decline of the nation-state, and the collapse of the viability of non-Western cultures.<ref name=LoT>{{ |
Author [[Peter Drucker]] suggested the transformation into a post-modern world that happened between 1937 and 1957 and described it as a "nameless era" characterized as a shift to a conceptual world based on pattern, purpose, and process rather than a mechanical cause. This shift was outlined by four new realities: the emergence of an Educated Society, the importance of [[international development]], the decline of the nation-state, and the collapse of the viability of non-Western cultures.<ref name="LoT">{{Cite book |last=Drucker |first=Peter F. |url=http://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/30294/XX_CNE-LIPSOR_1197.pdf.txt?sequence=3 |title=Landmarks of Tomorrow |date=1957 |publisher=Harper Brothers |location=New York |author-link=Peter Drucker |access-date=2 August 2015}}</ref> |
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In 1971, in a lecture delivered at the Institute of Contemporary Art, London, [[Mel Bochner]] described "post-modernism" in art as having started with [[Jasper Johns]], "who first rejected sense-data and the singular point-of-view as the basis for his art, and treated art as a critical investigation".<ref>{{ |
In 1971, in a lecture delivered at the Institute of Contemporary Art, London, [[Mel Bochner]] described "post-modernism" in art as having started with [[Jasper Johns]], "who first rejected sense-data and the singular point-of-view as the basis for his art, and treated art as a critical investigation".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bochner |first=Mel |title=Solar System & Rest Rooms: Writings and Interviews 1965–2007 |date=2008 |publisher=The MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-02631-4 |location=USA |page=91 |author-link=Mel Bochner}}</ref> |
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In 1996, [[Walter Truett Anderson]] described postmodernism as belonging to one of four typological world views which he identified as: |
In 1996, [[Walter Truett Anderson]] described postmodernism as belonging to one of four typological world views which he identified as: |
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* Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed. |
* Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed. |
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* Scientific-rational, in which truth is defined through methodical, disciplined inquiry. |
* Scientific-rational, in which truth is defined through methodical, disciplined inquiry. |
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* Social-traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization. |
* Social-traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization. |
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==History== |
==History== |
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The basic features of what is now called postmodernism can be found as early as the 1940s, most notably in the work of artists such as [[Jorge Luis Borges]].<ref>See Barth, John: "[[The Literature of Exhaustion]]." ''The Atlantic Monthly'', August 1967, pp. 29–34.</ref> However, most scholars today agree postmodernism began to compete with modernism in the late 1950s and gained ascendancy over it in the 1960s.<ref>Cf., for example, Huyssen, Andreas: ''After the Great Divide. Modernism, Mass Culture, Postmodernism''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986, p. 188.</ref> Since then, postmodernism has been a powerful, though not undisputed, force in art, literature, film, music, drama, architecture, history, and [[continental philosophy]].{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} |
The basic features of what is now called postmodernism can be found as early as the 1940s, most notably in the work of artists such as [[Jorge Luis Borges]].<ref>See Barth, John: "[[The Literature of Exhaustion]]." ''The Atlantic Monthly'', August 1967, pp. 29–34.</ref> However, most scholars today agree postmodernism began to compete with modernism in the late 1950s and gained ascendancy over it in the 1960s.<ref>Cf., for example, Huyssen, Andreas: ''After the Great Divide. Modernism, Mass Culture, Postmodernism''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986, p. 188.</ref> Since then, postmodernism has been a powerful, though not undisputed, force in art, literature, film, music, drama, architecture, history, and [[continental philosophy]].{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} |
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The primary features of postmodernism typically include the ironic play with styles, citations and narrative levels,<ref>See Hutcheon, Linda: ''A Poetics of Postmodernism. History, Theory, Fiction''. New York: Routledge, 1988, pp. 3–21</ref><ref>See McHale, Brian: ''Postmodern Fiction'', London: Methuen, 1987.</ref> a metaphysical skepticism or [[nihilism]] towards a "[[grand narrative]]" of Western culture,<ref>See Lyotard, Jean-François, ''The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge'', Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press 1984</ref> and a preference for the [[virtual (philosophy)|virtual]] at the expense of |
The primary features of postmodernism typically include the ironic play with styles, citations, and narrative levels,<ref>See Hutcheon, Linda: ''A Poetics of Postmodernism. History, Theory, Fiction''. New York: Routledge, 1988, pp. 3–21</ref><ref>See McHale, Brian: ''Postmodern Fiction'', London: Methuen, 1987.</ref> a metaphysical skepticism or [[nihilism]] towards a "[[grand narrative]]" of Western culture,<ref>See Lyotard, Jean-François, ''The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge'', Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press 1984</ref> and a preference for the [[virtual (philosophy)|virtual]] at the expense of the Real (or more accurately, a fundamental questioning of what 'the real' constitutes).<ref>See Baudrillard, Jean: "[[Simulacra and Simulation]]s." In: ''Jean Baudrillard. Selected Writings''. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1988, pp. 166–184.</ref> |
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Since the late 1990s, there has been a growing sentiment in popular culture and in academia that postmodernism "has gone out of fashion".<ref>Potter, Garry and Lopez, Jose (eds.): ''After Postmodernism: An Introduction to Critical Realism''. London: The Athlone Press 2001, p. 4.</ref> Others argue that postmodernism is dead in the context of current cultural production.<ref>{{Cite journal | |
Since the late 1990s, there has been a growing sentiment in popular culture and in academia that postmodernism "has gone out of fashion".<ref>Potter, Garry and Lopez, Jose (eds.): ''After Postmodernism: An Introduction to Critical Realism''. London: The Athlone Press 2001, p. 4.</ref> Others argue that postmodernism is dead in the context of current cultural production.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fjellestad |first=Danuta |last2=Engberg |first2=Maria |year=2013 |title=Toward a Concept of Post-Postmodernism or Lady Gaga's Reconfigurations of Madonna |url=http://reconstruction.eserver.org/124/Fjellestad-Engberg.shtml |journal=Reconstruction: Studies in Contemporary Culture |volume=12 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130223103043/http://reconstruction.eserver.org/124/Fjellestad-Engberg.shtml |archive-date=23 February 2013}} DiVA [http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A833886&dswid=-6302 833886].</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kirby |first=Alan |year=2006 |title=The Death of Postmodernism and Beyond |url=https://philosophynow.org/issues/58/The_Death_of_Postmodernism_And_Beyond |journal=Philosophy Now |volume=58 |pages=34–37}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gibbons |first=Alison |date=2017 |title=Postmodernism is dead. What comes next? |url=https://www.the-tls.co.uk/articles/postmodernism-dead-comes-next/ |access-date=17 February 2020 |website=TLS |language=en-GB}}</ref> |
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==Theories and derivatives== |
==Theories and derivatives== |
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===Structuralism and post-structuralism === |
===Structuralism and post-structuralism === |
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[[Structuralism]] was a philosophical movement developed by French academics in the 1950s, partly in response to French [[existentialism]],<ref>{{ |
[[Structuralism]] was a philosophical movement developed by French academics in the 1950s, partly in response to French [[existentialism]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kurzweil |first=Edith |title=The age of structuralism : from Lévi-Strauss to Foucault |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-351-30584-6 |location=London}}</ref> and often interpreted in relation to modernism and [[high modernism]]. Thinkers who have been called "structuralists" include the anthropologist [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], the linguist [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], the Marxist philosopher [[Louis Althusser]], and the semiotician [[Algirdas Julien Greimas|Algirdas Greimas]]. The early writings of the psychoanalyst [[Jacques Lacan]] and the literary theorist [[Roland Barthes]] have also been called "structuralist". Those who began as structuralists but became post-structuralists include [[Michel Foucault]], Roland Barthes, [[Jean Baudrillard]], and [[Gilles Deleuze]]. Other post-structuralists include [[Jacques Derrida]], [[Pierre Bourdieu]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], [[Julia Kristeva]], [[Hélène Cixous]], and [[Luce Irigaray]]. The American cultural theorists, critics, and intellectuals whom they influenced include [[Judith Butler]], [[John Fiske (media scholar)|John Fiske]], [[Rosalind E. Krauss|Rosalind Krauss]], [[Avital Ronell]], and [[Hayden White]]. |
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Like structuralists, post-structuralists start from the assumption that people's identities, values and economic conditions determine each other rather than having ''intrinsic'' properties that can be understood in isolation.<ref>{{ |
Like structuralists, post-structuralists start from the assumption that people's identities, values, and economic conditions determine each other rather than having ''intrinsic'' properties that can be understood in isolation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lévi-Strauss |first=Claude |title=Structural Anthropology |date=1963 |publisher=New York: Basic Books |isbn=0-465-09516-X |edition=I |location=USA |page=324 |author-link=Claude Lévi-Strauss}}<br/>Lévi-Strauss, quoting D'Arcy Westworth Thompson states: "To those who question the possibility of defining the interrelations between entities whose nature is not completely understood, I shall reply with the following comment by a great naturalist: In a very large part of morphology, our essential task lies in the comparison of related forms rather than in the precise definition of each; and the deformation of a complicated figure may be a phenomenon easy of comprehension, though the figure itself has to be left unanalyzed and undefined."<br/></ref> Thus the French structuralists considered themselves to be espousing relativism and [[Social constructionism|constructionism]]. But they nevertheless tended to explore how the subjects of their study might be described, reductively, as a set of ''essential'' relationships, schematics, or mathematical symbols. (An example is Claude Lévi-Strauss's algebraic formulation of mythological transformation in "The Structural Study of Myth"<ref>Lévi-Strauss, Claude. ''Anthropologie Structurale''. Paris: Éditions Plon, 1958.<br/>Lévi-Strauss, Claude. ''Structural Anthropology''. Trans. Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf (New York: Basic Books, 1963), [https://books.google.com/books?id=RmeUknlauJAC&lpg=PP1&ots=NJWcwczLLV&dq=Structural%20Anthropology%20Basic%20Books&pg=PA228#v=onepage&q=Structural%20Anthropology%20Basic%20Books&f=false 228].</ref>). |
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Postmodernist ideas in |
Postmodernist ideas in philosophy and in the analysis of culture and society have expanded the importance of critical theory. They have been the point of departure for works of literature, architecture, and design, as well as being visible in marketing/business and the interpretation of history, law, and culture, starting in the late 20th century. These developments—re-evaluation of the entire Western value system (love, marriage, popular culture, shift from an [[industrial society|industrial]] to a [[service economy]]) that took place since the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in the [[May 1968 events in France|Social Revolution of 1968]]—are described with the term ''[[postmodernity]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=TRANS Nr. 11: Paul Michael Lützeler (St. Louis): From Postmodernism to Postcolonialism |url=http://www.inst.at/trans/11Nr/luetzeler11.htm |website=inst.at}}</ref> as opposed to ''postmodernism'', a term referring to an opinion or movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarup |first=Madan |title=An introductory guide to post-structuralism and postmodernism |publisher=University of Georgia Press |year=1993 |isbn=0-8203-1531-1 |location=Athens}}</ref> Post-structuralism is characterized by new ways of thinking through structuralism, contrary to the original form.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yilmaz |first=K |year=2010 |title=Postmodernism and its Challenge to the Discipline of History: Implications for History Education |journal=Educational Philosophy & Theory |volume=42 |issue=7 |pages=779–795 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-5812.2009.00525.x |s2cid=145695056}}</ref> |
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===Deconstruction=== |
===Deconstruction=== |
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{{Main|Deconstruction}} |
{{Main|Deconstruction}} |
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One of the most well-known postmodernist concerns is |
One of the most well-known postmodernist concerns is ''deconstruction'', a theory for philosophy, literary criticism, and textual analysis developed by [[Jacques Derrida]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Culler |first=Jonathan |title=On deconstruction : theory and criticism after structuralism |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-46151-1 |location=London}}</ref> Critics have insisted that Derrida's work is rooted in a statement found in ''Of Grammatology'': "{{Lang|fr|Il n'y a pas dehors-texte}}" ('there is no outside text). Such critics misinterpret the statement as denying any reality outside of books. The statement is actually part of a critique of "inside" and "outside" metaphors when referring to the text, and is a corollary to the observation that there is no "inside" of a text as well.<ref>Derrida (1967), [https://monoskop.org/images/8/8e/Derrida_Jacques_Of_Grammatology_1998.pdf ''Of Grammatology'', Part II, Introduction to the "Age of Rousseau," section 2 "...That Dangerous Supplement...", title, "The Exorbitant Question of Method"], pp. 158–59, 163.</ref> This attention to a text's unacknowledged reliance on metaphors and figures embedded within its discourse is characteristic of Derrida's approach. Derrida's method sometimes involves demonstrating that a given philosophical discourse depends on binary oppositions or excluding terms that the discourse itself has declared to be irrelevant or inapplicable. Derrida's philosophy inspired a postmodern movement called [[deconstructivism]] among architects, characterized by a design that rejects structural "centers" and encourages decentralized play among its elements. Derrida discontinued his involvement with the movement after the publication of his collaborative project with architect Peter Eisenman in ''Chora L Works: Jacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman''.<ref>Peeters, Benoît. ''Derrida: A Biography'', pp. 377–8, translated by Andrew Brown, [[Polity Press]], 2013, {{ISBN|978-0-7456-5615-1}}</ref> |
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===Post-postmodernism=== |
===Post-postmodernism=== |
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The connection between postmodernism, posthumanism, and cyborgism has led to a challenge to postmodernism, for which the terms ''postpostmodernism'' and ''postpoststructuralism'' were first coined in 2003:<ref>{{Cite journal | |
The connection between postmodernism, posthumanism, and cyborgism has led to a challenge to postmodernism, for which the terms ''postpostmodernism'' and ''postpoststructuralism'' were first coined in 2003:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mann |first=Steve |year=2003 |title=Decon<sup>2</sup> (Decon Squared): Deconstructing Decontamination |url=http://wearcam.org/decon2/decon_leonardo_leon_36_4_285_0.pdf |journal=Leonardo |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=285–290 |doi=10.1162/002409403322258691 |jstor=1577323 |s2cid=57559253}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Heidi A. |year=2006 |title=Postcyborg Ethics: A New Way to Speak of Technology |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274327317 |journal=Explorations in Media Ecology |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=279–296 |doi=10.1386/eme.5.4.279_1}}</ref> |
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{{quote|In some sense, we may regard postmodernism, posthumanism, poststructuralism, etc., as being of the 'cyborg age' of mind over body. Deconference was an exploration in post-cyborgism (i.e. what comes after the postcorporeal era), and thus explored issues of postpostmodernism, postpoststructuralism, and the like. To understand this transition from 'pomo' (cyborgism) to 'popo' (postcyborgism) we must first understand the cyborg era itself.<ref>{{Cite journal | |
{{quote|In some sense, we may regard postmodernism, posthumanism, poststructuralism, etc., as being of the 'cyborg age' of mind over body. Deconference was an exploration in post-cyborgism (i.e. what comes after the postcorporeal era), and thus explored issues of postpostmodernism, postpoststructuralism, and the like. To understand this transition from 'pomo' (cyborgism) to 'popo' (postcyborgism) we must first understand the cyborg era itself.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mann |first=Steve |last2=Fung |first2=James |last3=Federman |first3=Mark |last4=Baccanico |first4=Gianluca |year=2002 |title=PanopDecon: Deconstructing, decontaminating, and decontextualizing panopticism in the postcyborg era |journal=Surveillance & Society |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=375–398 |doi=10.24908/ss.v1i3.3346 |doi-access=free}}</ref>}} |
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More recently [[metamodernism]], post-postmodernism and the "death of postmodernism" have been widely debated: in 2007 Andrew Hoberek noted in his introduction to a special issue of the journal ''Twentieth |
More recently [[metamodernism]], post-postmodernism and the "death of postmodernism" have been widely debated: in 2007 Andrew Hoberek noted in his introduction to a special issue of the journal ''Twentieth-Century Literature'' titled "After Postmodernism" that "declarations of postmodernism's demise have become a critical commonplace". A small group of critics has put forth a range of theories that aim to describe culture or society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism, most notably Raoul Eshelman (performatism), [[Gilles Lipovetsky]] ([[hypermodernity]]), [[Nicolas Bourriaud]] ([[altermodern]]), and Alan Kirby (digimodernism, formerly called pseudo-modernism). None of these new theories or labels have so far gained very widespread acceptance. Sociocultural anthropologist Nina Müller-Schwarze offers neostructuralism as a possible direction.<ref>Müller Schwarze, Nina |
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2015 The Blood of Victoriano Lorenzo: An Ethnography of the Cholos of Northern Coclé Province. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Press.</ref> The exhibition ''Postmodernism – Style and Subversion 1970–1990'' at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] ( |
2015 The Blood of Victoriano Lorenzo: An Ethnography of the Cholos of Northern Coclé Province. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Press.</ref> The exhibition ''Postmodernism – Style and Subversion 1970–1990'' at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] (London, 24 September 2011 – 15 January 2012) was billed as the first show to document postmodernism as a historical movement. |
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==Philosophy== |
==Philosophy== |
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{{Main|Postmodern philosophy}} |
{{Main|Postmodern philosophy}} |
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In the 1970s a group of [[poststructuralists]] in France developed a radical critique of modern philosophy with roots discernible in Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, and Heidegger, and became known as postmodern theorists, notably including Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Jean-François Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, and others. New and challenging modes of thought and writing pushed the development of new areas and topics in philosophy. By the 1980s, this spread to America (Richard Rorty) and the world.<ref name="Best-Kellner-2001">{{ |
In the 1970s a group of [[poststructuralists]] in France developed a radical critique of modern philosophy with roots discernible in Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, and Heidegger, and became known as postmodern theorists, notably including Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Jean-François Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, and others. New and challenging modes of thought and writing pushed the development of new areas and topics in philosophy. By the 1980s, this spread to America (Richard Rorty) and the world.<ref name="Best-Kellner-2001">{{Cite web |last=Best |first=Steven |last2=Kellner |first2=Douglas |author-link2=Douglas Kellner |date=2 November 2001 |title=The Postmodern Turn in Philosophy: Theoretical Provocations and Normative Deficits |url=https://pages.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/papers/postmodernturn.htm |access-date=12 May 2019 |website=UCLA Graduate School of Education and Information Studies |publisher=UCLA}}</ref> |
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===Jacques Derrida=== |
===Jacques Derrida=== |
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{{Main|Jacques Derrida}} |
{{Main|Jacques Derrida}} |
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Jacques Derrida was a French-Algerian philosopher best known for developing a form of [[semiotics|semiotic]] analysis known as |
Jacques Derrida was a French-Algerian philosopher best known for developing a form of [[semiotics|semiotic]] analysis known as deconstruction, which he discussed in numerous texts, and developed in the context of [[phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]].<ref name="EB-2018-Derrida">{{Cite web |date=11 October 2018 |title=Jacques Derrida |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jacques-Derrida |access-date=14 May 2019 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]}}</ref><ref name="McCance-2014">{{Cite book |last=McCance |first=Dawne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZPCBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |title=Derrida on Religion: Thinker of Differance |date=5 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49093-7 |series=Key thinkers in the study of religion |location=London |page=7 |oclc=960024707 |orig-year=2009: Equinox}}</ref><ref name="Peters-2009">{{Cite book |last=Peters |first=Michael A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EhpwEYmMxgYC&pg=PA134 |title=Derrida, Deconstruction, and the Politics of Pedagogy |last2=Biesta |first2=Gert |publisher=Peter Lang |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4331-0009-3 |location=New York |page=134 |oclc=314727596<!--476972726, 263497930, 783449163-->}}</ref> He is one of the major figures associated with post-structuralism and [[postmodern philosophy]].<ref name="Bensmaia05">{{Cite book |last=Bensmaïa |first=Réda |title=The Columbia History of Twentieth-Century French Thought |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-231-10790-7 |editor-last=Kritzman |editor-first=Lawrence D. |location=New York |pages=92–93 |chapter=Poststructuralism |editor-last2=Reilly |editor-first2=Brian J. |editor-last3=Debevoise |editor-first3=M. B. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bREQibN9i-sC&pg=PA92}}</ref><ref name="Poster89">{{Cite book |last=Poster |first=Mark |title=Critical Theory and Poststructuralism: In Search of a Context |date=1989 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-4618-5 |pages=4–6 |chapter=Introduction: Theory and the Problem of Context |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EumYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5}}</ref><ref name="Leitch-1996">{{Cite book |last=Leitch |first=Vincent B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YfCczsG6ZDQC&pg=PA27 |title=Postmodernism - Local Effects, Global Flows |date=1 January 1996 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-1-4384-1044-9 |series=SUNY series in postmodern culture |location=Albany, NY |page=27 |oclc=715808589 |access-date=15 May 2019}}</ref> |
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Derrida re-examined the fundamentals of writing and its consequences on philosophy in general; sought to undermine the language of "presence" or [[metaphysics]] in an analytical technique which, beginning as a point of departure from Heidegger's notion of [[Heideggerian terminology|''Destruktion'']], came to be known as |
Derrida re-examined the fundamentals of writing and its consequences on philosophy in general; sought to undermine the language of "presence" or [[metaphysics]] in an analytical technique which, beginning as a point of departure from Heidegger's notion of [[Heideggerian terminology|''Destruktion'']], came to be known as deconstruction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lurcza |first=Zsuzsanna |date=2017 |title=Deconstruction of the Destruktion – Heidegger and Derrida |journal=Philobiblon. Transylvanian Journal of Multidisciplinary Research in Humanities |volume=22 |issue=2 |doi=10.26424/philobib.2017.22.2.11 |issn=1224-7448}}</ref> |
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===Michel Foucault=== |
===Michel Foucault=== |
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{{Main|Michel Foucault}} |
{{Main|Michel Foucault}} |
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Michel Foucault was a [[French philosophy|French philosopher]], [[History of ideas|historian of ideas]], [[social theorist]], and |
Michel Foucault was a [[French philosophy|French philosopher]], [[History of ideas|historian of ideas]], [[social theorist]], and literary critic. First associated with [[structuralism]], Foucault created an oeuvre that today is seen as belonging to [[post-structuralism]] and to postmodern philosophy. Considered a leading figure of {{interlanguage link|French theory|fr|vertical-align=sup}}, his work remains fruitful in the English-speaking academic world in a large number of sub-disciplines. The [[Times Higher Education]] Guide described him in 2009 as the most cited author in the humanities.<ref name="Times-2009">{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=The most cited authors of books in the humanities |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/most-cited-authors-of-books-in-the-humanities-2007/405956.article?storyCode=405956§ioncode=26 |url-access=registration |website=[[Times Higher Education]] |publisher=THE World Universities Insights}}</ref> |
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Michel Foucault introduced concepts such as ' |
Michel Foucault introduced concepts such as ''discursive regime'', or re-invoked those of older philosophers like [[episteme|''episteme'']] and [[On the Genealogy of Morality|''genealogy'']] in order to explain the relationship between meaning, power, and social behavior within social orders (see ''[[The Order of Things]]'', ''[[The Archaeology of Knowledge]]'', ''[[Discipline and Punish]]'', and ''[[The History of Sexuality]]'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Foucault |first=Michel, 1926–1984. |title=The order of things : an archaeology of the human sciences |date=17 April 2018 |isbn=978-1-317-33667-9 |oclc=1051836299}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Foucault |first=Michel |title=Archaeology of Knowledge |date=15 April 2013 |isbn=978-0-203-60416-8 |doi=10.4324/9780203604168}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Foucault |first=Michel |title=Discipline and Punish: the birth of the prison. |date=2020 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-241-38601-9 |oclc=1117463412}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Foucault, Michel, 1926-1984, author. |title=The History of Sexuality : an introduction. |isbn=978-1-4114-7321-8 |oclc=910324749}}</ref> |
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===Jean-François Lyotard=== |
===Jean-François Lyotard=== |
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{{Main|Jean-François Lyotard}} |
{{Main|Jean-François Lyotard}} |
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Jean-François Lyotard is credited with being the first to use the term in a philosophical context, in his 1979 work ''[[{{As written|The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge<!--full title on first use-->}}]]''. In it, he follows Wittgenstein's [[Language game (philosophy)|language games]] model and [[speech act theory#History|speech act theory]], contrasting two different language games, that of the expert, and that of the philosopher. He talks about transformation of knowledge into information in the computer age and likens the transmission or reception of coded messages (information) to a position within a language game.<ref name="SEP-2015">{{ |
Jean-François Lyotard is credited with being the first to use the term in a philosophical context, in his 1979 work ''[[{{As written|The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge<!--full title on first use-->}}]]''. In it, he follows Wittgenstein's [[Language game (philosophy)|language games]] model and [[speech act theory#History|speech act theory]], contrasting two different language games, that of the expert, and that of the philosopher. He talks about the transformation of knowledge into information in the computer age and likens the transmission or reception of coded messages (information) to a position within a language game.<ref name="SEP-2015">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Postmodernism |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2015/entries/postmodernism |access-date=12 May 2019 |date=5 February 2015 |orig-year=1st pub. 2005 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2015 |series=sep-postmodernism |last1=Aylesworth |first1=Gary}}</ref> |
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Lyotard defined philosophical postmodernism in ''The Postmodern Condition'', writing: "Simplifying to the extreme, I define postmodern as incredulity towards |
Lyotard defined philosophical postmodernism in ''The Postmodern Condition'', writing: "Simplifying to the extreme, I define postmodern as incredulity towards metanarratives...."{{thin space}}<ref name="Lyotard-1979">{{Cite book |last=Lyotard |first=J.-F. |title=The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge |title-link=The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-944624-06-7 |location=Minneapolis |oclc=232943026 |author-link=Jean-François Lyotard}}</ref> where what he means by [[metanarrative]] is something like a unified, complete, universal, and [[Epistemic modality|epistemically certain]] story about everything that is. Postmodernists reject metanarratives because they reject the concept of truth that metanarratives presuppose. Postmodernist philosophers, in general, argue that truth is always contingent on historical and social context rather than being absolute and universal—and that truth is always partial and "at issue" rather than being complete and certain.<ref name="SEP-2015" /> |
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===Richard Rorty=== |
===Richard Rorty=== |
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===Jean Baudrillard=== |
===Jean Baudrillard=== |
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{{Main|Jean Baudrillard}} |
{{Main|Jean Baudrillard}} |
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Jean Baudrillard, in ''[[Simulacra and Simulation]]'', introduced the concept that reality or the principle of |
Jean Baudrillard, in ''[[Simulacra and Simulation]]'', introduced the concept that reality or the principle of the Real is short-circuited by the interchangeability of signs in an era whose communicative and semantic acts are dominated by electronic media and digital technologies. Baudrillard proposes the notion that, in such a state, where subjects are detached from the outcomes of events (political, literary, artistic, personal, or otherwise), events no longer hold any particular sway on the subject nor have any identifiable context; they, therefore, have the effect of producing widespread indifference, detachment, and passivity in industrialized populations. He claimed that a constant stream of appearances and references without any direct consequences to viewers or readers could eventually render the division between appearance and object indiscernible, resulting, ironically, in the "disappearance" of mankind in what is, in effect, a virtual or holographic state, composed only of appearances. For Baudrillard, "simulation is no longer that of a territory, a referential being or a substance. It is the generation by models of a real without origin or reality: a hyperreal."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luke |first=Timothy W. |year=1991 |title=Power and politics in hyperreality: The critical project of Jean Baudrillard |journal=The Social Science Journal |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=347–367 |doi=10.1016/0362-3319(91)90018-Y}}</ref> |
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===Fredric Jameson=== |
===Fredric Jameson=== |
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{{Main|Fredric Jameson}} |
{{Main|Fredric Jameson}} |
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Fredric Jameson set forth one of the first expansive theoretical treatments of postmodernism as a historical period, intellectual trend, and social phenomenon in a series of lectures at the [[Whitney Museum of American Art|Whitney Museum]], later expanded as ''[[Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism]]'' (1991).<ref>{{ |
Fredric Jameson set forth one of the first expansive theoretical treatments of postmodernism as a historical period, intellectual trend, and social phenomenon in a series of lectures at the [[Whitney Museum of American Art|Whitney Museum]], later expanded as ''[[Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism]]'' (1991).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jameson |first=Fredric |title=Postmodernism, or, The cultural logic of late capitalism |publisher=Duke University Press |year=1991 |isbn=0-8223-0929-7 |location=Durham}}</ref> |
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===Douglas Kellner=== |
===Douglas Kellner=== |
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{{Main|Douglas Kellner}} |
{{Main|Douglas Kellner}} |
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In ''Analysis of the Journey'', a journal birthed from postmodernism, Douglas Kellner insists that the "assumptions and procedures of modern theory" must be forgotten. Extensively, Kellner analyzes the terms of this theory in real-life experiences and examples.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kellner|first=Douglas|date=1988|title=Postmodernism as Social Theory: Some Challenges and Problems|journal=Theory, Culture & Society|language=en|volume=5|issue=2–3|pages=239–269|doi=10.1177/0263276488005002003 |
In ''Analysis of the Journey'', a journal birthed from postmodernism, Douglas Kellner insists that the "assumptions and procedures of modern theory" must be forgotten. Extensively, Kellner analyzes the terms of this theory in real-life experiences and examples.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kellner |first=Douglas |date=1988 |title=Postmodernism as Social Theory: Some Challenges and Problems |journal=Theory, Culture & Society |language=en |volume=5 |issue=2–3 |pages=239–269 |doi=10.1177/0263276488005002003 |issn=0263-2764 |s2cid=144625142}}</ref> Kellner used science and technology studies as a major part of his analysis; he urged that the theory is incomplete without it. The scale was larger than just postmodernism alone; it must be interpreted through cultural studies where science and technology studies play a huge role. The reality of the [[September 11 attacks]] on the United States of America is the catalyst for his explanation. In response, Kellner continues to examine the repercussions of understanding the effects of the 11 September attacks. He questions if the attacks are only able to be understood in a limited form of postmodern theory due to the level of irony.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lule |first=Jack |year=2001 |title=''The Postmodern Adventure'' [Book Review] |journal=Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=865–866 |doi=10.1177/107769900107800415 |s2cid=221059611}}</ref> |
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The conclusion he depicts is simple: postmodernism, as most use it today, will decide what experiences and signs in one's reality will be one's reality as they know it.<ref>{{ |
The conclusion he depicts is simple: postmodernism, as most use it today, will decide what experiences and signs in one's reality will be one's reality as they know it.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Danto |first=AC |author-link=Arthur Danto |year=1990 |title=The Hyper-Intellectual |magazine=New Republic |volume=203 |issue=11/12 |pages=44–48}}</ref> |
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==Manifestations== |
==Manifestations== |
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===Architecture=== |
===Architecture=== |
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{{Main|Postmodern architecture}} |
{{Main|Postmodern architecture}} |
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[[File:Staatsgalerie1.jpg|thumb|''[[Neue Staatsgalerie]]'' (1977–84), [[Stuttgart]], |
[[File:Staatsgalerie1.jpg|thumb|''[[Neue Staatsgalerie]]'' (1977–84), [[Stuttgart]], Germany, designed by the British architect [[James Stirling (architect)|James Stirling]] and the English architect [[Michael Wilford]], showing the eclectic mix of classical architecture and colourful ironic detailing.]] |
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[[File:MIT Campus.jpg|thumb|''[[Ray and Maria Stata Center]]'' (2004), designed by the Canadian-American architect [[Frank Gehry]] for the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT), [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]].]] |
[[File:MIT Campus.jpg|thumb|''[[Ray and Maria Stata Center]]'' (2004), designed by the Canadian-American architect [[Frank Gehry]] for the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT), [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]].]] |
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The idea of Postmodernism in |
The idea of Postmodernism in architecture began as a response to the perceived blandness and failure of the Utopianism of the Modern movement.{{Citation needed|reason=This is probably correct but needs a source|date=May 2019}} [[Modern Architecture]], as established and developed by [[Walter Gropius]] and [[Le Corbusier]], was focused on: |
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* the attempted harmony of form and function;<ref>Sullivan, Louis. "The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered," published Lippincott's Magazine (March 1896).</ref> and, |
* the attempted harmony of form and function;<ref>Sullivan, Louis. "The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered," published Lippincott's Magazine (March 1896).</ref> and, |
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* the dismissal of "frivolous ornament."<ref>Loos, Adolf (1910). "[[Ornament and Crime]]".</ref><ref>{{ |
* the dismissal of "frivolous ornament."<ref>Loos, Adolf (1910). "[[Ornament and Crime]]".</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tafuri |first=Manfredo |url=https://modernistarchitecture.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/manfredo-tafuri-architecture-and-utopia-design-and-capitalist-development.pdf |title=Architecture and Utopia: Design and Capitalist Development |date=1976 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-20033-2 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2020}} |
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They argued for |
They argued for architecture that represented the spirit of the age as depicted in cutting-edge technology, be it airplanes, cars, ocean liners, or even supposedly artless grain silos.<ref>Le Corbusier, ''Towards a New Architecture''. Dover Publications, 1985/1921.</ref> |
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Modernist [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] is associated with the phrase "[[Minimalism|less is more]]". |
Modernist [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] is associated with the phrase "[[Minimalism|less is more]]". |
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* questioned the benefits of its philosophy.<ref>Venturi, et al.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=February 2020}} |
* questioned the benefits of its philosophy.<ref>Venturi, et al.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=February 2020}} |
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The intellectual scholarship regarding postmodernism and architecture is closely linked with the writings of critic-turned-architect [[Charles Jencks]], beginning with lectures in the early 1970s and his essay "The Rise of Post Modern Architecture" from 1975.<ref>{{ |
The intellectual scholarship regarding postmodernism and architecture is closely linked with the writings of critic-turned-architect [[Charles Jencks]], beginning with lectures in the early 1970s and his essay "The Rise of Post Modern Architecture" from 1975.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jencks |first=Charles |date=1975 |title=The Rise of Post Modern Architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdtUAAAAMAAJ&q=The+rise+of+Post-Modern+architecture |journal=Architectural Association Quarterly |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=3–14}}</ref> His ''magnum opus'', however, is the book ''The Language of Post-Modern Architecture'', first published in 1977, and since running to seven editions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jencks |first=Charles |title=The language of post-modern architecture |publisher=Rizzoli |year=1977 |isbn=0-8478-0167-5 |location=New York}}</ref> Jencks makes the point that Post-Modernism (like Modernism) varies for each field of art, and that for architecture it is not just a reaction to Modernism but what he terms ''double coding'': "Double Coding: the combination of Modern techniques with something else (usually traditional building) in order for architecture to communicate with the public and a concerned minority, usually other architects."<ref>Jencks, Charles. "The Language of Post-Modern Architecture", Academy Editions, London 1974.</ref> In their book, "Revisiting Postmodernism", [[Terry Farrell (architect)|Terry Farrell]] and Adam Furman argue that postmodernism brought a more joyous and sensual experience to the culture, particularly in architecture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Farrell |first=Terry |title=Revisiting Postmodernism |publisher=RIBA Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-85946-632-2 |location=Newcastle upon Tyne}}</ref> |
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===Art=== |
===Art=== |
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{{Main|Postmodern art}} |
{{Main|Postmodern art}} |
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Postmodern art is a body of art movements that sought to contradict some aspects of modernism or some aspects that emerged or developed in its aftermath. Cultural production manifesting as intermedia, installation art, conceptual art, deconstructionist display, and multimedia, particularly involving video, are described as postmodern.<ref>{{ |
Postmodern art is a body of art movements that sought to contradict some aspects of modernism or some aspects that emerged or developed in its aftermath. Cultural production manifesting as intermedia, installation art, conceptual art, deconstructionist display, and multimedia, particularly involving video, are described as postmodern.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Pamela |title=New Games : Postmodernism After Contemporary Art |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-98879-7 |location=New York}}</ref> |
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===Graphic design=== |
===Graphic design=== |
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[[File:AprilGreiman.jpg|thumb|[[April Greiman]]]] |
[[File:AprilGreiman.jpg|thumb|[[April Greiman]]]] |
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Early mention of postmodernism as an element of graphic design appeared in the British magazine, "Design |
Early mention of postmodernism as an element of graphic design appeared in the British magazine, "Design".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Poynor |first=Rick |url=https://archive.org/details/nomorerulesgraph00poyn_0/page/18 |title=No more rules : graphic design and postmodernism |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-300-10034-5 |location=New Haven, CT |page=[https://archive.org/details/nomorerulesgraph00poyn_0/page/18 18]}}</ref> A characteristic of postmodern graphic design is that "retro, techno, punk, grunge, beach, parody, and pastiche were all conspicuous trends. Each had its own sites and venues, detractors and advocates."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Drucker |first=Johanna and [[Emily McVarish]] |title=Graphic Design History |publisher=Pearson |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-13-241075-5 |pages=305–306}}</ref> |
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===Literature=== |
===Literature=== |
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{{Main|Postmodern literature}} |
{{Main|Postmodern literature}} |
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Jorge Luis Borges' (1939) short story "[[Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote|Pierre Menard, Author of the ''Quixote'']]", is often considered as predicting postmodernism<ref>Elizabeth Bellalouna, Michael L. LaBlanc, Ira Mark Milne (2000) [https://books.google.com/books?id=CecJAQAAMAAJ ''Literature of Developing Nations for Students: L-Z''] p.50</ref> and is a paragon of the ultimate parody.<ref name="Stavans1997p31">{{Cite book |last=Stavans |first=Ilan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ro6a1EyaS2AC&pg=PA31 |title=Antiheroes: Mexico and Its Detective Novel |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8386-3644-2 |page=31}}</ref> [[Samuel Beckett]] is also considered an important precursor and influence. Novelists who are commonly connected with postmodern literature include [[Vladimir Nabokov]], [[William Gaddis]], [[Umberto Eco]], [[Pier Vittorio Tondelli]], [[John Hawkes (novelist)|John Hawkes]], [[William S. Burroughs]], [[Kurt Vonnegut]], [[John Barth]], [[Jean Rhys]], [[Donald Barthelme]], [[E. L. Doctorow]], [[Richard Kalich]], [[Jerzy Kosiński]], [[Don DeLillo]], [[Thomas Pynchon]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=McHale |first=Brian |title=The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Pynchon |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-76974-7 |editor-last=Dalsgaard |editor-first=Inger H |pages=97–111 |chapter=Pynchon's postmodernism |doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521769747.010 |editor-last2=Herman |editor-first2=Luc |editor-last3=McHale |editor-first3=Brian}}</ref> (Pynchon's work has also been described as high modern<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mail, Events, Screenings, News: 32 |url=http://people.bu.edu/rcarney/aboutrc/letters32.shtml |access-date=4 April 2013 |website=People.bu.edu}}</ref>), [[Ishmael Reed]], [[Kathy Acker]], [[Ana Lydia Vega]], [[Jáchym Topol]] and [[Paul Auster]]. |
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In 1971, the Arab-American scholar [[Ihab Hassan]] published ''The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature,'' an early work of literary criticism from a postmodern perspective that traces the development of what he calls "literature of silence" through [[Marquis de Sade]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Ernest Hemingway]], |
In 1971, the Arab-American scholar [[Ihab Hassan]] published ''The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature,'' an early work of literary criticism from a postmodern perspective that traces the development of what he calls "literature of silence" through [[Marquis de Sade]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Ernest Hemingway]], Samuel Beckett, and many others, including developments such as the [[Theatre of the Absurd]] and the [[nouveau roman]]. |
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In ''Postmodernist Fiction'' (1987), [[Brian McHale]] details the shift from modernism to postmodernism, arguing that the former is characterized by an epistemological dominant and that postmodern works have developed out of modernism and are primarily concerned with questions of ontology.<ref>[[Brian McHale|McHale, B.]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=ec2HAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Postmodernist Fiction''] ([[Abingdon-on-Thames]]: [[Routledge]], 2003).</ref> McHale's second book, ''Constructing Postmodernism'' (1992), provides readings of postmodern fiction and some contemporary writers who go under the label of [[cyberpunk]]. McHale's "What Was Postmodernism?" (2007)<ref>{{ |
In ''Postmodernist Fiction'' (1987), [[Brian McHale]] details the shift from modernism to postmodernism, arguing that the former is characterized by an epistemological dominant and that postmodern works have developed out of modernism and are primarily concerned with questions of ontology.<ref>[[Brian McHale|McHale, B.]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=ec2HAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Postmodernist Fiction''] ([[Abingdon-on-Thames]]: [[Routledge]], 2003).</ref> McHale's second book, ''Constructing Postmodernism'' (1992), provides readings of postmodern fiction and some contemporary writers who go under the label of [[cyberpunk]]. McHale's "What Was Postmodernism?" (2007)<ref>{{Cite web |last=McHale |first=Brian |date=20 December 2007 |title=What Was Postmodernism? |url=https://electronicbookreview.com/essay/what-was-postmodernism/ |access-date=4 April 2013 |publisher=Electronic Book Review}}</ref> follows [[Raymond Federman]]'s lead in now using the past tense when discussing postmodernism. |
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===Music=== |
===Music=== |
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{{Main|Postmodern music|Postmodern classical music|Art pop}} |
{{Main|Postmodern music|Postmodern classical music|Art pop}} |
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Jonathan Kramer has written that avant-garde musical compositions (which some would consider modernist rather than postmodernist) "defy more than seduce the listener, and they extend by potentially unsettling means the very idea of what music is."<ref>{{ |
Jonathan Kramer has written that avant-garde musical compositions (which some would consider modernist rather than postmodernist) "defy more than seduce the listener, and they extend by potentially unsettling means the very idea of what music is."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kramer |first=Jonathan |title=Postmodern music, postmodern listening |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-5013-0602-0 |location=New York}}</ref> The postmodern impulse in classical music arose in the 1960s with the advent of musical minimalism. Composers such as [[Terry Riley]], [[Henryk Górecki]], [[Bradley Joseph]], [[John Adams (composer)|John Adams]], [[Steve Reich]], [[Philip Glass]], [[Michael Nyman]], and [[Lou Harrison]] reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies, whilst others, most notably [[John Cage]] challenged the prevailing narratives of beauty and objectivity common to Modernism. |
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Author on postmodernism, Dominic Strinati, has noted, it is also important "to include in this category the so-called '[[art rock]]' musical innovations and mixing of styles associated with groups like [[Talking Heads]], and performers like [[Laurie Anderson]], together with the self-conscious 'reinvention of [[disco]]' by the [[Pet Shop Boys]]".<ref>{{Cite book|title=An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture |
Author on postmodernism, Dominic Strinati, has noted, it is also important "to include in this category the so-called '[[art rock]]' musical innovations and mixing of styles associated with groups like [[Talking Heads]], and performers like [[Laurie Anderson]], together with the self-conscious 'reinvention of [[disco]]' by the [[Pet Shop Boys]]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strinati |first=Dominic |title=An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |location=London |pages=234}}</ref> |
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===Urban planning=== |
===Urban planning=== |
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Modernism sought to design and plan cities |
Modernism sought to design and plan cities that followed the logic of the new model of industrial [[mass production]]; reverting to large-scale solutions, aesthetic standardisation, and [[prefabricated]] design solutions.<ref name=":0" /> Modernism eroded urban living by its failure to recognise differences and aim towards homogeneous landscapes (Simonsen 1990, 57). [[Jane Jacobs]]' 1961 book ''[[The Death and Life of Great American Cities]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Jane |url=https://archive.org/details/deathlifeofgreat0000jaco |title=The death and life of great American cities |publisher=Modern Library |year=1993 |isbn=0-679-64433-4 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> was a sustained critique of urban planning as it had developed within Modernism and marked a transition from modernity to postmodernity in thinking about urban planning (Irving 1993, 479). |
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The transition from Modernism to Postmodernism is often said to have happened at 3: |
The transition from Modernism to Postmodernism is often said to have happened at 3:32 pm on 15 July in 1972, when [[Pruitt–Igoe]], a housing development for low-income people in [[St. Louis]] designed by architect [[Minoru Yamasaki]], which had been a prize-winning version of Le Corbusier's 'machine for modern living,' was deemed uninhabitable and was torn down (Irving 1993, 480). Since then, Postmodernism has involved theories that embrace and aim to create diversity. It exalts uncertainty, flexibility and change (Hatuka & D'Hooghe 2007) and rejects utopianism while embracing a utopian way of thinking and acting.<ref name="Hatuka2007">{{Cite journal |last=Hatuka |first=Tali |last2=d'Hooghe |first2=Alexander |date=2007 |title=After Postmodernism: Readdressing the Role of Utopia in Urban Design and Planning |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7b3789rv |journal=Places |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=20–27}}</ref> Postmodernity of 'resistance' seeks to deconstruct Modernism and is a critique of the origins without necessarily returning to them (Irving 1993, 60). As a result of Postmodernism, planners are much less inclined to lay a firm or steady claim to there being one single 'right way' of engaging in urban planning and are more open to different styles and ideas of 'how to plan' (Irving 474).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Goodchild |first=Barry |year=1990 |title=Planning and the Modern/Postmodern Debate |journal=The Town Planning Review |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=119–137 |doi=10.3828/tpr.61.2.q5863289k1353533 |jstor=40112887}}</ref><ref name=Hatuka2007/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Irving |first=Allan |year=1993 |title=The Modern/Postmodern Divide and Urban Planning |journal=University of Toronto Quarterly |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=474–487 |doi=10.3138/utq.62.4.474 |s2cid=144261041}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Simonsen |first=Kirsten |year=1990 |title=Planning on 'Postmodern' Conditions |journal=Acta Sociologica |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=51–62 |doi=10.1177/000169939003300104 |jstor=4200779 |s2cid=144268594}}</ref> |
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The study of postmodern urbanism itself, i.e. the postmodern way of creating and perpetuating the urban form, and the postmodern approach to understanding the city |
The study of postmodern urbanism itself, i.e. the postmodern way of creating and perpetuating the urban form, and the postmodern approach to understanding the city were pioneered in the 1980s by what could be called the "Los Angeles School of Urbanism" centered on the [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]]'s Urban Planning Department in the 1980s, where contemporary Los Angeles was taken to be the postmodern city par excellence, contra posed to what had been the dominant ideas of the [[Chicago school (sociology)|Chicago School]] formed in the 1920s at the [[University of Chicago]], with its framework of urban ecology and emphasis on functional areas of use within a city, and the concentric circles to understand the sorting of different population groups.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Soja |first=Edward W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok3rAgAAQBAJ |title=My Los Angeles: From Urban Restructuring to Regional Urbanization |date=14 March 2014 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-95763-3 |language=en}}</ref> [[Edward Soja]] of the Los Angeles School combined Marxist and postmodern perspectives and focused on the economic and social changes (globalization, specialization, industrialization/deindustrialization, Neo-Liberalism, mass migration) that lead to the creation of large city-regions with their patchwork of population groups and economic uses.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Shiel |first=Mark |date=30 October 2017 |title=Edward Soja |url=https://www.mediapolisjournal.com/2017/10/edward-soja/ |access-date=1 February 2020 |website=Mediapolis |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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==Criticisms== |
==Criticisms== |
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{{Main|Criticism of postmodernism}} |
{{Main|Criticism of postmodernism}} |
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Criticisms of postmodernism are intellectually diverse, including the argument that postmodernism is meaningless and promotes |
Criticisms of postmodernism are intellectually diverse, including the argument that postmodernism is meaningless and promotes obscurantism. |
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In part in reference to post-modernism, conservative English philosopher [[Roger Scruton]] wrote, "A writer who says that there are no truths, or that all truth is 'merely relative,' is asking you not to believe him. So don't."<ref>{{ |
In part in reference to post-modernism, conservative English philosopher [[Roger Scruton]] wrote, "A writer who says that there are no truths, or that all truth is 'merely relative,' is asking you not to believe him. So don't."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scruton |first=Roger |title=Modern philosophy: an introduction and survey |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1996 |isbn=0-14-024907-9 |location=New York |author-link=Roger Scruton}}</ref> Similarly, [[Dick Hebdige]] criticized the vagueness of the term, enumerating a long list of otherwise unrelated concepts that people have designated as postmodernism, from "the décor of a room" or "a 'scratch' video", to fear of nuclear armageddon and the "implosion of meaning", and stated that anything that could signify all of those things was "a buzzword".<ref name="Hebdige">Dick Hebdige, 'Postmodernism and "the other side"', in ''Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: A reader'', edited by John Storey, London, Pearson Education, 2006</ref> |
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The linguist and philosopher [[Noam Chomsky]] has said that postmodernism is meaningless because it adds nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge. He asks why postmodernist intellectuals do not respond like people in other fields when asked, "what are the principles of their theories, on what evidence are they based, what do they explain that wasn't already obvious, etc.?...If [these requests] can't be met, then I'd suggest recourse to [[David Hume|Hume]]'s advice in similar circumstances: 'to the flames'."<ref>{{ |
The linguist and philosopher [[Noam Chomsky]] has said that postmodernism is meaningless because it adds nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge. He asks why postmodernist intellectuals do not respond like people in other fields when asked, "what are the principles of their theories, on what evidence are they based, what do they explain that wasn't already obvious, etc.?...If [these requests] can't be met, then I'd suggest recourse to [[David Hume|Hume]]'s advice in similar circumstances: 'to the flames'."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Noam Chomsky on Post-Modernism |url=http://www.bactra.org/chomsky-on-postmodernism.html |website=bactra.org}}</ref> |
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Christian philosopher [[William Lane Craig]] has said "The idea that we live in a postmodern culture is a myth. In fact, a postmodern culture is an impossibility; it would be utterly unliveable. People are not relativistic when it comes to matters of science, |
Christian philosopher [[William Lane Craig]] has said "The idea that we live in a postmodern culture is a myth. In fact, a postmodern culture is an impossibility; it would be utterly unliveable. People are not relativistic when it comes to matters of science, engineering, and technology; rather, they are relativistic and pluralistic in matters of religion and ethics. But, of course, that's not postmodernism; that's modernism!"<ref>{{Cite news |last=Craig |first=William Lane |author-link=William Lane Craig |date=3 July 2008 |title=God is Not Dead Yet |work=Christianity Today |url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2008/july/13.22.html |access-date=30 April 2014}}</ref> |
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American academic and aesthete [[Camille Paglia]] has said: |
American academic and aesthete [[Camille Paglia]] has said: |
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{{quote|The end result of four decades of postmodernism permeating the art world is that there is very little interesting or important work being done right now in the fine arts. |
{{quote|The end result of four decades of postmodernism permeating the art world is that there is very little interesting or important work being done right now in the fine arts. The irony was a bold and creative posture when [[Marcel Duchamp|Duchamp]] did it, but it is now an utterly banal, exhausted, and tedious strategy. Young artists have been taught to be "cool" and "hip" and thus painfully self-conscious. They are not encouraged to be enthusiastic, emotional, and visionary. They have been cut off from artistic tradition by the crippled skepticism about history that they have been taught by ignorant and [[wikt:solipsistic|solipsistic]] postmodernists. In short, the art world will never revive until postmodernism fades away. Postmodernism is a plague upon the mind and the heart.<ref>{{Cite web |last=de Castro |first=Eliana |date=12 December 2015 |title=Camille Paglia: "Postmodernism is a plague upon the mind and the heart" |url=https://faustomag.com/camille-paglia-postmodernism-is-a-plague-upon-the-mind-and-the-heart/ |website=Fausto Mag. |quote=Postmodernism is a plague upon the mind and the heart.}}</ref>}} |
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German philosopher [[Albrecht Wellmer]] has said that "postmodernism at its best might be seen as a self-critical – a sceptical, ironic, but nevertheless unrelenting – form of modernism; a modernism beyond utopianism, scientism and [[foundationalism]]; in short a |
German philosopher [[Albrecht Wellmer]] has said that "postmodernism at its best might be seen as a self-critical – a sceptical, ironic, but nevertheless unrelenting – form of modernism; a modernism beyond utopianism, scientism and [[foundationalism]]; in short a post-metaphysical modernism."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wellmer |first=Albrecht |title=The persistence of modernity : essays on aesthetics, ethic, and postmodernism |publisher=MIT Press |year=1991 |isbn=0-262-23160-3 |location=Cambridge, Mass |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> |
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A formal, academic critique of postmodernism can be found in ''[[Beyond the Hoax]]'' by physics professor [[Alan Sokal]] and in ''[[Fashionable Nonsense]]'' by Sokal and Belgian physicist [[Jean Bricmont]], both books discussing the so-called [[Sokal affair]]. In 1996, Sokal wrote a deliberately nonsensical article<ref>{{ |
A formal, academic critique of postmodernism can be found in ''[[Beyond the Hoax]]'' by physics professor [[Alan Sokal]] and in ''[[Fashionable Nonsense]]'' by Sokal and Belgian physicist [[Jean Bricmont]], both books discussing the so-called [[Sokal affair]]. In 1996, Sokal wrote a deliberately nonsensical article<ref>{{Citation |last=Sokal |first=Alan D. |title=Transgressing the Boundaries: Toward a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity |date=1996 |url=http://www.physics.nyu.edu/faculty/sokal/transgress_v2/transgress_v2_singlefile.html |work=Social Text |volume=46–47 |issue=46/47 |pages=217–252 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519124532/http://www.physics.nyu.edu/faculty/sokal/transgress_v2/transgress_v2_singlefile.html |doi=10.2307/466856 |jstor=466856 |access-date=15 March 2008 |archive-date=19 May 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> in a style similar to postmodernist articles, which was accepted for publication by the postmodern cultural studies journal, ''[[Social Text]]''. On the same day of the release he published another article in a different journal explaining the ''Social Text'' article hoax.<ref name="experiments">{{Citation |last=Sokal |first=Alan D. |title=A Physicist Experiments with Cultural Studies |date=5 June 1996 |url=http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9605/sokal.html |work=[[Lingua Franca (magazine)|Lingua Franca]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071005011354/http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9605/sokal.html |archive-date=5 October 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jedlitschka |first=Karsten |date=5 August 2018 |title=Guenter Lewy, Harmful and Undesirable. Book Censorship in Nazi Germany. Oxford, Oxford University Press 2016 |journal=Historische Zeitschrift |volume=307 |issue=1 |pages=274–275 |doi=10.1515/hzhz-2018-1368 |issn=2196-680X |s2cid=159895878}}</ref> The philosopher [[Thomas Nagel]] has supported Sokal and Bricmont, describing their book ''Fashionable Nonsense'' as consisting largely of "extensive quotations of scientific gibberish from name-brand French intellectuals, together with eerily patient explanations of why it is gibberish,"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nagel |first=Thomas |url=https://archive.org/details/concealmentexpos00nage |title=Concealment and Exposure & Other Essays |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-515293-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/concealmentexpos00nage/page/n168 164] |author-link=Thomas Nagel |url-access=limited}}</ref> and agreeing that "there does seem to be something about the Parisian scene that is particularly hospitable to reckless verbosity."<ref>Nagel, p. 165.</ref> |
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</ref> and agreeing that "there does seem to be something about the Parisian scene that is particularly hospitable to reckless verbosity."<ref>Nagel, p. 165.</ref> |
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A more recent example of the difficulty of distinguishing nonsensical artifacts from genuine postmodernist scholarship is the [[Grievance Studies affair]].<ref>{{Cite journal | |
A more recent example of the difficulty of distinguishing nonsensical artifacts from genuine postmodernist scholarship is the [[Grievance Studies affair]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peels |first=Rik |year=2019 |title=Replicability and replication in the humanities |journal=Research Integrity and Peer Review |volume=4 |pages=2 |doi=10.1186/s41073-018-0060-4 |pmc=6348612 |pmid=30705761}}</ref> |
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The French psychotherapist and philosopher, [[Félix Guattari]], often considered a |
The French psychotherapist and philosopher, [[Félix Guattari]], often considered a postmodernist, rejected its theoretical assumptions by arguing that the structuralist and postmodernist visions of the world were not flexible enough to seek explanations in psychological, social, and environmental domains at the same time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Guattari |first=Felix |date=1989 |title=The three ecologies |url=http://www.amielandmelburn.org.uk/collections/newformations/08_131.pdf |journal=New Formations |page=134 |number=8}}</ref> |
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Zimbabwean-born British Marxist [[Alex Callinicos]] says that postmodernism "reflects the disappointed revolutionary generation of '68, and the incorporation of many of its members into the professional and managerial 'new middle class'. It is best read as a symptom of political frustration and social mobility rather than as a significant intellectual or cultural phenomenon in its own right."<ref>{{ |
Zimbabwean-born British Marxist [[Alex Callinicos]] says that postmodernism "reflects the disappointed revolutionary generation of '68, and the incorporation of many of its members into the professional and managerial 'new middle class'. It is best read as a symptom of political frustration and social mobility rather than as a significant intellectual or cultural phenomenon in its own right."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Callinicos |first=Alex |title=Against postmodernism : a Marxist critique |publisher=St. Martin's Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-312-04224-8 |location=New York, N.Y}}</ref> |
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[[Christopher Hitchens]] in his book, ''[[Why Orwell Matters]]'', writes, in advocating for simple, clear and direct expression of ideas, "The Postmodernists' tyranny wears people down by boredom and semi-literate prose."<ref>Christopher Hitchens. Why Orwell |
[[Christopher Hitchens]] in his book, ''[[Why Orwell Matters]]'', writes, in advocating for simple, clear and direct expression of ideas, "The Postmodernists' tyranny wears people down by boredom and semi-literate prose."<ref>Christopher Hitchens. Why Orwell Matters, Basic Books. {{ISBN|978-0-465-03050-7}}, 2002</ref> |
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Analytic philosopher [[Daniel Dennett]] said, "Postmodernism, the school of 'thought' that proclaimed 'There are no truths, only interpretations' has largely played itself out in absurdity, but it has left behind a generation of academics in the humanities disabled by their distrust of the very idea of truth and their disrespect for evidence, settling for 'conversations' in which nobody is wrong and nothing can be confirmed, only asserted with whatever style you can muster."<ref>DENNETT ON WIESELTIER V. PINKER IN THE NEW REPUBLIC http://edge.org/conversation/dennett-on-wieseltier-v-pinker-in-the-new-republic {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805021650/https://www.edge.org/conversation/dennett-on-wieseltier-v-pinker-in-the-new-republic |date=5 August 2018 }}</ref> |
Analytic philosopher [[Daniel Dennett]] said, "Postmodernism, the school of 'thought' that proclaimed 'There are no truths, only interpretations' has largely played itself out in absurdity, but it has left behind a generation of academics in the humanities disabled by their distrust of the very idea of truth and their disrespect for evidence, settling for 'conversations' in which nobody is wrong and nothing can be confirmed, only asserted with whatever style you can muster."<ref>{{Title case|DENNETT ON WIESELTIER V. PINKER IN THE NEW REPUBLIC}} http://edge.org/conversation/dennett-on-wieseltier-v-pinker-in-the-new-republic {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805021650/https://www.edge.org/conversation/dennett-on-wieseltier-v-pinker-in-the-new-republic |date=5 August 2018 }}</ref> |
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American historian [[Richard Wolin]] traces the origins of postmodernism to intellectual roots in [[fascism]], writing "postmodernism has been nourished by the doctrines of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Martin Heidegger]], [[Maurice Blanchot]], and [[Paul de Man]]—all of whom either prefigured or succumbed to the proverbial intellectual fascination with fascism."<ref>{{ |
American historian [[Richard Wolin]] traces the origins of postmodernism to intellectual roots in [[fascism]], writing "postmodernism has been nourished by the doctrines of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Martin Heidegger]], [[Maurice Blanchot]], and [[Paul de Man]]—all of whom either prefigured or succumbed to the proverbial intellectual fascination with fascism."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wolin |first=Richard |title=The seduction of unreason : the intellectual romance with fascism: from Nietzsche to postmodernism |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-691-19235-2 |location=Princeton}}</ref> |
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[[Daniel A. Farber]] and [[Suzanna Sherry]] criticised postmodernism for reducing the complexity of the modern world to an expression of power and for undermining truth and reason: |
[[Daniel A. Farber]] and [[Suzanna Sherry]] criticised postmodernism for reducing the complexity of the modern world to an expression of power and for undermining truth and reason: |
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{{quote|If the modern era begins with the [[European Enlightenment]], the postmodern era that captivates the radical [[Multiculturalism|multiculturalists]] begins with its rejection. According to the new radicals, the Enlightenment-inspired ideas that have previously structured our world, especially the legal and academic parts of it, are a fraud perpetrated and perpetuated by white males to consolidate their own power. Those who disagree are not only blind but bigoted. The Enlightenment's goal of an objective and reasoned basis for knowledge, merit, truth, justice, and the like is an impossibility: "objectivity," in the sense of standards of judgment that transcend individual perspectives, does not exist. Reason is just another code word for the views of the privileged. The Enlightenment itself merely replaced one socially constructed view of reality with another, mistaking power for knowledge. There is naught but power.<ref>Daniel Farber and Suzanne Sherry, Beyond All Reason The Radical Assault on Truth in American Law, New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/f/farber-reason.html</ref>}} |
{{quote|If the modern era begins with the [[European Enlightenment]], the postmodern era that captivates the radical [[Multiculturalism|multiculturalists]] begins with its rejection. According to the new radicals, the Enlightenment-inspired ideas that have previously structured our world, especially the legal and academic parts of it, are a fraud perpetrated and perpetuated by white males to consolidate their own power. Those who disagree are not only blind but bigoted. The Enlightenment's goal of an objective and reasoned basis for knowledge, merit, truth, justice, and the like is an impossibility: "objectivity," in the sense of standards of judgment that transcend individual perspectives, does not exist. Reason is just another code word for the views of the privileged. The Enlightenment itself merely replaced one socially constructed view of reality with another, mistaking power for knowledge. There is naught but power.<ref>Daniel Farber and Suzanne Sherry, Beyond All Reason The Radical Assault on Truth in American Law, New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/f/farber-reason.html</ref>}} |
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[[Richard Caputo]], [[William Epstein]], David Stoesz & Bruce Thyer consider postmodernism to be a "dead |
[[Richard Caputo]], [[William Epstein]], David Stoesz & Bruce Thyer consider postmodernism to be a "dead-end in social work epistemology." They write: |
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{{quote|Postmodernism continues to have a detrimental influence on social work, questioning the Enlightenment, criticizing established research methods, and challenging scientific authority. The promotion of postmodernism by editors of ''Social Work'' and the ''Journal of Social Work Education'' has elevated postmodernism, placing it on a par with theoretically guided and empirically based research. The inclusion of postmodernism in the 2008 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards of the Council on Social Work Education and its 2015 sequel further erode the knowledge-building capacity of social work educators. In relation to other disciplines that have exploited empirical methods, social work's stature will continue to ebb until postmodernism is rejected in favor of scientific methods for generating knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal | |
{{quote|Postmodernism continues to have a detrimental influence on social work, questioning the Enlightenment, criticizing established research methods, and challenging scientific authority. The promotion of postmodernism by editors of ''Social Work'' and the ''Journal of Social Work Education'' has elevated postmodernism, placing it on a par with theoretically guided and empirically based research. The inclusion of postmodernism in the 2008 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards of the Council on Social Work Education and its 2015 sequel further erode the knowledge-building capacity of social work educators. In relation to other disciplines that have exploited empirical methods, social work's stature will continue to ebb until postmodernism is rejected in favor of scientific methods for generating knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caputo |first=Richard |last2=Epstein |first2=William |last3=Stoesz |first3=David |last4=Thyer |first4=Bruce |year=2015 |title=Postmodernism: A Dead End in Social Work Epistemology |journal=Journal of Social Work Education |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=638–647 |doi=10.1080/10437797.2015.1076260 |s2cid=143246585}}</ref>}} |
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H. Sidky pointed out what he sees as several |
H. Sidky pointed out what he sees as several inherent flaws of a postmodern antiscience perspective, including the confusion of the authority of science (evidence) with the scientist conveying the knowledge; its self-contradictory claim that all truths are relative; and its strategic ambiguity. He sees 21st-century anti-scientific and pseudo-scientific approaches to knowledge, particularly in the United States, as rooted in a postmodernist "decades-long academic assault on science:" |
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{{quote| |
{{quote|Many of those indoctrinated in postmodern anti-science went on to become conservative political and religious leaders, policymakers, journalists, journal editors, judges, lawyers, and members of city councils and school boards. Sadly, they forgot the lofty ideals of their teachers, except that science is bogus.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sidky |first=H. |date=2018 |title=The War on Science, Anti-Intellectualism, and 'Alternative Ways of Knowing' in 21st-Century America |url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/e_war_on_science_anti-intellectualism_and_alternative_ways_of_knowing_in_21 |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=38–43 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180606170145/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/e_war_on_science_anti-intellectualism_and_alternative_ways_of_knowing_in_21 |archive-date=6 June 2018 |access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref>}} |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{col-2}} |
{{col-2}} |
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;Theory |
;Theory |
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* {{annotated link|Integral theory (Ken Wilber)|Integral theory}} |
* {{annotated link|Integral theory (Ken Wilber)|Integral theory}} |
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* {{annotated link|Transmodernism}} |
* {{annotated link|Transmodernism}} |
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⚫ | |||
;Culture and politics |
;Culture and politics |
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* {{annotated link|Defamiliarization}} |
* {{annotated link|Defamiliarization}} |
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* {{annotated link|Disenchantment}} |
* {{annotated link|Disenchantment}} |
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* {{annotated link|Syncretism}} |
* {{annotated link|Syncretism}} |
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;Politics |
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* {{annotated link|Post-realism}} |
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{{Col-2}} |
{{Col-2}} |
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;Philosophy |
;Philosophy |
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* {{annotated link| |
* {{annotated link|Philosophical skepticism}} |
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* {{annotated link|Idealism}} |
* {{annotated link|Idealism}} |
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;Religion |
;Religion |
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* {{annotated link|Postmodern religion}} |
* {{annotated link|Postmodern religion}} |
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;History |
;History |
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* |
* {{annotated link|Second modernity}} |
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* [[Second modernity]] |
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;Opposed by |
;Opposed by |
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* {{annotated link|Altermodern}} |
* {{annotated link|Altermodern}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{Reflist}} |
{{Reflist|30em}} |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
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{{Refbegin|30em}} |
{{Refbegin|30em}} |
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* Alexie, Sherman (2000). "The Toughest Indian in the World" ({{ISBN|0-8021-3800-4}}) |
* Alexie, Sherman (2000). "The Toughest Indian in the World" ({{ISBN|0-8021-3800-4}}) |
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⚫ | |||
* Anderson, Walter Truett. ''The Truth about the Truth (New Consciousness Reader)''. New York: Tarcher. (1995) ({{ISBN|0-87477-801-8}}) |
* Anderson, Walter Truett. ''The Truth about the Truth (New Consciousness Reader)''. New York: Tarcher. (1995) ({{ISBN|0-87477-801-8}}) |
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* Arena, Leonardo Vittorio (2015) ''On Nudity. An Introduction to Nonsense'', Mimesis International. |
* Arena, Leonardo Vittorio (2015) ''On Nudity. An Introduction to Nonsense'', Mimesis International. |
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* Ashley, Richard and Walker, R. B. J. (1990) "Speaking the Language of Exile." ''International Studies Quarterly'' v 34, no 3 259–68. |
* Ashley, Richard and Walker, R. B. J. (1990) "Speaking the Language of Exile." ''International Studies Quarterly'' v 34, no 3 259–68. |
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* [[Hans Bertens|Bertens, Hans]] (1995) ''The Idea of the Postmodern: A History''. London: Routledge. ({{ISBN|978-0-415-06012-7}}). |
* [[Hans Bertens|Bertens, Hans]] (1995) ''The Idea of the Postmodern: A History''. London: Routledge. ({{ISBN|978-0-415-06012-7}}). |
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* [[Steven Best|Best, Steven]] and Douglas Kellner. ''Postmodern Theory '' (1991) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0898624185 excerpt and text search] |
* [[Steven Best|Best, Steven]] and Douglas Kellner. ''Postmodern Theory '' (1991) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0898624185 excerpt and text search] |
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* Best, Steven and Douglas Kellner. ''The Postmodern Turn'' (1997) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1572302216 excerpt and text search] |
* Best, Steven, and Douglas Kellner. ''The Postmodern Turn'' (1997) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1572302216 excerpt and text search] |
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* Best, Steven and Douglas Kellner. ''The Postmodern Adventure: Science, Technology, and Cultural Studies at the Third Millennium'' [[Guilford Press]], 2001 ({{ISBN|978-1-57230-665-3}}) |
* Best, Steven, and Douglas Kellner. ''The Postmodern Adventure: Science, Technology, and Cultural Studies at the Third Millennium'' [[Guilford Press]], 2001 ({{ISBN|978-1-57230-665-3}}) |
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* Bielskis, Andrius (2005) ''Towards a Postmodern Understanding of the Political: From Genealogy to Hermeneutics'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005). |
* Bielskis, Andrius (2005) ''Towards a Postmodern Understanding of the Political: From Genealogy to Hermeneutics'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005). |
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* Brass, Tom, ''Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism'' (London: Cass, 2000). |
* Brass, Tom, ''Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism'' (London: Cass, 2000). |
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* Featherstone, M. (1991) Consumer culture and postmodernism, London; Newbury Park, Calif., Sage Publications. |
* Featherstone, M. (1991) Consumer culture and postmodernism, London; Newbury Park, Calif., Sage Publications. |
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* [[Anthony Giddens|Giddens, Anthony]] (1991) Modernity and Self Identity, Cambridge: Polity Press. |
* [[Anthony Giddens|Giddens, Anthony]] (1991) Modernity and Self Identity, Cambridge: Polity Press. |
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* Gosselin, Paul (2012) Flight From the Absolute: Cynical Observations on the Postmodern West. volume I. Samizdat [http://www.samizdat.qc.ca/publications/Flight_Absolute_pg.htm] ({{ISBN|978-2-9807774-3-1}}) |
* Gosselin, Paul (2012) Flight From the Absolute: Cynical Observations on the Postmodern West. volume I. Samizdat [http://www.samizdat.qc.ca/publications/Flight_Absolute_pg.htm Flight From the Absolute: Cynical Observations on the Postmodern West. Volume I] ({{ISBN|978-2-9807774-3-1}}) |
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* Goulimari, Pelagia (ed.) (2007) Postmodernism. What Moment? Manchester: Manchester University Press ({{ISBN|978-0-7190-7308-3}}) |
* Goulimari, Pelagia (ed.) (2007) Postmodernism. What Moment? Manchester: Manchester University Press ({{ISBN|978-0-7190-7308-3}}) |
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* Grebowicz, Margaret (ed.), ''Gender After Lyotard''. NY: Suny Press, 2007. ({{ISBN|978-0-7914-6956-9}}) |
* Grebowicz, Margaret (ed.), ''Gender After Lyotard''. NY: Suny Press, 2007. ({{ISBN|978-0-7914-6956-9}}) |
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* Hutcheon, Linda. ''The Politics of Postmodernism''. (2002) [https://www.questia.com/read/107450059?title=The%20Politics%20of%20Postmodernism online edition] |
* Hutcheon, Linda. ''The Politics of Postmodernism''. (2002) [https://www.questia.com/read/107450059?title=The%20Politics%20of%20Postmodernism online edition] |
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* Jameson, Fredric (1991) ''[[Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism]]'' ({{ISBN|0-8223-1090-2}}) |
* Jameson, Fredric (1991) ''[[Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism]]'' ({{ISBN|0-8223-1090-2}}) |
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⚫ | |||
* Kimball, Roger (2000). ''Experiments against Reality: the Fate of Culture in the Postmodern Age''. Chicago: I.R. Dee. viii, 359 p. ({{ISBN|1-56663-335-4}}) |
* Kimball, Roger (2000). ''Experiments against Reality: the Fate of Culture in the Postmodern Age''. Chicago: I.R. Dee. viii, 359 p. ({{ISBN|1-56663-335-4}}) |
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* Kirby, Alan (2009) ''Digimodernism''. New York: Continuum. |
* Kirby, Alan (2009) ''Digimodernism''. New York: Continuum. |
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* Lyotard, Jean-François (1993), "Scriptures: Diffracted Traces." In: ''Theory, Culture and Society'', Vol. 21(1), 2004. |
* Lyotard, Jean-François (1993), "Scriptures: Diffracted Traces." In: ''Theory, Culture and Society'', Vol. 21(1), 2004. |
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* Lyotard, Jean-François (1995), "Anamnesis: Of the Visible." In: ''Theory, Culture and Society'', Vol. 21(1), 2004. |
* Lyotard, Jean-François (1995), "Anamnesis: Of the Visible." In: ''Theory, Culture and Society'', Vol. 21(1), 2004. |
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* MacIntyre, Alasdair, [[After Virtue]]: A Study in Moral Theory (University of Notre Dame Press, 1984, 2nd edn.). |
* MacIntyre, Alasdair, [[After Virtue]]: A Study in Moral Theory (University of Notre Dame Press, 1984, 2nd edn.). |
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⚫ | |||
* Magliola, Robert ''On Deconstructing Life-Worlds: Buddhism, Christianity, Culture'' (Atlanta: Scholars Press of American Academy of Religion, 1997; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000; {{ISBN|0-7885-0295-6}}, cloth, {{ISBN|0-7885-0296-4}}, pbk). |
* Magliola, Robert ''On Deconstructing Life-Worlds: Buddhism, Christianity, Culture'' (Atlanta: Scholars Press of American Academy of Religion, 1997; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000; {{ISBN|0-7885-0295-6}}, cloth, {{ISBN|0-7885-0296-4}}, pbk). |
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* Manuel, Peter. "Music as Symbol, Music as Simulacrum: Pre-Modern, Modern, and Postmodern Aesthetics in Subcultural Musics," Popular Music 1/2, 1995, pp. 227–239. |
* Manuel, Peter. "Music as Symbol, Music as Simulacrum: Pre-Modern, Modern, and Postmodern Aesthetics in Subcultural Musics," Popular Music 1/2, 1995, pp. 227–239. |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ | |||
⚫ | |||
⚫ | * {{ |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ | |||
⚫ | * {{Cite journal |last=Mura |first=Andrea |year=2012 |title=The Symbolic Function of Transmodernity |url=https://www.language-and-psychoanalysis.com/Mura%202012.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Language and Psychoanalysis |issue=1 |pages=68–87 |doi=10.7565/landp.2012.0005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008211951/http://www.language-and-psychoanalysis.com/Mura%202012.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2015 |doi-access=free}} |
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* Murphy, Nancey, ''Anglo-American Postmodernity: Philosophical Perspectives on Science, Religion, and Ethics'' (Westview Press, 1997). |
* Murphy, Nancey, ''Anglo-American Postmodernity: Philosophical Perspectives on Science, Religion, and Ethics'' (Westview Press, 1997). |
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* Natoli, Joseph (1997) ''A Primer to Postmodernity'' ({{ISBN|1-57718-061-5}}) |
* Natoli, Joseph (1997) ''A Primer to Postmodernity'' ({{ISBN|1-57718-061-5}}) |
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* Park, Jin Y., ed., ''Buddhisms and Deconstructions'' Lanham: Rowland & Littlefield, 2006, {{ISBN|978-0-7425-3418-6}}; {{ISBN|0-7425-3418-9}}. |
* Park, Jin Y., ed., ''Buddhisms and Deconstructions'' Lanham: Rowland & Littlefield, 2006, {{ISBN|978-0-7425-3418-6}}; {{ISBN|0-7425-3418-9}}. |
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* Pérez, Rolando. Ed. Agorapoetics: Poetics after Postmodernism. Aurora: The Davies Group, Publishers. 2017. {{ISBN|978-1-934542-38-5}}. |
* Pérez, Rolando. Ed. Agorapoetics: Poetics after Postmodernism. Aurora: The Davies Group, Publishers. 2017. {{ISBN|978-1-934542-38-5}}. |
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* Powell, Jim (1998). "Postmodernism For Beginners" ({{ISBN|978-1-934389-09-6}}) |
* Powell, Jim (1998). "Postmodernism For Beginners" ({{ISBN|978-1-934389-09-6}}) |
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* Sim, Stuart. (1999). "The Routledge critical dictionary of postmodern thought" ({{ISBN|0-415-92353-0}}) |
* Sim, Stuart. (1999). "The Routledge critical dictionary of postmodern thought" ({{ISBN|0-415-92353-0}}) |
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* Sokal, Alan and Jean Bricmont (1998) ''[[Fashionable Nonsense]]: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Science'' ({{ISBN|0-312-20407-8}}) |
* Sokal, Alan and Jean Bricmont (1998) ''[[Fashionable Nonsense]]: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Science'' ({{ISBN|0-312-20407-8}}) |
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* Vattimo, Gianni (1989). ''The Transparent Society'' ({{ISBN|0-8018-4528-9}}) |
* Vattimo, Gianni (1989). ''The Transparent Society'' ({{ISBN|0-8018-4528-9}}) |
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* [[Gene Edward Veith|Veith Jr., Gene Edward]] (1994) ''Postmodern Times: A Christian Guide to Contemporary Thought and Culture'' ({{ISBN|0-89107-768-5}}) |
* [[Gene Edward Veith|Veith Jr., Gene Edward]] (1994) ''Postmodern Times: A Christian Guide to Contemporary Thought and Culture'' ({{ISBN|0-89107-768-5}}) |
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* [[Keith Windschuttle|Windschuttle, Keith]] (1996) ''The Killing of History: How Literary Critics and Social Theorists are Murdering |
* [[Keith Windschuttle|Windschuttle, Keith]] (1996) ''The Killing of History: How Literary Critics and Social Theorists are Murdering Our Past''. New York: The Free Press. |
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* Woods, Tim, ''Beginning Postmodernism,'' Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999, (Reprinted 2002)({{ISBN|0-7190-5210-6}} Hardback, {{ISBN|0-7190-5211-4}} Paperback). |
* Woods, Tim, ''Beginning Postmodernism,'' Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999, (Reprinted 2002)({{ISBN|0-7190-5210-6}} Hardback, {{ISBN|0-7190-5211-4}} Paperback). |
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{{Refend}} |
{{Refend}} |
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{{Wiktionary}} |
{{Wiktionary}} |
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{{Commons category}} |
{{Commons category}} |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060513090311/http://www.umass.edu/complit/aclanet/SyllPDF/JanuList.pdf Discourses of Postmodernism. Multilingual bibliography by Janusz Przychodzen (PDF file)] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060513090311/http://www.umass.edu/complit/aclanet/SyllPDF/JanuList.pdf Discourses of Postmodernism. Multilingual bibliography by Janusz Przychodzen (PDF file)] |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051029142944/http://www.tasc.ac.uk/depart/media/staff/ls/Modules/Theory/PoMoDis.htm Modernity, postmodernism and the tradition of dissent, by Lloyd Spencer (1998)] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051029142944/http://www.tasc.ac.uk/depart/media/staff/ls/Modules/Theory/PoMoDis.htm Modernity, postmodernism and the tradition of dissent, by Lloyd Spencer (1998)] |
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* [https://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/dennett/papers/postmod.tru.htm Postmodernism and truth] by philosopher [[Daniel Dennett]] |
* [https://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/dennett/papers/postmod.tru.htm Postmodernism and truth] by philosopher [[Daniel Dennett]] |
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