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The '''political views of American academics''' have been investigated in various studies published since the 1950s. The studies offer a wide range of interpretations of their findings, which are an ongoing topic of discussion among scholars and in popular media. |
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==Research== |
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==McCarthyism and loyalty oaths== |
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{{main article|McCarthyism}} |
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While its widely-known that during "[[Red Scare#Second Red Scare|Second Red Scare]]" of the 1950s government employees and entertainment figures were investigated for alleged [[communism in the United States|communist]] sympathies, university faculty were often accused as well.<ref name="Schrecker">{{cite web|url=http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/uchistory/archives_exhibits/loyaltyoath/symposium/schrecker.html|title=Political Tests for Professors: Academic Freedom during the McCarthy Years|first=Ellen|last=Schrecker|date=October 7, 1999|publisher=University of California at Berkeley|accessdate=June 6, 2018}}</ref> In 1951, Members of the [[American Legion#1930s to 1950s|American Legion]] began accusing university faculty of being communists.<ref name="Sarah Lawrence">{{cite web|url=https://www.sarahlawrence.edu/archives/exhibits/mccarthyism/|title=Sarah Lawrence Under Fire: The Attacks on Academic Freedom During the McCarthy Era|publisher=Sarah Lawrence College Archives|accessdate=June 6, 2018}}</ref> Universities responded by banning [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] student groups and communist speakers.<ref name="Schrecker"/> The [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] summoned faculty members from the [[University of Washington]], and three [[Academic tenure|tenured]] faculty members were fired in 1949.<ref name="Schrecker"/> Following passage of the [[Levering Act]], faculty at the [[University of California]] were required to sign [[loyalty oath]]s.<ref name="Schrecker"/> [[Joseph McCarthy]]'s Senate committee investigated 18 faculty members at [[Sarah Lawrence College]], some of whom were pressured to resign.<ref name="Sarah Lawrence"/> According to historian [[Ellen Schrecker]], "it is very clear that an academic blacklist was in operation during the McCarthy era," and numerous faculty members across the US, both tenured and untenured, lost their jobs.<ref name="Schrecker"/> In 1970, [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]] sent an open letter to US college students, advising them to reject leftist politics,<ref name="Hoover">{{cite web|url=https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/virtuallibrary/documents/jul10/58.pdf|title=An Open Letter to College Students|first=J. Edgar|last=Hoover|publisher=Nixon Library|date=September 21, 1970|accessdate=June 6, 2018}}</ref> and throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the FBI conducted a secret counterintelligence program in libraries.<ref name="Fox">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiAxDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Stalking Sociologists: J. Edgar Hoover's FBI Surveillance of American Sociology|first=Renee C.|last=Fox|publisher=Routledge|date=2017}}</ref>{{rp|viii–ix}} |
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===''The Academic Mind''=== |
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==Demographic studies== |
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Sociologist [[Paul Lazarsfeld]] and Wagner Thielens were the first scholars to conduct a systematic survey of the politics of American university professors. The research, which was commissioned in 1955 by an arm of the [[Ford Foundation]] in response to [[McCarthyism]], was focused solely on social scientists. In the book-length analysis, ''[[The Academic Mind]]'', Lazarsfeld found that just 16% of the social scientists he surveyed self-identified as [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]], while 47% self-identified as [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]].<ref name="LazarsfeldThielens1958">{{cite book|author1=Paul Félix Lazarsfeld|author2=Wagner Thielens|author3=Columbia University. Bureau of Applied Social Research|title=The academic mind: social scientists in a time of crisis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j8UjAAAAMAAJ|year=1958|publisher=Free Press}}</ref><ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|25–27}} The makeup of the political parties prior to the 1980s differed from that of the early 21st Century as the Democratic Party included culturally conservative Southern Democrats as well as Northern liberals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Finkelman|first1=Paul|title=The encyclopedia of American political history|date=2001|publisher=CQ Press|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-1568025117|pages=124-126, 163-164}}</ref>{{synth|date=May 2018|The inclusion of this statement implies a conclusion that neither source states explicitly.}}{{Verify source|date=May 2018|No pages/section/chapter given for this encyclopedia source. Direct quote from source also requested.}} |
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===Ford Foundation study=== |
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[[File:Lazarsfeld.jpg|thumb|right|[[Paul Lazarsfeld]] conducted the first survey of faculty political opinions in the United States.]] |
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In 1955, [[Robert Maynard Hutchins]] led an effort within the [[Ford Foundation]] to document and analyze the effects of [[McCarthyism]] on [[academic freedom]].<ref name=Gross1>{{cite book|last=Gross|first=Neil|title=Why Are Professors Liberal and Why Do Conservatives Care?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5-VLm9EcghoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|publisher=Harvard University Press|date=2013|isbn=9780674059092}}</ref>{{rp|25–27}} He commissioned sociologist [[Paul Lazarsfeld]] to conduct a study of university faculty in the United States, and the results were published by Lazarsfeld and Wagner Thielens in a book, ''The Academic Mind''. As part of a survey of faculty views about [[Communism]] and [[Freedom of speech|free speech]], they asked approximately 2,500 professors of social science a large number of questions, and found that about two thirds of these faculty members had been visited by the FBI.<ref name="Fox"/>{{rp|xiv}} They also included a few questions about political party affiliations and recent voting patterns, and reported that there were more [[History of the United States Democratic Party#Presidency of Harry S. Truman (1945–1953)|Democrats]] than [[History of the United States Republican Party#Dwight D. Eisenhower and Richard Nixon: 1952–1974|Republicans]], 47% to 16%.<ref name="LazarsfeldThielens1958">{{cite book|author1=Paul Félix Lazarsfeld|author2=Wagner Thielens|author3=Columbia University. Bureau of Applied Social Research|title=The academic mind: social scientists in a time of crisis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j8UjAAAAMAAJ|year=1958|publisher=Free Press}}</ref> According to sociologist [[Neil Gross]], the study was significant because it was the first effort to poll university faculty specifically about their political views.<ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|25–27}} |
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===Carnegie Commission on Higher Education=== |
===Carnegie Commission on Higher Education=== |
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A second major survey was conducted in 1969 by [[Everett Carll Ladd]] and [[Seymour Martin Lipset]]. Funded by the [[Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching|Carnegie Commission on Higher Education]], Ladd and Lipset's study surveyed more than 60,000 respondents at 303 colleges and universities and was not limited to those working in the social sciences.<ref name="LaddLipset1975">{{cite book|author1=Everett Carll Jr Ladd|author2=Seymour Martin Lipset|title=The Divided Academy: Professors and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GwGcAAAAMAAJ|date=1 January 1975|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0-07-010112-8}}</ref><ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|28–29}} Ladd and Lipset found that about 46% of professors described themselves as liberal, 27% described themselves as moderates, and 28% described themselves as conservative. Among college students, 45% self-identified as liberal.<ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|29}} |
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In 1993, Richard F. Hamilton and Lowell L. Hargrens analyzed data from the 1969 Carnegie survey and two lesser follow-up surveys, and found that despite considerable public debate over a perceived liberal bias in academia, there was little evidence that academia was becoming increasingly liberal. Rather, they found that the number of professors who self-identified as leftists was "fairly constant" throughout the period between 1969 and 1984, while "the overall or not tendency...was towards greater conservatism." In 1984, 40% of the professors surveyed described themselves as liberal or left, while 27% described themselves as moderate and 34% described themselves as conservative or strong conservative.<ref name=Hamilton1>Hamilton, Richard F., and Lowell L. Hargens. "The Politics of the Professors: Self-Identifications, 1969–1984." ''Social Forces'' 71, no. 3 (1993): 603–27. {{doi|10.2307/2579887}}.</ref> Hamilton and Hargrens wrote that they were unable to use data from a 1989 Carnegie follow-up, because the wording of the survey's questions had been altered,<ref name=Hamilton1/> but political scientist [[Neil Gross]] has used later Carnegie data to suggest that the movement to the right which Hamilton and Lowell detected was a temporary one.<ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|31}} |
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Ladd and Lipset found that about 46% of professors described themselves as liberal, 27% described themselves as moderates, and 28% described themselves as conservative. They also reported that faculty in the humanities and social sciences were the most liberal, while those in "applied professional schools such as nursing and home economics" and in agriculture were the most conservative. Younger faculty tended to be more liberal than older faculty, and faculty across the political spectrum tended to disapprove of the [[Student activism#United States|student activism]] of the 1960s.<ref name="LaddLipset1975">{{cite book|author1=Everett Carll Jr Ladd|author2=Seymour Martin Lipset|title=The Divided Academy: Professors and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GwGcAAAAMAAJ|date=1 January 1975|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0-07-010112-8}}</ref><ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|28–30}} |
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===Higher Education Research Institute=== |
===Higher Education Research Institute=== |
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Beginning in 1989, the [[Higher Education Research Institute]] (HERI) at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]] (UCLA) has conducted a survey of American university faculty every three years. Like the later Carnegie studies, these surveys do not focus on professor's' political beliefs, and contain only a single question about professors' politics. The HERI survey showed negligible change in the number of professors who described themselves as far left or liberal between 1989 and 1998, with approximately 45% of those surveyed self-identifying as liberals or far left.<ref name=HERI1>Linda J. Sax et. al., ''The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1998–1999'' HERI Faculty Survey (Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, 1999). Alexander W. Astin et. al., ''The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1989–1990'' HERI Faculty Survey (Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, 1990).</ref><ref name=Gross1/> |
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{{Undue weight section|date=June 2018}} |
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{{Image frame|width=400|caption = Self-reported political views of US academic faculty (% by year), according to the [[HERI]] Faculty Survey reports 1990–2014<ref>[https://heri.ucla.edu/publications-fac Publications – The Faculty Survey], [[Higher Education Research Institute]]</ref><ref name="Ingraham2016"/><ref name="Mariani"/> |
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===North American Academic Survey Study=== |
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A 1999 large-scale survey known as the [[North American Academic Survey Study]] (NAASS) was conducted by [[Everett Carll Ladd]] and [[Seymour Martin Lipset]]. The researchers polled approximately 4000 faculty, administrators, and students. It notably included data about the respondant's institutions. The data collected in the NAASS was analyzed in multiple studies and books.<ref name="Academe">{{cite journal |last1=Klein |first1=Daniel B. |authorlink1=Daniel B. Klein |title=Academe's House Divided |journal=[[Academic Questions]] |date=September 2011 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=65+. |doi=10.1007/s12129-011-9240-0}}</ref> |
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{{Graph:Chart|width=240|height=200|xAxisTitle=|yAxisTitle=|legend=Legend|type=stackedrect |
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|x=1990,1993,1996,1999,2002,2005,2009,2012,2014 |yAxisMax=100 |
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[[Stanley Rothman]], [[S. Robert Lichter]], and [[Neil Nevitte]] found that professors with liberal socio-political views outnumbered their conservative counterparts by a ratio of 5 to 1 in the United States, with the former constituting 72% of the faculty body and the latter representing 15%.<ref name="Forum">{{Citation|last1=Rothman|first1=Stanley|last2=Lichter|first2=S. Robert|last3=Nevitte|first3=Neil|title=Politics and Professional Advancement Among College Faculty|journal=The Forum|volume=3|issue=1|year=2005|doi=10.2202/1540-8884.1067|url=http://www.conservativecriminology.com/uploads/5/6/1/7/56173731/rothman_et_al.pdf}}</ref> The study was criticized by political scientists Barry Ames, David C. Barker, Chris W. Bonneau, and Christopher J. Carman, who argued that it was "plagued by theoretical and methodological problems that render their conclusions unsustainable by the available evidence."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1012734|title=Hide the Republicans, the Christians, and the Women: A Response to|first1=Barry|last1=Ames|first2=David C.|last2=Barker|first3=Chris W.|last3=Bonneau|first4=Chris J.|last4=Carman|date=12 September 2007|publisher=|via=papers.ssrn.com}}</ref> Rothman, Licther and Nevitte's study was later revealed to have contained a coding error, which exaggerated the percentage of professors holding liberal views by 12%.<ref name=Gross1>Gross, Neil. ''Why Are Professors Liberal and Why Do Conservatives Care?'' Harvard University Press, 2013.</ref>{{rp|55}} |
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|y1=4.9,4.2,4.8,4.9,5.3,7.9,8.8,12.4,11.0 |y1Title=a. Far left |
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|y2=35.6,39.1,37.5,36.6,42.3,43.4,47.0,50.3,48.8 |y2Title=b. Liberal |
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A 2011 study disagreed with this conclusion and instead predicted that the average view may shift further left in the future. The study also found that the years of college education had little effect on the political view of undergraduates.<ref>Stanley Rothman, April Kelly (2011). ''The Still Divided Academy: How Competing Visions of Power, Politics, and Diversity Complicate the Mission of Higher Education'', Woessner, Matthew Woessner, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.</ref><ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/02/25/AR2011022503169.html "Five myths about liberal academia"], Matthew Woessner, April Kelly-Woessner and Stanley Rothman Friday, February 25, 2011 ''Washington Post''</ref> |
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|y3=39.8,35.0,37.8,38.2,34.3,29.2,28.4,25.4,27.4 |y3Title=c. Moderate |
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|y4=19.2,21.2,19.5,19.7,17.7,18.8,15.2,11.5,12.1 |y4Title=d. Conservative |
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=== Neil Gross and Solon Simmons === |
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|y5=0.5,0.5,0.4,0.5,0.3,0.7,0.7,0.4,0.7 |y5Title=e. Far right |
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According to [[Neil Gross]], much of the research on the political beliefs of college and university professors that has been published since the late 1990s has been conducted by outspoken conservative and libertarian intellectuals, whose primary goal was "to document how far left academia had veered in order to mount a more effective critique of it." Many of these researchers, according to Gross, have made "a number of poor methodological choices, as well as leaps of logic, because of their strong political commitments."<ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|33}} In another major work co-authored with [[Solon Simmons]], Gross and Simmons have written that in the 1990s, while "a few sociologists continued to produce high quality work on the topic", "an unfortunate tendency became evident: increasingly, those social scientists who turned their attention to professors and their politics, and employed the tools of survey research, had as their goal simply to highlight the liberalism of the professoriate in order to provide support for conservatives urging the reform of American colleges and universities" and that there has been "a concerted mobilization on the part of conservative activists, think tanks, foundations and professors aimed at challenging so-called liberal hegemony in higher education" since the late 1990s. Much recent research into the issue, according to Simmons and Gross, "has been beholden to this program."<ref name="GrossSimmons2014">{{cite book|author1=Neil Gross|author2=Solon Simmons|title=Professors and Their Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1vCAwAAQBAJ|date=29 May 2014|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-1-4214-1334-1}}</ref>{{rp|20}} |
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|xAxisAngle=-45|interpolate=monotone|colors=red,pink,purple,lightblue,blue}} |
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}} |
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Gross and Simmons conducted a study with the intent of minimizing [[Confounding|confounders]], and specifically singled out recent studies by Gary A. Tobin and Aryeh K. Weinberg,<ref>http://www.bjpa.org/Publications/details.cfm?PublicationID=3526</ref> Daniel Klein and Andrew Western,<ref>Daniel Klein and Andrew Western, “Voter Registration of Berkeley and Stanford Faculty,” ''Academic Questions'' 18: 53–65.</ref> and Rothman, Licther and Nevitte study for methodological problems that "might be traceable to a desire to score political points."<ref name="GrossSimmons2014"/>{{rp|21}} Known as the Politics of the American Professoriate (PAP) survey, Gross and Simmons' survey received a relatively high response rate of 51%, corrected for response bias, and surveyed a large sample of nearly 3,000 professors from representative institutions.<ref name="GrossSimmons2014"/>{{rp|21–24}} They concluded that 44% of their respondents could be classified as liberals, 46% as moderates, and 9% as conservatives.<ref name="GrossSimmons2014"/>{{rp|25–26}} In terms of party affiliation, 51% of respondents were Democrats, 36 percent were Independents, and 14 percent were Republicans. Gross and Simmons compared this data to the Gallup poll, which found that 34% of Americans were Democrats, 34% were independents, and 30% were Republicans in 2006, concluding that "Democrats are doing better inside than outside academe by a margin of about 16 percentage points."<ref name="GrossSimmons2014"/>{{rp|29}} |
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Beginning in 1989, the [[Higher Education Research Institute]] (HERI) at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]] (UCLA) has conducted a survey of full-time faculty at American four-year colleges and universities every three years. HERI provides researchers free access to survey data and reports compiling weighted results. The HERI Faculty Survey gathers comprehensive information about the faculty experience, such as position, field, institutional details, and personal opinion and views, including one question asking respondents to self-identify their political orientation as "far left", "liberal", "moderate/middle of the road", "conservative", or "far right". Between 1989 and 1998, the survey showed negligible change in the number of professors who described themselves as far left or liberal, approximately 45%. As of 2014, surveying 16,112 professors, the percentage of liberal/far left had increased to 60%.<ref name="HERI1990">{{cite book |author1=Astin, A.W. |author2=Korn, W.S. |author3=Dey, E.L. |title=The American College Teacher: National Norms for 1989-90 HERI Faculty Survey report |date=May 1990 |publisher=[[Higher Education Research Institute]] |page=44 |url=https://www.heri.ucla.edu/PDFs/pubs/FAC/Norms/Monographs/TheAmericanCollegeTeacher1989To1990.pdf |accessdate=8 June 2018}}</ref><ref name="HERI1999">{{cite book |author1=Sax, L.J. |author2=Astin, A.W. |author3=Korn, W.S. |author4=Gilmartin, S.K. |title=The American College Teacher: National Norms for 1998-99 HERI Faculty Survey report |date=September 1999 |isbn=1878477242 |page=61 |url=https://www.heri.ucla.edu/PDFs/pubs/FAC/Norms/Monographs/TheAmericanCollegeTeacher1998To1999.pdf |accessdate=June 8, 2018}}</ref><ref name="HERI2014">{{cite book |author1=Eagan, M. K. |author2=Stolzenberg, E. B. |author3=Berdan Lozano, J. |author4=Aragon, M. C. |author5=Suchard, M. R. |author6=Hurtado, S. |title=Undergraduate Teaching Faculty: The 2013-2014 HERI Faculty Survey |date=November 2014 |publisher=[[Higher Education Research Institute]] |isbn=978-1-878477-33-0 |page=61 |url=https://www.heri.ucla.edu/monographs/HERI-FAC2014-monograph.pdf |accessdate=June 7, 2018}}</ref><ref name="Ingraham2016">{{cite news |last1=Ingraham |first1=Christopher |title=The dramatic shift among college professors that’s hurting students’ education |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/01/11/the-dramatic-shift-among-college-professors-thats-hurting-students-education |accessdate=June 7, 2018 |work=[[The Washington Post]] |date=January 11, 2016 |quote=In 1990, according to survey data by the Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) at UCLA, 42 percent of professors identified as "liberal" or "far-left." By 2014, that number had jumped to 60 percent.}}</ref> |
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In a 2013 study, Gross compared Rothman, Licther, and Nevitte's corrected data, data collected by the [[Higher Education Research Institute]] (HERI) in 2004 and 2005, and Gross and Simmons' PAP survey, noting that all three data sets suggested that between 50 and 60 percent of professors were liberal, and that it was a "reasonable conclusion" that "between 50% and 60% of academics fall somewhere on the left side of the political spectrum."<ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|56}} As Gross notes, this sets the American professoriate apart from the American public, approximately 17% of whom are leftist or liberal.<ref name=Gross1/>{{rp|7}} |
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Sociologists John F. Zipp and Rudy Fenwick have also taken issue with conservative scholars and writers' argument that "an overwhelmingly left and liberal faculty has taken over American colleges and universities," arguing that while such claims had gained significant attention, "there have been very few systemic, scholarly analyses of the topic." Criticizing other scholars' selective use of unrepresentative data and poor survey methodologies, Zipp and Fenwick concluded that while liberals certainly outnumbered conservatives in academia, there was no reliable evidence for the popular conservative claim that there were "seven to ten liberals for every conservative on campus."<ref name=Zipp>Zipp, John F., and Rudy Fenwick. "Is the Academy a Liberal Hegemony? The Political Orientations and Educational Values of Professors." ''The Public Opinion Quarterly'' 70, no. 3 (2006): 304–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3843984.</ref> |
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⚫ | Authors of a 2014 study titled ''"Political diversity will improve social psychological science"'' in ''[[Behavioral and Brain Sciences]]'', citing prior work by Gross and Simmons (2007) and Rothman and Lichter (2008), observed that "(b)y 2006, however, the ratio of Democrats to Republicans had climbed to more than 11:1."<ref name="BBS">{{cite journal|title=Political diversity will improve social psychological science |first1=José L.|last1=Duarte |first2=Jarret T.|last2=Crawford |first3=Charlotta|last3=Stern |first4=Jonathan|last4=Haidt|authorlink4=Jonathan Haidt |first5=Lee|last5=Jussim|authorlink5=Lee Jussim |first6=Philip E.|last6=Tetlock|authorlink6=Philip E. Tetlock |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |journal=[[Behavioral and Brain Sciences]] |volume=38 |number=e130 |origyear=July 18, 2014|year=2015 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X14000430 |pmid=25036715}}</ref> The six authors, all from different universities and members of the [[Heterodox Academy]], also showed by 2012 "that for every politically conservative social psychologist in academia there are about 14 liberal psychologists" according to [[Arthur C. Brooks]]. [[Steven Pinker]] called the study "one of the most important papers in the recent history of the social sciences". [[Russell Jacoby]] questioned the focus of the study on the social sciences rather than [[Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics|STEM]] fields saying that the "reason is obvious: Liberals do not outnumber conservatives in many of those disciplines".<ref name="Jacoby">{{cite web |last=Jacoby |first=Russell |authorlink=Russell Jacoby |date=April 1, 2016 |title=Academe Is Overrun by Liberals. So What? |work=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]] |url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/Academe-Is-Overrun-by/235898 |department=The Chronicle Review |subscription=yes }}</ref> |
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Over subsequent decades, multiple other studies of academics in the US were conducted. They have generally reported numbers roughly similar to the Ladd and Lipset study, with some small shifts between liberal and conservative over time.<ref name=Hamilton1>Hamilton, Richard F., and Lowell L. Hargens. "The Politics of the Professors: Self-Identifications, 1969–1984." ''Social Forces'' 71, no. 3 (1993): 603–27. {{doi|10.2307/2579887}}.</ref><ref name="Academe">{{cite journal |last1=Klein |first1=Daniel B. |authorlink1=Daniel B. Klein |title=Academe's House Divided |journal=[[Academic Questions]] |date=September 2011 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=65+. |doi=10.1007/s12129-011-9240-0}}</ref><ref>Stanley Rothman, April Kelly (2011). ''The Still Divided Academy: How Competing Visions of Power, Politics, and Diversity Complicate the Mission of Higher Education'', Woessner, Matthew Woessner, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.</ref> Many of these studies have been plagued by methodological problems.<ref name="Forum">{{Citation|last1=Rothman|first1=Stanley|last2=Lichter|first2=S. Robert|last3=Nevitte|first3=Neil|title=Politics and Professional Advancement Among College Faculty|journal=The Forum|volume=3|issue=1|year=2005|doi=10.2202/1540-8884.1067|url=http://www.conservativecriminology.com/uploads/5/6/1/7/56173731/rothman_et_al.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Barry">{{cite web|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1012734|title=Hide the Republicans, the Christians, and the Women: A Response to|first1=Barry|last1=Ames|first2=David C.|last2=Barker|first3=Chris W.|last3=Bonneau|first4=Chris J.|last4=Carman|date=12 September 2007|publisher=|via=papers.ssrn.com}}</ref><ref name="Post">[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/02/25/AR2011022503169.html "Five myths about liberal academia"], Matthew Woessner, April Kelly-Woessner and Stanley Rothman Friday, February 25, 2011 ''Washington Post''</ref><ref name=Zipp>Zipp, John F., and Rudy Fenwick. "Is the Academy a Liberal Hegemony? The Political Orientations and Educational Values of Professors." ''The Public Opinion Quarterly'' 70, no. 3 (2006): 304–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3843984.</ref> Examining one study that had concluded that "complaints of ideologically-based discrimination in academic advancement deserve serious consideration and further study",<ref name="Forum"/> four researchers from the [[University of Pittsburgh]] wrote that the "work is plagued by theoretical and methodological problems that render their conclusions unsustainable by the available evidence... Unfortunately... they have refused to make their data available to the scientific community."<ref name="Barry"/> Neil Gross and Solon Simmons concluded that, as of 2014, the numbers were approximately 44% liberal, 46% moderates, and 9% conservative, across a broad population of university faculty.<ref name="GrossSimmons2014">{{cite book|author1=Neil Gross|author2=Solon Simmons|title=Professors and Their Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1vCAwAAQBAJ|date=29 May 2014|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-1-4214-1334-1}}</ref>{{rp|25–26}} |
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In a 2017 survey of university presidents, two-thirds of respondents suggested that political demonstrations and protests on university campuses has contributed to the public perception that academia is in opposition to conservative viewpoints. A majority of presidents also agreed that the 2016 election revealed the divide between academia and the American public.<ref>{{cite web|title=Political Turmoil, Public Misunderstanding: A Survey of Presidents {{!}} Inside Higher Ed|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/survey/political-turmoil-public-misunderstanding-survey-presidents|website=www.insidehighered.com|language=en}}</ref> In a 2018 iteration of the survey, 86% said that the public opinion of academia as left-biased was responsible for declining public support.<ref>{{cite web|title=Survey of college presidents finds worry about public attitudes, confidence in finances {{!}} Inside Higher Ed|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/survey/survey-college-presidents-finds-worry-about-public-attitudes-confidence-finances|website=www.insidehighered.com|language=en}}</ref> |
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=== Regional and field-based differences === |
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==Effects== |
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⚫ | Professor Samuel J. Abrams of [[Sarah Lawrence College]] conducted a study which found that the effect of political differences in academia was most pronounced in the northeast region of the United States. Whereas the average ratio of liberal to conservative professors is 6:1 nationally, in [[New England]], it is 28:1.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jaschik|first=Scott|date=July 5, 2016|website=[[Inside Higher Ed]]|accessdate=May 14, 2018|title=New analysis: New England colleges responsible for left-leaning professoriate|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2016/07/05/new-analysis-new-england-colleges-responsible-left-leaning-professoriate|language=en}}</ref> Abrams described the effect within the region as pushing conservative professors "to the edge of extinction" and "a canary in the higher education coal mine, undercutting the mission of college and diminishing the value of six-figure educations". Conservative faculty and students in New England are described as "feeling more marginalized and alienated than ever before".<ref name="Sweeney">{{cite news|last1=Sweeney|first1=Chris|title=How Liberal Professors Are Ruining College|url=https://www.bostonmagazine.com/news/2016/12/20/liberal-professors/|accessdate=15 May 2018|work=[[Boston Magazine]]|date=December 20, 2016}}</ref> |
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==Effects== |
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=== On conservative professors === |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ | For the 2016 book-length study ''[[Passing on the Right|Passing on the Right: Conservative Professors in the Progressive University]]'' (by Jon Shields and Joshua Dunn), 153 conservative professors were interviewed.<ref name="OSO">{{cite journal|author1=Jon A. Shields|author2=Joshua M. Dunn Sr.|title=Passing on the Right: Conservative Professors in the Progressive University|date=March 2016|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199863051.001.0001|publisher=[[Oxford Scholarship Online]]|language=en|oclc=965380745}}</ref> Citing research, the authors describe these professors as a "stigmatized minority" and having to use "coping strategies that gays and lesbians have used in the military and other inhospitable work environments" in order to hide their political identity.<ref name="Sweeney"/> Shields stated his view that the populist right may overstate the bias that does exist and that conservatives can succeed using mechanisms like [[academic tenure]] to protect their freedom.<ref name="Green">{{cite news|last1=Green|first1=Emma|title=Do American Universities Discriminate Against Conservatives?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/04/conservatives-discrimination-universities/480372/|accessdate=15 May 2018|work=[[The Atlantic]]|date=April 30, 2016}}</ref> |
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==Theories and implications== |
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===On faculty=== |
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In recent years, the focus of academic discussion of faculty ideology has shifted away from estimation of faculty viewpoints to the study of whether faculty views affect or are transferred to the views of their students. In a 2008 study, Mariani and Hewitt found that faculty views do not tend to influence or change the political views of their students. Moreover, the authors noted that conservatives tend to self-select out of academia and prefer other professions.<ref name=Mariani/>{{rp|774–75}} |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ | Politically conservative authors have long argued that liberal faculty members outnumber conservative ones, and indoctrinate their students with liberal views. [[William F. Buckley]] made this argument in his 1951 work, ''[[God and Man at Yale|God and Man at Yale: The Superstitions of "Academic Freedom"]]'', and works such has [[Allan Bloom]]'s ''[[The Closing of the American Mind]]'', [[Dinesh D'Souza]]'s ''Illiberal Education'', and [[Roger Kimball]]'s ''[[Tenured Radicals]]'' have made similar arguments.<ref name=Mariani/> In fact, however, there is little evidence that the political orientation of faculty members affects the political attitudes of their students.<ref>Yancey, George. "Recalibrating Academic Bias." Academic Questions 25, no. 2 (2012): 267–78.</ref> A 2008 study by Mack D. Mariani and Gordon J. Hewitt found no evidence that faculty ideology was "associated with changes in students' ideological orientation" and concluded that students at more liberal schools "were not statistically more likely to move to the left" than students at other institutions.<ref name=Mariani>Mariani, Mack D., and Gordon J. Hewitt. "Indoctrination U.? Faculty Ideology and Changes in Student Political Orientation." ''PS: Political Science and Politics'' 41, no. 4 (2008): 773–83. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20452310.</ref> Similarly, Staneley Rothman, April Kelly-Woessner, and Mathew Wossner found in 2010 that students' "aggregate attitudes do not appear to vary much between their first and final years," and wrote that this "raises some questions about charges that campuses politically indoctrinate students."<ref name="RothmanKelly-Woessner2010">{{cite book|author1=Stanley Rothman|author2=April Kelly-Woessner|author3=Matthew Woessner|title=The Still Divided Academy: How Competing Visions of Power, Politics, and Diversity Complicate the Mission of Higher Education|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PPJdzcf7rAC|date=16 December 2010|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-0808-7}}</ref>{{rp|77–78}} |
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Woessner and Kelly-Woessner also examined what might have given rise to the differences in the numbers of liberals and conservatives. They looked at the choices made by undergraduate students when planning future careers. They found that there were no differences in intellectual ability between conservative and liberal students, but that liberal students were significantly more likely to choose to pursue PhD degrees and academic careers, whereas conservative students of identical academic accomplishments were more likely to pursue business careers. They concluded that the greater numbers of liberal than conservative professors could be accounted for by self-selection in career paths, rather than by bias in hiring or promotion.<ref name="Post"/><ref name="Marranto">{{cite book|first1=Matthew|last1=Woessner|first2=April|last2=Kelly-Woessner|editor-first1=Robert|editor-last1=Marranto|editor-first2=Richard E.|editor-last2=Redding|editor-first3=Frederick M.|editor-last3=Hess|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MLD0HGrvtxAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+politically+correct+university&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjA9sbZ173bAhXxGTQIHTJSAH8Q6AEIJzAA#v=onepage&q=The%20politically%20correct%20university&f=false|title=The Politically Correct University: Problems, Scope, and Reforms|chapter=Left Pipeline: Why Conservatives Don't Get Doctorates|publisher=The AEI Press|date=2009|isbn=9780844743172}}</ref>{{rp|38–55}} |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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* [[Media bias]] |
* [[Media bias]] |
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* [[Political correctness#Education|Political correctness in education]] |
* [[Political correctness#Education|Political correctness in education]] |
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* [[Heterodox Academy]] |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{reflist}} |
{{reflist}} |
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[[Category:Academia in the United States]] |
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[[Category:Academic freedom]] |
[[Category:Academic freedom]] |
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[[Category:Academic terminology]] |
[[Category:Academic terminology]] |
Revision as of 17:26, 10 June 2018
The political views of American academics have been investigated in various studies published since the 1950s. The studies offer a wide range of interpretations of their findings, which are an ongoing topic of discussion among scholars and in popular media.
Research
The Academic Mind
Sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld and Wagner Thielens were the first scholars to conduct a systematic survey of the politics of American university professors. The research, which was commissioned in 1955 by an arm of the Ford Foundation in response to McCarthyism, was focused solely on social scientists. In the book-length analysis, The Academic Mind, Lazarsfeld found that just 16% of the social scientists he surveyed self-identified as Republicans, while 47% self-identified as Democrats.[1][2]: 25–27 The makeup of the political parties prior to the 1980s differed from that of the early 21st Century as the Democratic Party included culturally conservative Southern Democrats as well as Northern liberals.[3][improper synthesis?][verification needed]
Carnegie Commission on Higher Education
A second major survey was conducted in 1969 by Everett Carll Ladd and Seymour Martin Lipset. Funded by the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, Ladd and Lipset's study surveyed more than 60,000 respondents at 303 colleges and universities and was not limited to those working in the social sciences.[4][2]: 28–29 Ladd and Lipset found that about 46% of professors described themselves as liberal, 27% described themselves as moderates, and 28% described themselves as conservative. Among college students, 45% self-identified as liberal.[2]: 29
In 1993, Richard F. Hamilton and Lowell L. Hargrens analyzed data from the 1969 Carnegie survey and two lesser follow-up surveys, and found that despite considerable public debate over a perceived liberal bias in academia, there was little evidence that academia was becoming increasingly liberal. Rather, they found that the number of professors who self-identified as leftists was "fairly constant" throughout the period between 1969 and 1984, while "the overall or not tendency...was towards greater conservatism." In 1984, 40% of the professors surveyed described themselves as liberal or left, while 27% described themselves as moderate and 34% described themselves as conservative or strong conservative.[5] Hamilton and Hargrens wrote that they were unable to use data from a 1989 Carnegie follow-up, because the wording of the survey's questions had been altered,[5] but political scientist Neil Gross has used later Carnegie data to suggest that the movement to the right which Hamilton and Lowell detected was a temporary one.[2]: 31
Higher Education Research Institute
Beginning in 1989, the Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) has conducted a survey of American university faculty every three years. Like the later Carnegie studies, these surveys do not focus on professor's' political beliefs, and contain only a single question about professors' politics. The HERI survey showed negligible change in the number of professors who described themselves as far left or liberal between 1989 and 1998, with approximately 45% of those surveyed self-identifying as liberals or far left.[6][2]
North American Academic Survey Study
A 1999 large-scale survey known as the North American Academic Survey Study (NAASS) was conducted by Everett Carll Ladd and Seymour Martin Lipset. The researchers polled approximately 4000 faculty, administrators, and students. It notably included data about the respondant's institutions. The data collected in the NAASS was analyzed in multiple studies and books.[7]
Stanley Rothman, S. Robert Lichter, and Neil Nevitte found that professors with liberal socio-political views outnumbered their conservative counterparts by a ratio of 5 to 1 in the United States, with the former constituting 72% of the faculty body and the latter representing 15%.[8] The study was criticized by political scientists Barry Ames, David C. Barker, Chris W. Bonneau, and Christopher J. Carman, who argued that it was "plagued by theoretical and methodological problems that render their conclusions unsustainable by the available evidence."[9] Rothman, Licther and Nevitte's study was later revealed to have contained a coding error, which exaggerated the percentage of professors holding liberal views by 12%.[2]: 55
A 2011 study disagreed with this conclusion and instead predicted that the average view may shift further left in the future. The study also found that the years of college education had little effect on the political view of undergraduates.[10][11]
Neil Gross and Solon Simmons
According to Neil Gross, much of the research on the political beliefs of college and university professors that has been published since the late 1990s has been conducted by outspoken conservative and libertarian intellectuals, whose primary goal was "to document how far left academia had veered in order to mount a more effective critique of it." Many of these researchers, according to Gross, have made "a number of poor methodological choices, as well as leaps of logic, because of their strong political commitments."[2]: 33 In another major work co-authored with Solon Simmons, Gross and Simmons have written that in the 1990s, while "a few sociologists continued to produce high quality work on the topic", "an unfortunate tendency became evident: increasingly, those social scientists who turned their attention to professors and their politics, and employed the tools of survey research, had as their goal simply to highlight the liberalism of the professoriate in order to provide support for conservatives urging the reform of American colleges and universities" and that there has been "a concerted mobilization on the part of conservative activists, think tanks, foundations and professors aimed at challenging so-called liberal hegemony in higher education" since the late 1990s. Much recent research into the issue, according to Simmons and Gross, "has been beholden to this program."[12]: 20
Gross and Simmons conducted a study with the intent of minimizing confounders, and specifically singled out recent studies by Gary A. Tobin and Aryeh K. Weinberg,[13] Daniel Klein and Andrew Western,[14] and Rothman, Licther and Nevitte study for methodological problems that "might be traceable to a desire to score political points."[12]: 21 Known as the Politics of the American Professoriate (PAP) survey, Gross and Simmons' survey received a relatively high response rate of 51%, corrected for response bias, and surveyed a large sample of nearly 3,000 professors from representative institutions.[12]: 21–24 They concluded that 44% of their respondents could be classified as liberals, 46% as moderates, and 9% as conservatives.[12]: 25–26 In terms of party affiliation, 51% of respondents were Democrats, 36 percent were Independents, and 14 percent were Republicans. Gross and Simmons compared this data to the Gallup poll, which found that 34% of Americans were Democrats, 34% were independents, and 30% were Republicans in 2006, concluding that "Democrats are doing better inside than outside academe by a margin of about 16 percentage points."[12]: 29
In a 2013 study, Gross compared Rothman, Licther, and Nevitte's corrected data, data collected by the Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) in 2004 and 2005, and Gross and Simmons' PAP survey, noting that all three data sets suggested that between 50 and 60 percent of professors were liberal, and that it was a "reasonable conclusion" that "between 50% and 60% of academics fall somewhere on the left side of the political spectrum."[2]: 56 As Gross notes, this sets the American professoriate apart from the American public, approximately 17% of whom are leftist or liberal.[2]: 7
Other analyses
Sociologists John F. Zipp and Rudy Fenwick have also taken issue with conservative scholars and writers' argument that "an overwhelmingly left and liberal faculty has taken over American colleges and universities," arguing that while such claims had gained significant attention, "there have been very few systemic, scholarly analyses of the topic." Criticizing other scholars' selective use of unrepresentative data and poor survey methodologies, Zipp and Fenwick concluded that while liberals certainly outnumbered conservatives in academia, there was no reliable evidence for the popular conservative claim that there were "seven to ten liberals for every conservative on campus."[15]
Authors of a 2014 study titled "Political diversity will improve social psychological science" in Behavioral and Brain Sciences, citing prior work by Gross and Simmons (2007) and Rothman and Lichter (2008), observed that "(b)y 2006, however, the ratio of Democrats to Republicans had climbed to more than 11:1."[16] The six authors, all from different universities and members of the Heterodox Academy, also showed by 2012 "that for every politically conservative social psychologist in academia there are about 14 liberal psychologists" according to Arthur C. Brooks. Steven Pinker called the study "one of the most important papers in the recent history of the social sciences". Russell Jacoby questioned the focus of the study on the social sciences rather than STEM fields saying that the "reason is obvious: Liberals do not outnumber conservatives in many of those disciplines".[17]
In a 2017 survey of university presidents, two-thirds of respondents suggested that political demonstrations and protests on university campuses has contributed to the public perception that academia is in opposition to conservative viewpoints. A majority of presidents also agreed that the 2016 election revealed the divide between academia and the American public.[18] In a 2018 iteration of the survey, 86% said that the public opinion of academia as left-biased was responsible for declining public support.[19]
Regional and field-based differences
Professor Samuel J. Abrams of Sarah Lawrence College conducted a study which found that the effect of political differences in academia was most pronounced in the northeast region of the United States. Whereas the average ratio of liberal to conservative professors is 6:1 nationally, in New England, it is 28:1.[20] Abrams described the effect within the region as pushing conservative professors "to the edge of extinction" and "a canary in the higher education coal mine, undercutting the mission of college and diminishing the value of six-figure educations". Conservative faculty and students in New England are described as "feeling more marginalized and alienated than ever before".[21]
Effects
On conservative professors
For the 2016 book-length study Passing on the Right: Conservative Professors in the Progressive University (by Jon Shields and Joshua Dunn), 153 conservative professors were interviewed.[22] Citing research, the authors describe these professors as a "stigmatized minority" and having to use "coping strategies that gays and lesbians have used in the military and other inhospitable work environments" in order to hide their political identity.[21] Shields stated his view that the populist right may overstate the bias that does exist and that conservatives can succeed using mechanisms like academic tenure to protect their freedom.[23]
Theories and implications
In recent years, the focus of academic discussion of faculty ideology has shifted away from estimation of faculty viewpoints to the study of whether faculty views affect or are transferred to the views of their students. In a 2008 study, Mariani and Hewitt found that faculty views do not tend to influence or change the political views of their students. Moreover, the authors noted that conservatives tend to self-select out of academia and prefer other professions.[24]: 774–75
Politically conservative authors have long argued that liberal faculty members outnumber conservative ones, and indoctrinate their students with liberal views. William F. Buckley made this argument in his 1951 work, God and Man at Yale: The Superstitions of "Academic Freedom", and works such has Allan Bloom's The Closing of the American Mind, Dinesh D'Souza's Illiberal Education, and Roger Kimball's Tenured Radicals have made similar arguments.[24] In fact, however, there is little evidence that the political orientation of faculty members affects the political attitudes of their students.[25] A 2008 study by Mack D. Mariani and Gordon J. Hewitt found no evidence that faculty ideology was "associated with changes in students' ideological orientation" and concluded that students at more liberal schools "were not statistically more likely to move to the left" than students at other institutions.[24] Similarly, Staneley Rothman, April Kelly-Woessner, and Mathew Wossner found in 2010 that students' "aggregate attitudes do not appear to vary much between their first and final years," and wrote that this "raises some questions about charges that campuses politically indoctrinate students."[26]: 77–78
See also
References
- ^ Paul Félix Lazarsfeld; Wagner Thielens; Columbia University. Bureau of Applied Social Research (1958). The academic mind: social scientists in a time of crisis. Free Press.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Gross, Neil. Why Are Professors Liberal and Why Do Conservatives Care? Harvard University Press, 2013.
- ^ Finkelman, Paul (2001). The encyclopedia of American political history. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. pp. 124–126, 163–164. ISBN 978-1568025117.
- ^ Everett Carll Jr Ladd; Seymour Martin Lipset (1 January 1975). The Divided Academy: Professors and Politics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-010112-8.
- ^ a b Hamilton, Richard F., and Lowell L. Hargens. "The Politics of the Professors: Self-Identifications, 1969–1984." Social Forces 71, no. 3 (1993): 603–27. doi:10.2307/2579887.
- ^ Linda J. Sax et. al., The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1998–1999 HERI Faculty Survey (Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, 1999). Alexander W. Astin et. al., The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1989–1990 HERI Faculty Survey (Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, 1990).
- ^ Klein, Daniel B. (September 2011). "Academe's House Divided". Academic Questions. 24 (3): 65+. doi:10.1007/s12129-011-9240-0.
- ^ Rothman, Stanley; Lichter, S. Robert; Nevitte, Neil (2005), "Politics and Professional Advancement Among College Faculty" (PDF), The Forum, 3 (1), doi:10.2202/1540-8884.1067
- ^ Ames, Barry; Barker, David C.; Bonneau, Chris W.; Carman, Chris J. (12 September 2007). "Hide the Republicans, the Christians, and the Women: A Response to" – via papers.ssrn.com.
- ^ Stanley Rothman, April Kelly (2011). The Still Divided Academy: How Competing Visions of Power, Politics, and Diversity Complicate the Mission of Higher Education, Woessner, Matthew Woessner, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
- ^ "Five myths about liberal academia", Matthew Woessner, April Kelly-Woessner and Stanley Rothman Friday, February 25, 2011 Washington Post
- ^ a b c d e Neil Gross; Solon Simmons (29 May 2014). Professors and Their Politics. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1334-1.
- ^ http://www.bjpa.org/Publications/details.cfm?PublicationID=3526
- ^ Daniel Klein and Andrew Western, “Voter Registration of Berkeley and Stanford Faculty,” Academic Questions 18: 53–65.
- ^ Zipp, John F., and Rudy Fenwick. "Is the Academy a Liberal Hegemony? The Political Orientations and Educational Values of Professors." The Public Opinion Quarterly 70, no. 3 (2006): 304–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3843984.
- ^ Duarte, José L.; Crawford, Jarret T.; Stern, Charlotta; Haidt, Jonathan; Jussim, Lee; Tetlock, Philip E. (2015) [July 18, 2014]. "Political diversity will improve social psychological science". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 38 (e130). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/S0140525X14000430. PMID 25036715.
- ^ Jacoby, Russell (April 1, 2016). "Academe Is Overrun by Liberals. So What?". The Chronicle Review. The Chronicle of Higher Education.
{{cite web}}
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suggested) (help) - ^ "Political Turmoil, Public Misunderstanding: A Survey of Presidents | Inside Higher Ed". www.insidehighered.com.
- ^ "Survey of college presidents finds worry about public attitudes, confidence in finances | Inside Higher Ed". www.insidehighered.com.
- ^ Jaschik, Scott (July 5, 2016). "New analysis: New England colleges responsible for left-leaning professoriate". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved May 14, 2018.
- ^ a b Sweeney, Chris (December 20, 2016). "How Liberal Professors Are Ruining College". Boston Magazine. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
- ^ Jon A. Shields; Joshua M. Dunn Sr. (March 2016). "Passing on the Right: Conservative Professors in the Progressive University". Oxford Scholarship Online. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199863051.001.0001. OCLC 965380745.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ Green, Emma (April 30, 2016). "Do American Universities Discriminate Against Conservatives?". The Atlantic. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
- ^ a b c Mariani, Mack D., and Gordon J. Hewitt. "Indoctrination U.? Faculty Ideology and Changes in Student Political Orientation." PS: Political Science and Politics 41, no. 4 (2008): 773–83. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20452310.
- ^ Yancey, George. "Recalibrating Academic Bias." Academic Questions 25, no. 2 (2012): 267–78.
- ^ Stanley Rothman; April Kelly-Woessner; Matthew Woessner (16 December 2010). The Still Divided Academy: How Competing Visions of Power, Politics, and Diversity Complicate the Mission of Higher Education. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-0808-7.