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{{Use American English|date=July 2023}} |
{{Use American English|date=July 2023}} |
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{{Short description|Science regarding function of organisms or living systems}} |
{{Short description|Science regarding function of organisms or living systems}} |
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{{TopicTOC-Biology}} |
{{TopicTOC-Biology}} |
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'''Physiology''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|f|ɪ|z|i|ˈ|ɒ|l|ə|dʒ|i}}; {{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|φύσις}}'' ({{grc-transl|φύσις}})|nature, origin||''{{wikt-lang|grc|-λογία}}'' ({{grc-transl|[[-logy|-λογία]]}})|study of}})<ref name=OnlineEtDict>{{OEtymD|physiology}}</ref> is the [[science|scientific]] study of [[function (biology)|functions]] and [[mechanism (biology)|mechanisms]] in a [[life|living system]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.biology.cam.ac.uk/undergrads/nst/courses/physiology-of-organisms/what-is-physiology |title=What is physiology? |website=biology.cam.ac.uk |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press|University of Cambridge]], Faculty of Biology |date=16 February 2016 |language=en |access-date=2018-07-07}}</ref><ref name=Prosser>{{cite book |last=Prosser |first=C. Ladd |title=Comparative Animal Physiology, Environmental and Metabolic Animal Physiology |edition=4th |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]-Liss |location=Hoboken, NJ |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-471-85767-9 |pages=1–12}}</ref> As a [[branches of science|sub-discipline]] of [[biology]], physiology focuses on how [[organism]]s, [[organ system]]s, individual [[organ (biology)|organs]], [[cell (biology)|cells]], and [[biomolecule]]s carry out |
'''Physiology''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|f|ɪ|z|i|ˈ|ɒ|l|ə|dʒ|i}}; {{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|φύσις}}'' ({{grc-transl|φύσις}})|nature, origin||''{{wikt-lang|grc|-λογία}}'' ({{grc-transl|[[-logy|-λογία]]}})|study of}})<ref name=OnlineEtDict>{{OEtymD|physiology}}</ref> is the [[science|scientific]] study of [[function (biology)|functions]] and [[mechanism (biology)|mechanisms]] in a [[life|living system]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.biology.cam.ac.uk/undergrads/nst/courses/physiology-of-organisms/what-is-physiology |title=What is physiology? |website=biology.cam.ac.uk |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press|University of Cambridge]], Faculty of Biology |date=16 February 2016 |language=en |access-date=2018-07-07}}</ref><ref name=Prosser>{{cite book |last=Prosser |first=C. Ladd |title=Comparative Animal Physiology, Environmental and Metabolic Animal Physiology |edition=4th |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]-Liss |location=Hoboken, NJ |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-471-85767-9 |pages=1–12}}</ref> As a [[branches of science|sub-discipline]] of [[biology]], physiology focuses on how [[organism]]s, [[organ system]]s, individual [[organ (biology)|organs]], [[cell (biology)|cells]], and [[biomolecule]]s carry out [[chemistry|chemical]] and [[physics|physical]] functions in a living system.<ref name="Guyton">{{cite book |last1=Guyton|first1=Arthur |last2=Hall|first2=John |title=Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology |date=2011 |publisher=[[Saunders (imprint)|Saunders]]/[[Elsevier]] |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-1-4160-4574-8 |page=3 |edition=12th}}</ref> According to the classes of [[organism]]s, the field can be divided into [[clinical physiology|medical physiology]], [[Zoology#Physiology|animal physiology]], [[plant physiology]], [[cell physiology]], and [[comparative physiology]].<ref name="Guyton" /> |
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Central to physiological functioning are [[biophysics|biophysical]] and [[biochemical]] processes, [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] control mechanisms, and [[cell signaling|communication]] between cells.<ref>{{cite book |title=Vander's Human Physiology Mechanisms of Body Function |last1=Widmaier|first1=Eric P. |last2=Raff|first2=Hershel |last3=Strang|first3=Kevin T. |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Education]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-259-29409-9 |location=New York, NY |pages=14–15}}</ref> ''Physiological state'' is the condition of normal function. In contrast, ''[[pathology|pathological]] state'' refers to [[abnormality (behavior)|abnormal conditions]], including human [[disease]]s. |
Central to physiological functioning are [[biophysics|biophysical]] and [[biochemical]] processes, [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] control mechanisms, and [[cell signaling|communication]] between cells.<ref>{{cite book |title=Vander's Human Physiology Mechanisms of Body Function |last1=Widmaier|first1=Eric P. |last2=Raff|first2=Hershel |last3=Strang|first3=Kevin T. |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Education]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-259-29409-9 |location=New York, NY |pages=14–15}}</ref> ''Physiological state'' is the condition of normal function. In contrast, ''[[pathology|pathological]] state'' refers to [[abnormality (behavior)|abnormal conditions]], including human [[disease]]s. |
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==Foundations== |
==Foundations== |
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Because physiology focuses on the functions and mechanisms of living organisms at all levels, from the molecular and cellular level to the level of whole organisms and populations, its foundations span a range of key disciplines: |
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⚫ | * '''Biophysics''' is the study of the physical properties of living organisms and their interactions with their environment. It helps to explain how organisms sense and respond to different stimuli, such as light, sound, and temperature, and how they maintain homeostasis, or a stable internal environment. |
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⚫ | '''Anatomy''' is the study of the structure and organization of living organisms, from the microscopic level of cells and tissues to the macroscopic level of organs and systems. |
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⚫ | '''Biochemistry''' is the study of the chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms. |
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⚫ | '''Biophysics''' is the study of the physical properties of living organisms and their interactions with |
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Together, these foundational areas provide the basis for understanding the functions and mechanisms of living organisms at all levels of organization, from the molecular to the ecological. |
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===Subdisciplines by level of organisation=== |
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===Cells=== |
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{{Main|Cell physiology}}Although there are differences between [[animal]], [[plant]], and microbial cells, the basic physiological functions of cells can be divided into the processes of [[cell division]], [[cell signaling]], [[cell growth]], and [[Metabolism|cell metabolism]].{{cn|date=May 2023}} |
{{Main|Cell physiology}}Although there are differences between [[animal]], [[plant]], and microbial cells, the basic physiological functions of cells can be divided into the processes of [[cell division]], [[cell signaling]], [[cell growth]], and [[Metabolism|cell metabolism]].{{cn|date=May 2023}} |
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===Subdisciplines by taxa=== |
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====Plant physiology==== |
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{{Main|Plant physiology}}Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of [[botany]] concerned with the functioning of plants. Closely related fields include [[plant morphology]], [[plant ecology]], [[phytochemistry]], [[cell biology]], [[genetics]], [[biophysics]], and [[molecular biology]]. Fundamental processes of [[plant physiology]] include [[photosynthesis]], [[Respiration in plant|respiration]], [[plant nutrition]], [[tropism]]s, [[nastic movements]], [[photoperiodism]], [[photomorphogenesis]], [[circadian rhythm]]s, [[Germination|seed germination]], [[dormancy]], and [[stoma]]ta function and [[transpiration]]. Absorption of water by roots, production of food in the leaves, and growth of shoots towards light are examples of plant physiology.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plant physiology |url=https://basicbiology.net/plants/physiology|publisher=Basic Biology|date=2019|access-date=16 January 2019}}</ref> |
{{Main|Plant physiology}}Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of [[botany]] concerned with the functioning of plants. Closely related fields include [[plant morphology]], [[plant ecology]], [[phytochemistry]], [[cell biology]], [[genetics]], [[biophysics]], and [[molecular biology]]. Fundamental processes of [[plant physiology]] include [[photosynthesis]], [[Respiration in plant|respiration]], [[plant nutrition]], [[tropism]]s, [[nastic movements]], [[photoperiodism]], [[photomorphogenesis]], [[circadian rhythm]]s, [[Germination|seed germination]], [[dormancy]], and [[stoma]]ta function and [[transpiration]]. Absorption of water by roots, production of food in the leaves, and growth of shoots towards light are examples of plant physiology.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plant physiology |url=https://basicbiology.net/plants/physiology|publisher=Basic Biology|date=2019|access-date=16 January 2019}}</ref> |
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====Animal physiology==== |
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{{Main|Biology#Animal form and function}} |
{{Main|Biology#Animal form and function}} |
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=====Human physiology===== |
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{{Main|Human body#Physiology}}Human physiology is the study of how the human body's systems and functions work together to maintain a stable internal environment. It includes the study of the nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems, as well as cellular and exercise physiology. Understanding human physiology is essential for diagnosing and treating health conditions and promoting overall wellbeing. |
{{Main|Human body#Physiology}}Human physiology is the study of how the human body's systems and functions work together to maintain a stable internal environment. It includes the study of the nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems, as well as cellular and exercise physiology. Understanding human physiology is essential for diagnosing and treating health conditions and promoting overall wellbeing. |
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It seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the [[human body]] alive and functioning,<ref name="Guyton"/> through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems within systems. The endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals that integrate function in animals. [[Homeostasis]] is a major aspect with regard to such interactions within plants as well as animals. The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pereda |first1=AE |title=Electrical synapses and their functional interactions with chemical synapses |journal=Nature Reviews. Neuroscience |date=April 2014 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=250–63 |doi=10.1038/nrn3708 |pmid=24619342 |pmc=4091911}}</ref> |
It seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the [[human body]] alive and functioning,<ref name="Guyton"/> through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems within systems. The endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals that integrate function in animals. [[Homeostasis]] is a major aspect with regard to such interactions within plants as well as animals. The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pereda |first1=AE |title=Electrical synapses and their functional interactions with chemical synapses |journal=Nature Reviews. Neuroscience |date=April 2014 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=250–63 |doi=10.1038/nrn3708 |pmid=24619342 |pmc=4091911}}</ref> |
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Changes in physiology can impact the mental functions of individuals. Examples of this would be the effects of certain medications or toxic levels of substances.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mental disorders|url=https://www.who.int/topics/mental_disorders/en/|website=World Health Organization|publisher=WHO|access-date=15 April 2017}}</ref> Change in [[behavior change (individual)|behavior]] as a result of these substances is often used to assess the health of individuals.<ref name = Davis2017>{{cite web | title = Eszopiclone | publisher = F.A. Davis | date = 2017 | access-date = April 15, 2017 | url = http://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/eszopiclone.pdf | archive-date = November 24, 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171124164653/https://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/eszopiclone.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name =zolDavis2017>{{cite web | title = Zolpidem | publisher = F.A. Davis | url = http://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/zolpidem.pdf | access-date = April 15, 2017 | archive-date = December 22, 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171222105509/https://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/zolpidem.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> |
Changes in physiology can impact the mental functions of individuals. Examples of this would be the effects of certain medications or toxic levels of substances.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mental disorders|url=https://www.who.int/topics/mental_disorders/en/|website=World Health Organization|publisher=WHO|access-date=15 April 2017}}</ref> Change in [[behavior change (individual)|behavior]] as a result of these substances is often used to assess the health of individuals.<ref name = Davis2017>{{cite web | title = Eszopiclone | publisher = F.A. Davis | date = 2017 | access-date = April 15, 2017 | url = http://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/eszopiclone.pdf | archive-date = November 24, 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171124164653/https://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/eszopiclone.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name =zolDavis2017>{{cite web | title = Zolpidem | publisher = F.A. Davis | url = http://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/zolpidem.pdf | access-date = April 15, 2017 | archive-date = December 22, 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171222105509/https://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/zolpidem.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> |
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Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology was provided by [[Animal testing|animal experimentation]]. Due to the frequent connection between form and function, physiology and [[anatomy]] are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.<ref name="NIH2013">{{cite journal |last1=Bergman |first1=Esther M |last2=de Bruin |first2=Anique BH |last3=Herrler |first3=Andreas |last4=Verheijen |first4=Inge WH |last5=Scherpbier |first5=Albert JJA |last6=van der Vleuten |first6=Cees PM |title=Students' perceptions of anatomy across the undergraduate problem-based learning medical curriculum: a phenomenographical study |pmc=4225514 |journal=BMC Medical Education |doi=10.1186/1472-6920-13-152 |date=19 November 2013 |quote=Together with physiology and biochemistry, anatomy is one of the basic sciences that are to be taught in the medical curriculum. |pmid=24252155 |volume=13 |page=152}}</ref> |
Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology was provided by [[Animal testing|animal experimentation]]. Due to the frequent connection between form and function, physiology and [[anatomy]] are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.<ref name="NIH2013">{{cite journal |last1=Bergman |first1=Esther M |last2=de Bruin |first2=Anique BH |last3=Herrler |first3=Andreas |last4=Verheijen |first4=Inge WH |last5=Scherpbier |first5=Albert JJA |last6=van der Vleuten |first6=Cees PM |title=Students' perceptions of anatomy across the undergraduate problem-based learning medical curriculum: a phenomenographical study |pmc=4225514 |journal=BMC Medical Education |doi=10.1186/1472-6920-13-152 |date=19 November 2013 |quote=Together with physiology and biochemistry, anatomy is one of the basic sciences that are to be taught in the medical curriculum. |pmid=24252155 |volume=13 |page=152 |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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===Subdisciplines by research objective=== |
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====Comparative physiology==== |
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{{Main|Comparative physiology}} |
{{Main|Comparative physiology}} |
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Involving [[evolutionary physiology]] and [[environmental physiology]], comparative physiology considers the diversity of functional characteristics across organisms.<ref name="Garland">{{cite journal|last=Garland| first=T. Jr. |author2=P. A. Carter|year=1994|title=Evolutionary physiology|url=http://www.biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf|journal=Annual Review of Physiology|volume=56|pages=579–621|doi=10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051|pmid=8010752|access-date=2008-04-11|archive-date=2021-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412150229/https://biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
Involving [[evolutionary physiology]] and [[environmental physiology]], comparative physiology considers the diversity of functional characteristics across organisms.<ref name="Garland">{{cite journal|last=Garland| first=T. Jr. |author2=P. A. Carter|year=1994|title=Evolutionary physiology|url=http://www.biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf|journal=Annual Review of Physiology|volume=56|pages=579–621|doi=10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051|pmid=8010752|access-date=2008-04-11|archive-date=2021-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412150229/https://biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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* [[Gertrude Elion]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/184676/Gertrude-B-Elion|title=Gertrude B. Elion|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> along with [[George Hitchings]] and [[James Black (pharmacologist)|Sir James Black]], received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1988 for their development of drugs employed in the treatment of several major diseases, such as [[leukemia]], some [[autoimmune disorders]], [[gout]], [[malaria]], and [[herpes|viral herpes]]. |
* [[Gertrude Elion]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/184676/Gertrude-B-Elion|title=Gertrude B. Elion|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> along with [[George Hitchings]] and [[James Black (pharmacologist)|Sir James Black]], received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1988 for their development of drugs employed in the treatment of several major diseases, such as [[leukemia]], some [[autoimmune disorders]], [[gout]], [[malaria]], and [[herpes|viral herpes]]. |
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* [[Linda B. Buck]],<ref name="nobelprize.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004|work=nobelprize.org}}</ref> along with [[Richard Axel]], received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2004 for their discovery of [[Olfactory receptor|odorant receptors]] and the complex organization of the [[olfactory system]]. |
* [[Linda B. Buck]],<ref name="nobelprize.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004|work=nobelprize.org}}</ref> along with [[Richard Axel]], received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2004 for their discovery of [[Olfactory receptor|odorant receptors]] and the complex organization of the [[olfactory system]]. |
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* [[Françoise Barré-Sinoussi]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1473980/Francoise-Barre-Sinoussi|title=Francoise Barre-Sinoussi - biography - French virologist|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> along with [[Luc Montagnier]], received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2008 for their work on the identification of the [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus]] (HIV), the cause of [[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome]] (AIDS). |
* [[Françoise Barré-Sinoussi]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1473980/Francoise-Barre-Sinoussi|title=Francoise Barre-Sinoussi - biography - French virologist|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=26 July 2023 }}</ref> along with [[Luc Montagnier]], received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2008 for their work on the identification of the [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus]] (HIV), the cause of [[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome]] (AIDS). |
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* [[Elizabeth Blackburn]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1567675/Elizabeth-H-Blackburn|title=Elizabeth H. Blackburn|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> along with [[Carol W. Greider]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Carol W. Greider | Biography, Nobel Prize, & Facts | Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carol-W-Greider|access-date=2023-02-08|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|language=en}}</ref> and [[Jack W. Szostak]], was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the genetic composition and function of [[telomeres]] and the enzyme called [[telomerase]]. |
* [[Elizabeth Blackburn]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1567675/Elizabeth-H-Blackburn|title=Elizabeth H. Blackburn|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> along with [[Carol W. Greider]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Carol W. Greider | Biography, Nobel Prize, & Facts | Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carol-W-Greider|access-date=2023-02-08|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|language=en}}</ref> and [[Jack W. Szostak]], was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the genetic composition and function of [[telomeres]] and the enzyme called [[telomerase]]. |
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Transnational physiological societies include: |
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* [[The Physiological Society]] |
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National physiological societies include: |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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* [[Pharmacology]] |
* [[Pharmacology]] |
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* [[Physiome]] |
* [[Physiome]] |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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*{{Wiktionary-inline|physiology}} |
* {{Wiktionary-inline|physiology}} |
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*{{Wikisource portal-inline|Physiology}} |
* {{Wikisource portal-inline|Physiology}} |
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*{{Commonscatinline|Physiology}} |
* {{Commonscatinline|Physiology}} |
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*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100202075617/http://www.physiologyinfo.org/ physiologyINFO.org] – public information site sponsored by the [[American Physiological Society]] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100202075617/http://www.physiologyinfo.org/ physiologyINFO.org] – public information site sponsored by the [[American Physiological Society]] |
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{{biology-footer}} |
{{biology-footer}} |