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*[[Ramsay MacMullen]], ''Christianizing the Roman Empire: AD 100-400'' (1989) |
*[[Ramsay MacMullen]], ''Christianizing the Roman Empire: AD 100-400'' (1989) |
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*——, ''Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries'' (1997) ISBN 0-3000-8077-8 |
*——, ''Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries'' (1997) ISBN 0-3000-8077-8 |
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==External links== |
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* James Hannam: [http://jameshannam.com/literature.htm Early Christians and the fate of Pagan Literature] |
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{{Roman religion}} |
{{Roman religion}} |
Revision as of 13:33, 10 August 2007
Within the wider stream of influences that contributed to the Christianization of the Roman Empire, followers of the Ancient Roman religion were persecuted by Christians during the period after the death of Constantine and the reign of Julian, only to enjoy a respite for a number of years before the persecution resumed once again under Gratian and Theodosius I who took severe measures to stamp out the last vestiges of paganism.[1] Edward Gibbon wrote: "The ruin of Paganism, in the age of Theodosius, is perhaps the only example of the total extirpation[2] of any ancient and popular superstition; and may therefore deserve to be considered as a singular event in the history of the human mind."[3][4][5]
Persecution may refer to unjust laws, unwarranted arrest, imprisonment, beating, torture, execution, confiscation or attacks on property, incitement to hatred or the threat of such punishments that are designed to oppress a person or group because they are not Christians. In the past[6] the Church has been accused of behaving inconsistently, claiming toleration and liberty for herself, but being intolerant of other religions. This was denied on the basis that they worshipped the one true God and it could not be considered persecution when acts were taken to suppress other religious traditions since "error has no rights".[7][8][9]
Background to the persecutions
The religion of the Christians and Jews was monotheistic in contrast to the polytheism of the ancient Romans. The Romans tended towards syncretism, seeing the same Gods under different names in different places of the Empire. This being so they were generally tolerant and accommodating towards new deities and the religious experiences of other peoples who formed part of their wider Empire.[10] This universal tolerance was not extended to religions that were hostile to the state nor any that claimed exclusive rights to religious beliefs and practice.[10]
By its very nature the exclusive faith of the Jews and Christians set them apart from other people, but whereas the former group was in the main contained within a single national and racial grouping, the latter was active and successful in seeking converts for the new religion and had universal claims not limited to a single geographical area.[10] Whereas the original Hebrew scriptures taught that "the Gods of the gentiles are nothing", the Greek Septuagint translation of that same passage, used by the early Christian Church, asserted that "all the Gods of the heathens are devils."[11] The same Gods whom the Romans believed had protected and blessed their city and its wider empire during the many centuries they had been worshipped were now demonized[12] by the early Christian Church.[13][9]
Whereas the religion of the Jews could theoretically be contained within their own nation state and pose no threat to the wider Empire, it was not so with the early Christian community which was perceived at times to be an intrinsically destabilising influence[14] and threat to the peace of Rome, a religio illicita.[10] The pagans who attributed the misfortunes of Rome and its wider Empire to the rise of Christianity, and who could only see a restoration by a return to the old ways[15][10], were faced by the Christian Church that had set itself apart from that faith and was unwilling to dilute what it held to be the religion of the "One True God".[16]
After the initial conflicts between the state and the new emerging religion during which early Christians were periodically subject to intense persecution, Gallienus was the first emperor to issue an edict of toleration for all religious creeds including Christianity, a re-affirmation of the policy of Alexander Severus[10].
Constantine and his conversion
Constantine was the first emperor to convert to Christianity, being baptized on his deathbed, and he legislated against non-Catholic religions by the withdrawal of all privileges that favoured them in comparison to Christianity.[17][18] Constantine continued, but was not the author, of the policy of toleration that Galerius had established.[19] Whilst the seeds of future persecution by the state may been seen in his more belligerent utterances regarding the old religion, the restrictions placed on divination and the pillaging of the temples[20], the reality is that persecution by Christians pre-dates the states support, passive or otherwise.[21]
Constantine legislated against magic and private divination, but this was driven out of a fear that others might gain power through those means, as he himself had achieved power through the sound advice of Pagan soothsayers, convincing him of the perspicacity of Pagan prophecy.[22] His belief in Pagan divination is confirmed by legislation calling for the consultation of augurs after an amphitheatre had been struck by lightning in the year 320.[23] Constantine explicitly allowed public divination as well as public Pagan practices to continue.[24] Constantine also issued laws confirming the rights of flamens, priests and duumvirs.[25]
Constanine had a complex attitude towards morality; he killed both his son and wife (the consensus view of ancient sources) yet also destroyed the Temple of Aphrodite in the Lebanon[26] and ordered the extermination, by summary execution, of eunuch priests in Egypt[20] because they transgressed his moral norms. Even if Constantine had desired to Christianize the state expediency dictated otherwise; it is estimated that Christians formed only a small portion of the population, being a fifth part in the West and the half of the population in a large section of the East.[10][27] He therefore limited himself in the main to the pillaging of pagan temples[20], to derogatory and contemptuous comments relating to the old religion; writing of the "obstinancy" of the pagans, of their "misguided rites and ceremonial", and of their "temples of lying" contrasted with "the splendours of the home of truth".[10] A Christian historian also records that he had some pagan temples torn down.[28] During the course of his life he progressively became more Christian and turned away from any syncretic tendencies he appeared to favour at times and thus demonstrating, according to his biographers, that "The God of the Christians was indeed a jealous God who tolerated no other gods beside him. The Church could never acknowledge that she stood on the same plane with other religious bodies, she conquered for herself one domain after another".[29][9]
Persecution under Constantine's sons
The first emperor to put restrictions on the practice of Paganism was Constantine's son, Constantius II. Constantius was an unwavering opponent of paganism; he closed all the temples and forbade sacrifices under pain of death. His maxim was: "Cesset superstitio; sacrificiorum aboleatur insania" (Let superstition cease; let the folly of sacrifices be abolished).[30] According to Libanius Constantius was effectively under the control of others who unwisely inspired him to end pagan sacrifices.[31] In the year 353 Constantius ordered the closing of pagan temples and the abolishment of sacrifices under penalty of death, thus beginning the era of formal persecution by the state of paganism.[32][33] but these edicts could not be rigidly executed due the strength of paganism.[10][34][35]
Due to the disturbances caused by Christians who were attempting to destroy ancient Pagan temples in the countryside, Constantius and his brother Constans were forced to issue a law for the preservation of the temples that were situated outside of city walls.[36] Later the same year another law declared that all Pagan temples were to be closed and access to them forbidden.[37] The desecration of Pagan tombs and monuments by Christians, however, apparently forced Constantius to enact another law that exacted a fine from those who were guilty of vandalizing them and placed the care of these monuments and tombs under the Pagan priests.[38] Magnentius rebelled against and killed Constans. Although he used Christian symbols on his coins, he revoked the anti-pagan legislation of Constans and even permitted the celebration of nocturnal sacrifices. Three years later, in the year 353, Constantius defeated Magnentius and once again forbade the performance of the rituals.[39] This law seems to have had little effect as we find Constantius once again legislating against Paganism in 356. Constantius now declared that anyone found guilty of attending sacrifices or of worshipping idols would be executed.[40] It appears the magistrates were uncomfortable with carrying out this law; it was largely ignored.
In the year 357, Constantius celebrated his Vicennalia by visiting the city of Rome. Acting as the Pontifex Maximus, Constantius apparently conferred priesthoods on worthy individuals and confirmed privileges to the Vestal Virgins as well as subsidies to the Pagan cults.[41] Constantius also enacted a law confirming the prerogatives of the Pagan priests.[42] In spite of Pagan protests, however, Constantius removed the altar from the statue of Victory that stood in the Senate house because of the complaints of some Christian Senators. This was the altar where Romans had traditionally offered prayers for the welfare of the Empire and had pledged their allegiance to the Emperor for generations. Each Senator had traditionally made a sacrifice upon the altar before entering the Senate house. This altar was later restored, either silently, soon after Constantius' departure, or by the emperor Julian.[43] Constantius, sensing that he was now hated by many of his subjects, became suspicious and fearful and carried on an active campaign against magicians, astrologers and other diviners who might use their power to make someone else emperor.[44] Constantius did not, apparently, attempt to stop the Christians from destroying and pillaging many of the ancient temples.[45]
No matter what the imperial edicts declared in their fearfull threats, the vast numbers of pagans, and the passive resistance of pagan governors, rendered them largely impotent in their application[10][46] however the effects of policy were enough to contribute to a widespread trend towards Christian conversion, though not enough to make paganism extinct. Official orders may have established an understanding that actual persecution would be tolerated, but in the first century of official Christianity it did not generally organize it though its members did encourage the emperor to take even more extreme measures in their zeal to stamp out paganism, e.g in the aftermath of the of the abolition of sacrifices.[10] Firmicus Maternus, a convert to Christianity, would urge: "Paganism, most holy emperors, must be utterly destroyed and blotted out, and disciplined by the severest enactments of your edits, lest the deadly delusion of the presumption continue to stain the Roman world" and "How fortunate you are that God, whose agents you are, has reserved for you the destruction of idolatory and the ruin of profane temples."[47] The edicts which legislated against pagans, beginning with Constantius, would in time have an unfavourable influence on the Middle Ages and become the basis of the much-abused Inquisition.[48]
Persecution stopped under Julian
Julian was a nephew of Constantine and received a Christian training but the murder of his father, brother and two uncles, in the aftermath of Constantine's death, he attributed to Constantius and by association to Christians in general. This antipathy was deepened when Constantius executed Julian's only remaining brother in 354AD.[49][10] After childhood Julian was educated by hellenists and was attracted to the teachings of neoplatonists and the old religions.
Julian's religious beliefs were syncretic and he was an initiate of at least three mystery religions. But Julian's religious open-mindedness did not extend to Christianity due to its belief that it had an exclusive perspective on religious truth. Being the "only true religion", Christianity was opposed to, and fundamentally incompatible with, the more inclusive syncretism of paganism.[50]
As Emperor, Julian sought to turn the tide in the attempted suppression of non-Christian religions. Julian's training in Christianity influenced his ideas concerning the revival and organisation of the old religion, shaping it into a coherent body of doctrine, ritual and liturgy.[10] with a hierarchy under the supervision of the emperor.[51] Julian organized elaborate rituals and attempted to set forth a clarified philosophy of Neo-Platonism that might unite all Pagans.[52]
Julian allowed religious freedom and avoided any form of actual compulsion. The Christian Sozomen acknowledges that Julian did not compel Christians to offer sacrifice nor did he allow the people to commit any act of injustice towards the Christians or insult them.[53] However, no Christian was allowed to teach or study the ancient classical authors, "Let them keep to Matthew and Luke", thus ending any chance they had of a professional career.[10][54]
He withdrew the privileges of the Christian clergy, bestowed on them by Constantine, and ordered them to make restitution. Those who had demolished temples during the reign of Constantine and Constantius, were made to rebuild them, or to defray the expenses of their re-erection.[55]
Julian required those who had abandoned the deities to purify themselves before they were allowed the privilege of taking part in their worship once again. He was devoted to divination and allowed his subjects to freely practice this art.[56]
The Jewish historian and theologian Jacob Neusner writes: "It was only after the near catastrophe of Julian's reversion to paganism that the Christian emperors systematically legislated against paganism so as to destroy it."[57]
Religious toleration under Jovian, Valentinian and Valens
After the death of Julian, Jovian seems to have instituted a policy of religious toleration which avoided the relative extremes of Constantius and Julian.[58] Under Valentinian and Valens this period of religious toleration continued. Pagan writers praise both of these emperors for their liberal religious policies.[59]
Valentinian, who ruled in the west, seems to have only been a halfhearted Christian as he avoided attending his inaugural ceremony by twenty-four hours in order to avoid an inauspicious day (the intercalary day of the bissextile year).[60] Valentinian and Valens granted complete toleration for all cults at the beginning of their reign in 364.[61] Valentinian even allowed the performance of nocturnal sacrifices, which had been previously prohibited due to the attempt of some people to practice unlawful divination under the cover of the night, after the proconsul of Greece appealed to him.[62] Valentinian also confirmed the rights and privileges of the Pagan priests and confirmed the right of Pagans to be the exclusive caretakers of their temples.[63] Valens, who was ruling in the east, was an Arian and was too engaged with fighting against the Orthodox Christians to bother much with the Pagans. In both the west and east severe laws were once again passed prohibiting private divination.[64] Due to the over zealousness of the populace to stop harmful divination, the haruspices and augurs began to be afraid to show themselves in public. This led the emperors to formally authorize the practice of official and lawful divination by law in 371.[65] Despite the official policy, anti-pagan laws remained in force, and unofficial destruction of pagan holy sites, notably by such Christians as Martin of Tours, was also tolerated.
Renewal of persecution under Gratian and Theodosius I
Upon the death of his father (Valentinian) in the year 375, Gratian began his actual reign at the age of sixteen. Six days after the death of Valentinian I, Gratian's half brother, Valentinian II, who was only four years old, was also declared emperor. After the death of Valens, at the battle of Adrianople in 378, Gratian chose a Spaniard named Theodosius to succeed his uncle. Gratian had been educated by Ausonius who had praised his pupil for his tolerance. Upon the death of his father, Gratian came under the influence of Ambrose, who became his chief advisor.[66][67] Under the influence of Ambrose, active steps to repress Paganism were taken.[20][68]
The influence of Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, was a significant force that brought to an end a period of widespread, if unofficial, religious tolerance that had existed since the time of Julian.[69] "In the long truce between the hostile camps, writes historian Samuel Dill[70]"the pagan, the sceptic, even the formal, the lukewarm Christian, may have come to dream of a mutual toleration which would leave the ancient forms undisturbed but such men, living in a world of literary and antiquarian illusions, know little of the inner forces of the new Christian movement.[71] Gratian dealt Paganism several blows in 382.[72] In this year, Gratian appropriated the income of the Pagan priests and Vestal Virgins, confiscated the personal possessions of the priestly colleges and ordered the removal of the Altar of Victory.[73] The colleges of Pagan priests also lost all their privileges and immunities. Gratian declared that all of the Pagan temples and shrines were to be confiscated by the government and that their revenues were to be joined to the property of the royal treasury.[74]
Pagan Senators responded by sending an appeal to Gratian, reminding him that he was still the Pontifex Maximus and that it was his duty to see that the Pagan rites were properly performed. They appealed to Gratian to restore the altar of Victory and the rights and privileges of the Vestal Virgins and priestly colleges. Gratian, at the urging of Ambrose, did not grant an audience to the Pagan Senators. In response to being reminded by the Pagans that he was still the head of the ancestral religion, Gratian renounced the title and office of Pontifex Maximus under the influence of Ambrose, declaring that it was unsuitable for a Christian to hold this office. Gratian was quickly faced with a revolt from the outraged Pagans who raised a Spaniard named Maximus to the throne because he was more sympathetic to the Pagan cause.
Theodosius, who was reigning in the East, made no attacks upon Paganism during the lifetime of Gratian. Both Theodosius and Valentinian II formally recognized Maximus in the year 384. For a time, the Pagans enjoyed religious liberty once again and many distinguished Pagans rose to important offices in the state.[75] The fact that the temples continued to be cared for and that Pagan festivals continued to be celebrated is indicated by a law of 386, which declared that care for the temples and festivals were the exclusive prerogative of the Pagans.[76] This law also confirms the right of the priests to perform the traditional Pagan rites of the temples. In the year 387, Theodosius declared war on Maximus after Maximus had driven Valentinian II out of Italy. Maximus was defeated and executed and the anti-Pagan regulations of Gratian were apparently reinstated by Valentinian II. The emperor Theodosius, who had been reigning in the East, had been relatively tolerant towards Pagans in the early part of his reign.[77] He is known to have appointed various Pagans to office in the earlier part of his reign. For example, he appointed the Pagan Tatianus as the praetorian prefect of Egypt.[78] His tolerance for other religions is indicated by his order (in 388) for the reconstruction of a Jewish synagogue at Callicinum in Mesopotamia, which had been destroyed by a bishop and his Christian flock.[79]
After what is commonly known as the "massacre" of Thessalonica (in 390) Ambrose had greater influence with a penitent Theodosius[20] after he excommunicated Theodosius for sanctioning the deed. After the death of Maximus, Valentinian II, under the aegis of Theodosius, once again assumed the office of emperor in the West. Valentinian II, advised by Ambrose, and in spite of pleas from the Pagans, refused to restore the altar of the statue of Victory and the income to the priesthoods and Vestal Virgins.[80] In the year 391, Valentinian II issued a law that not only prohibited sacrifices but also forbade anyone from visiting the temples.[81] This again caused turbulence in the West. Valentinian II quickly followed this law with a second one, which declared that Pagan temples were to be closed, a law that was viewed as practically outlawing Paganism.[82]. Valentinian was murdered, possibly by agents of Arbogast whom he had tried to dismiss, and Eugenius, a professor of rhetoric, was proclaimed emperor.[83]. The ancestral religious rites were once again performed openly and the altar of Victory was restored.[84]
In the year 391 in Alexandria in the wake of the great anti-pagan riots "busts of Serapis which stood in the walls, vestibules, doorways and windows of every house were all torn out and annihilated..., and in their place the sign of the Lord's cross was painted in the doorways, vestibules, windows and walls, and on pillars."[20]
Rome was more pagan than Christian up until the 390's; Gaul, Spain and northern Italy, in all but the urban areas, were pagan, save Milan which remained half pagan.[20] In the year 392, Theodosius officially began to proscribe the practice of Paganism. This is apparently the time in which he authorized the destruction of many temples throughout the empire.[85] Theodosius issued a comprehensive law that prohibited the performance of any type of Pagan sacrifice or worship, even within the privacy of person's own home.[86] Theodosius prohibited men from privately honoring their Lares with fire, their Genius with wine or their Penates with incense. Men were prohibited from such traditions as burning candles or incense and suspending wreaths in honor of the deities. Theodosius also prohibited the practice of all forms of divination, even those forms of divination that were not considered harmful to the welfare of the Emperor, with this wide-ranging law. Paganism was now proscribed, a "religio illicita".[87]
In 393, Theodosius was ready to begin his war against Eugenius and Arbogastes. The battle that ensued became, in essence, a battle for the survival of Paganism.[88] The defeat of Eugenius by Theodosius in 394 led to the final separation of Paganism from the state. Theodosius visited Rome to attempt to convert the Pagan members of the Senate. Being unsuccessful in this, he withdrew all state funds that had been set aside for the public performance of Pagan rites.[89] From this point forward, state funds would never again be made available for the public performance of Pagan rites nor for the maintenance of the Pagan temples. Despite this setback on their religion, the Pagans remained outspoken in their demands for toleration.[90] Many Pagans, sensing how unprofitable it was becoming to not convert to Christianity, simply pretended to convert as an obvious instrument of advancement.
"Theodosius was not the man to sympathise with the balancing policy of the Edict of Milan. He set himself steadfastly to the work of establishing Catholicism as the privilidged religion of the state, of repressing dissident Christians (heretics) and of enacting explicit legal measures to abolish Paganism in all its phases."."[91]
Examples of the destruction of pagan temples in the late fourth century, as recorded in surviving texts, describes Martin of Tours' attacks on holy sites in Gaul [92], the destruction of temples in Syria by Marcellus [93] the destruction of temples and images in, and surrounding, Carthage[20], the Patriarch Theophilus who seized and destroyed pagan temples in Alexandria[94], the levelling of all the temples in Gaza and the wider destruction of holy sites that spread rapidly throughout Egypt.[20] This is supplemented in abundance by archeological evidence in the northern provinces (for which written sources hardly survive) exposing broken and burnt out buildings and hastily buried objects of piety.[20] The leader of the Egyptian monks who participated in the sack of temples replied to the victims who demanded back their sacfed icons: "I peacefully removed your gods...there is no such thing as robbery for those who truly possess Christ.[20]
According to a Christian historian "Paganism was now dead", though pagans survived and would continue to do so for another three centuries, mainly outwith the towns -- "rustics chiefly - pagani."[95][10] Edward Gibbon wrote: "The generation that arose in the world after the promulgation of the Imperial laws was attracted within the pale of the Catholic Church: and so rapid, yet so gentle, was the fall of paganism that only twenty-eight years after the death of Theodosius the faint and minute vestiges were no longer visible to the eye of the legislator."[96]
Persecution in Egypt: Death of Hypatia of Alexandria
In 391, in response to a request from the Patriarch Theophilus, Theodosius I gave permission to destroy the Egyptian religious institutions and Christian mobs responded by destroying the Library of Alexandria[97], the Temple of Serapis and other pagan monuments.[98] Legislation was passed in 393 that sought to curb ongoing violence, especially against Jewish synagogues, however with the accession of Cyril, nephew of Theophilus[99], as the Patriarch of Alexandria new disturbances broke out that culminated in the illegal expulsion of Jews in 414 and the murder of Hypatia by a fanatical mob of Christians.[98]
Hypatia, daughter of Theon, was a notable mathematician and philosopher who became the recognised head of the Neoplatonist school in Alexandria around A.D 400.[98] She was a highly respected and was described as possessing many virtues.[99]
Socrates describes how a mob led by Peter, a lector, dragged Hypatia, an aged women, to a Church and tortured her to death by tearing her flesh with potsherds, bringing great disgrace on the Church of Alexandria and Cyril its bishop.[99][100]
Cyril is a saint and Doctor of the Church[99] despite the shame brought about by the murder of Hypatia. His defenders point out that Socrates does not suggest that Cyril himself was to blame and whilst Damascius, a Greek Neoplatonist (born A.D 480, died c. 550), does make the claim he is a late authority[99].
Pagan persistence despite continued persecution
Whilst "Paganism, with Theodosius dies, never to rise again", according to a Christian historian[10] committed pagans continued, wherever possible, to practice their faith discretely or under cloak of common festivals and by keeping within the letter of the law if not it's spirit, more commonly in the countryside, hence they are called "rustics - the pagani". Upon the death of Theodosius, in 395, a political crisis ensued, which the barbarians were quick to take advantage of by invading the empire on an unprecedented scale. During this disaster, many Christians became less certain of their religion and converted back to the old religion. Pagans, in their turn, became more aggressive and began to blame the Christians for the disasters affecting the empire.[101] Despite the pleas of many Pagans for tolerance, Honorius and Arcadius continued the work of their father by enacting even more anti-Pagan laws to stop any revival of Paganism. The fact that they had to keep repeating their threats by the enactment of numerous laws against the practice of Paganism indicates that their efforts did not succeed in stamping out the old religion, which continued to be practiced discreetly.[102] Pagans who lived in the country, and being less exposed to the eye of imposing authority, disguised the expression of their religious faith under the appearance of convivial meetings and by modifications to the rites they practiced which did not infringe the letter of the law.[103]
During the early part of the reign of Honorius, Stilicho was able to exercise unlimited power over the west. Stilicho exercised moderation in his religious policies and enacted laws that were favorable to the Pagans. Consequently, during the time in which Stilicho held power, the Pagans enjoyed a brief respite from persecution. In the year 395, Arcadius declared that the solemn days of the Pagans were no longer to be included in the number of holidays.[104] In the same year, another law was passed by Arcadius that prohibited anyone from going to a Pagan sanctuary or temple or of celebrating any kind of Pagan sacrifice.[105] This law seems to have been targeted at those Christians who were converting back to Paganism as it specifically mentions "those who are trying to stray from the dogma of the Catholic faith." In the year 396, the privileges of Pagan priests and other clerics were officially revoked.[106] In the same year, Arcadius ordered that Pagan temples standing in the country were to be destroyed without disorder or riot such that they could not be used for religious rites away from gaze of the authorities.[107] The large number of Pagans in the east also seems to have forced Arcadius into allowing the ancient festivals and public games to continue but without religious rites that formed an essential part of the old religion.[108]
Meanwhile three laws were enacted in the west in the year 399, under the influence of Stilicho, which were relatively favorable to the Pagans. Due to the riots caused by Christians in their attempts to destroy the temples, the first of these laws protected the Pagan temples from the destruction of zealous Christian who pretended that they had been authorized by the government to destroy them.[109] The second of these laws acknowledged the right of the people to continue to participate in traditional banquets, shows, gatherings and amusements once associated with the old Pagan ways; it did, however, forbid the public performance of any Pagan religious rites or sacrifice, an intrinsic part of a religion supported by custom rather than by argument.[110][111] The third law forbade the destruction of Pagan temples that had been cleared of forbidden things and ordered that they were to be kept in good repair even though the purpose for which they were first built was now prohibited.[112] After the death of Stilicho, Honorius and his party in the state gained control and harsh laws against Pagans were once again enacted.
At the turn of the century St Augustine would exhort his congregation in Carthage to smash all tangible symbols of paganism they could lay their hands on "for that all superstition of pagans and heathens should be annihilated is what God wants, God commands, God proclaims!" -- words uttered to wild applause, and possibly the cause of religious riots resulting in sixty deaths. It is estimated that at this point in time pagans still made up half of the Empire's population.[20][9]
In the year 407 a decree was issued to the west from Rome: "If any images stand even now in the temples and shrines...., they shall be torn from their foundations...The temples situated in cities or towns shall be taken for public use. Altars shall be destroyed in all places.[20]
In the year 408, Honorius enacted a new law which ordered that all statues and altars in the temples were to be removed and that the temple buildings and their income were to be appropriated by the government.[113] This law also forbade the holding of any banquet or celebration in vicinity of the temples that was being used by pagans in the countryside as a pretext and cover for religious celebrations.[114] The execution of this law was placed in the hands of the bishops. Two other laws decreed that buildings belonging to known Pagans and heretics were to be appropriated by the churches.[115][20]
Arcadius died in 408 and his eight-year-old son, Theodosius[116] was thereupon proclaimed emperor in the East. In the same year, Honorius enacted a law that prohibited anyone who was not Catholic from performing imperial service within the palace.[117] Zosimus reports that Honorius was forced to repeal this law after one of his best officers, who happened to be a Pagan, resigned in protest.[118] At the beginning of the year 409, Honorius enacted a law that punished judges and officials who did not enforce the laws against the Pagans.[119] This law even punished men of rank who simply kept silent over any Pagan rite performed in their own city or district. The hopes of the Pagans were revived with the elevation of Attalus, at Rome, in the year 409. Alaric, however, soon tired of his puppet and Attalus was deposed in the summer of 410 when Honorius promised to negotiate a peace treaty. When these negotiations failed, Alaric took and sacked the city of Rome. This catastrophe shocked the entire Roman world. Both Christians and Pagans quickly began to blame each other for something that had hitherto been thought impossible. In this heated atmosphere, Honorius once again reiterated his anti-Pagan legislation.[120]
There was apparently a large amount of Pagan literature circulating at this time that attributed the decline and demise of the Roman Empire to the Christians; Augustine's City of God is an answer to the charges of Pagans that the sack of Rome was due to Christianity[121]. Little of this literature has survived, due to Christians who destroyed works they considered to be contrary to their religious beliefs[122]. "Our sole copy of the sole work about political good sense by the person arguably best able to deliver it to us from classical antiquity, Cicero," writes Ramsay MacMullen, "was sponged out from the vellum to make room for the hundredth copy of Augustine's meditation of the psalms."[123][124] The only fragments of Julians's "Against the Galileans" that have survived Christian censorship appear in a refutation by Bishop Cyril of Alexandria.[125] By the time Augustine had published the early books that comprised "The City of God" he describes how pagan authors in North Africa felt it too dangerous to publish their refutations and Augustine writes nothing to dissaude them of this threat.[126] There are numerous fragments extant of several Pagan historical works, such as the works of Eunapius and Olympiodorus, which indicate that Pagans were now openly voicing their resentment in writing. Even after the sack of Rome, in the year 410, the Pagans did not lose hope. Pagans believed that the recent decline of Rome had been caused by the neglect of the ancestral traditions. The Pagans still believed, however, that Rome's future could be improved for the better if the ancient traditions were revived. This hope decreased with the passing years as misfortune after misfortune despoiled the Roman Empire and attempts to revive Paganism were obstructed by the Christians. One by one pieces of the empire were irretrievably lost. The island of Britain was permanently abandoned during the reign of Honorius. Gaul and Spain were gradually lost to various barbarian peoples, such as the Visigoths and Burgundians. Pannonia was abandoned and the Vandals took over Roman Africa.[127]
Some Pagans would appear to have continued to practice their faith when circumstances permitted, as the emperors continued issuing laws. In the year 415, Honorius enacted yet another law that appropriated the Pagan temples, even though they were no longer used for their intended purpose, and ordered that all objects that had been consecrated for Pagan sacrifices in the past were to be removed from public places.[128]
In 416, Honorius and Theodosius II ordered that Pagans would no longer be admitted to imperial service nor would they be allowed to receive the rank of administrator or judge.[129] In 423, Theodosius II reiterated the previous laws against Pagans and declared that all Pagans who were caught performing the ancient rites would now have all their goods confiscated and be exiled but at the same time seemingly indicating that there were few pagans left[130]: "The pagans who remain, although we believe there are none.."[131] In August of the year 423, Honorius died and power was seized in the west by John, who had held the office of Primicerius Notariorum. John appears to have ushered in a period of religious toleration. John seems to have attempted to curb the power of ecclesiastics and the privileges of the church in an attempt to treat all people equally.[132] In the year 423, Theodosius II published a law that demanded that Christians (whether they were really such or pretended to be so) were not to disturb Pagans who were living peaceably and doing nothing contrary to the law.[133] In 425, Theodosius II sent an expedition to the west to depose John and establish Valentinian III as emperor of the west. After John was captured and executed, Valentinian III was proclaimed emperor in the city of Rome. While in the west, Theodosius II enacted two anti-Pagan laws in the year 425. The first of these stipulated that all Pagan superstition was to be rooted out.[134] The second law barred Pagans from pleading a case in court and also disqualified them from serving as soldiers.[135] Theodosius II then left Valentinian III to rule the west and returned to Constantinople.
The numerous laws against Pagans seems to have been ineffectual in stamping out completely faith in the old religion. Many people simply conformed outwardly and pretended to become Christian while secretly continuing to practice their beliefs. The numerous laws against apostasy, that had been continuously promulgated since the time of Gratian and Theodosius, is evidence that the emperors were having a hard time even keeping Christians from going astray.[136] In the year 426, Theodosius issued another edict in which the essence of religious intolerance is proclaimed, making it illegal for Christian apostates to convert to the old religion, and those who pretended to become Christian but in reality continued to perform Pagan sacrifices.[137] All this legislation proved so ineffective that Theodosius II found it necessary to reiterate his prohibition against Pagan rites and sacrifices in 435, this time increasing the penalty to death.[138] This law also ordered that all Pagan shrines, temples and sanctuaries that still existed were to be destroyed by the magistrates. Magistrates who failed to carry out this order were ordered to be punished with death. Even the threat of death, however, failed to eradicate Paganism as we find Theodosius legislating again, in 438, against Paganism and forbidding Pagan sacrifice once more.[139] Theodosius threatens those who fail to comply with death and the confiscation of their property. It will be of interest to quote some of this law, as the Emperor explicitly admits that Pagan sacrifices were still seemingly being openly celebrated in places. It reads as:
Hence our clemency perceives the need of keeping watch over the Pagans and their heathen enormities, since by natural depravity and stubborn lawlessness, they forsake the path of true religion. They disdain in any way to perform the nefarious rites of sacrifice and the false errors of their baleful superstition by some means or other in the hidden solitudes, unless their crimes are made public by the profession of their crimes to insult divine majesty and to show scorn to our age. Not the thousand terrors of laws already promulgated nor the penalty of exile pronounced upon them deter these men, whereby, if they cannot reform, at least they might learn to abstain from their mass of their crimes and the multitude of their sacrifices. But their insane audacity transgresses continually; our patience is exhausted by their wicked behavior so that if we desired to forget them, we could not disregard them.[140]
Increasingly draconian laws against Pagans
The continued vitality of pagans led Marcian, who became emperor of the east in 450 upon the death of Theodosius II, to repeat earlier prohibitions against Pagan rites. Marcian decreed, in the year 451, that those who continued to perform the Pagan rites would suffer the confiscation of their property and be condemned to death. Marcian also prohibited any attempt to re-open the temples and ordered that they were to remain closed. In addition to this, in order to encourage strict enforcement of the law a fine of fifty pounds of gold was imposed on any judge or governor, as well as the officials under him, who did not enforce this law.[141] However, not even this had the desired affect, as we find Leo I, who succeeded Marcian in 457, publishing a new law in 472 which imposed severe penalties for the owner of any property who was aware that Pagan rites were performed on his property. If the property owner was of high rank he was punished by the loss of his rank or office and by the confiscation of his property. If the property owner was of lower status he would be physically tortured and then condemned to labor in the mines for the rest of his life.[142]
Two more laws against Paganism, which may be from this period, are preserved in the Justinian Code.[143] After the deposition of Avitus, who ruled as emperor of the West from 455 to 456, there seems to have been a conspiracy among the Roman nobles to place the Pagan general Marcellinus on the throne to restore Paganism; but it came to nothing.[144]
In the year 457, Leo I became the first emperor to be crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Anthemius, one of the last Roman emperors of the west who ruled from 467 to 472, seems to have planned a Pagan revival at Rome.[145] He was a descendant of Procopius, the relative of Julian. Anthemius gave Flavius Messius Phoebus Severus, a Pagan philosopher who was a close friend of his, the important offices of Prefect of Rome, Consul and Patrician. Anthemius placed the image of Hercules, in the act of vanquishing the Nemean lion, on his coins. The murder of Anthemius (by Ricimer) destroyed the hopes of those Pagans who believed that the traditional rites would now be restored.[146] Shortly thereafter, in 476, the last emperor of Rome was deposed by Odoacer, who became the first barbarian king of Italy. In spite of this disaster, the Pagans made one last attempt to revive the Pagan rites. In 484, the Magister Militum per Orientum, Illus, revolted against Zeno and raised his own candidate, Leontius, to the throne. Leontius hoped to reopen the temples and restore the ancient ceremonies and because of this many Pagans joined in his revolt against Zeno.[147] Illus and Leontius were compelled, however, to flee to a remote Isaurian fortress, where Zeno besieged them for four years. Zeno finally captured them in 488 and promptly had them executed.[148]
As a result of the revolt, Zeno instituted a harsh persecution of Pagan intellectuals. With the failure of the revolt of Leontius, some Pagans became disillusioned and many simply became Christian, or simply pretended to, in order to avoid persecution.[149] The failure of their efforts to restore the traditional rites led many Pagans to completely lose confidence in Rome's future. These men believed that the Roman Empire was now gone and irretrievable. The subjugation of the Roman Empire to Christianity became complete when the emperor Anastasius, who came to the throne in 491, was forced to sign a written declaration of orthodoxy before his coronation.
The caverns, grottoes, crags and glens that once were used for the worship of the Gods were now appropriated by Christianity: "Let altars be built and relics be placed there" wrote St. Gregory the Great, "so that [the pagans] have to change from the worship of the daemones to that of the true God".[150][9]
"The triumph of Catholic Christianity over Roman paganism, heretical Arianism [and] pagan barbarism", asserts Hillgarth[151] "was certainly due in large part to the support it received, first from the declining Roman state and later from the barbarian monarchies".[152]
On the seventh of December 1965 The Catholic Church as part of the Vatican II council issued the decree "Dignitatis Humanae" that dealt with the rights of the person and communities to social and civil liberty in religious matters. It states: "2. The Vatican Council declares that the human person has a right to religious freedom. Freedom of this kind means that all men should be immune from coercion on the part of individuals, social groups and every human power so that, within due limits, nobody is forced to act against his convictions in religious matters in private or public, alone or in associations with others. The Vatican Council further declares that the right of religious freedom is based on the very word of God and by reason itself. This right of the human person to religious freedom must be given such recognition in the constitutional order of society as will make it a civic right...but if it [the civil authority] presumes to control or restrict religious activity it must be said to have exceeded the limits of its power...Therefore, provided the just requirements of public order are not violated, these groups [i.e religious communities] have a right to immunity so that they may organize their own lives according to their religious principles...From this it follows that it is wrong for a public authority to compel its citizens by force or fear or any other means to profess or repudiate any religion or to prevent anyone from joining or leaving a religious body. There is even more serious transgression of God's will and of the sacred rights of the individual person and the family of nations when force is applied to wipe out or repress religion either throught the whole world or in a single region or in a particular community".[153]
See also
References
- ^ "Theodosius I", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1912.[1]
- ^ Gibbons refers to the structure, organization, ceremonies and rites that formed an essential part of the old religion. He acknowledges that the faith of individual pagans carried on until they were, in his opinion, absorbed into the Catholic Church. He writes: "only twenty-eight years after the death of Theodosius the faint and minute vestiges were no longer visible to the eye of the legislator" and quotes the decree (16.10.22):'The pagans who remain, although we believe there are none, etc' but adds, in characteristic style, 'that the younger Theodosius was afterwards satisfied that his judgement had been somewhat premature': "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon, Chapter 28 and footnote 67
- ^ Edward Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 28.
- ^ "Though he was unsympathetic to Christianity, his sense of fairness and probity made him respectful of honest opinion and true devotion, even among those with whom he disagreed. These qualities, expressed with his command of historical perspective and his incomparable literary style, justify a modern historian's dictum that "whatever else is read Gibbon must be read too," or the conclusion of the great Cambridge historian J.B. Bury: That Gibbon is behind date in many details and in some departments of importance, simply signifies that we and our fathers have not lived in an absolutely incompetent world. But in the main things he is still our master above and beyond "date." ", Encyclopedia Britannica, DVD edition 2003.
- ^ "The classic study of the end of the ancient world remains Edward Gibbons Decline and fall of the Roman Empire",The Oxford History of the Classical World", 1986 Edition.
- ^ "Religious freedom-- Vatican II modernizes church-state ties", Agostino Bono, Catholic News Service, 12 Oct 2005, retrieved 13 May 2007.[2]
- ^ "Persecution", James Bridge, Catholic Enyclopedia, 1911 Edition, retrieved 13 May 2007.[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11703a.htm
- ^ Richard Neuhaus, Interview -- Vatican II, 40 Years Later: "Dignitatis Humanae", Zenit, 2003-11-20, retrieved 27 July 2007.[3]
- ^ a b c d e The modern Church takes a much less antagonistic stance to non-Abrahamic faiths. see Dignitatis Humanae and Nostra Aetate
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p "A History of the Church", Philip Hughes, Sheed & Ward, rev ed 1949, vol I chapter 6.[4]
- ^ "The Greek Septuagint translated into English", psalm 95:5, translated by Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton, 1851. Jerome would follow the Greek text rather than the Hebrew when he translated the Latin Vulgate edition of the bible. The "devils" epithet would still appear in bibles up until the end of the 20th century when the consensus reverted back to the original Hebrew text for modern translations
- ^ A modern Christian writes that the Gods of the pagans are "in fact fallen angels (otherwise known as devils)..And that is what the pagans, then as now, serve as "gods" ", Roy H. Schoeman, "Salvation is from the Jews", Ignatius Press, 2003, ISBN 0-89870-975-x
- ^ "Devil Worship", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908 Edition. [5]
- ^ "Julian the Apostate and His Plan to Rebuild the Jerusalem Temple", Jeffrey Brodd, Biblical Archaeology Society, Bible Review, Oct 1995.
- ^ "The Memorial of Symmachus".[6]
- ^ "Letter of Ambrose to the Emperor Valentinian", The Letters of Ambrose Bishop of Milan, 384AD, retrieved 5th May 2007.[7]
- ^ "Constantine The Great", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908, [8]
- ^ "The Codex Theodosianus On Religion", XVI.v.1, 4 CE.[9]
- ^ "Edict of Milan", 313CE.[10]
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n R. MacMullen, "Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D.100-400, Yale University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-300-03642-6
- ^ The Spanish bishops in A.D. 305 decreed that anyone who breaks idols and gets killed at it does not formally count as a martyr as the provocation is too blatant: R. MacMullen, "Christianizing the Roman Empire", 1986, Yale University Press.
- ^ Zosimus 2.29.1-2.29.4, Theodosian Code 16.10.1. Laws against the private practice of divination had been enacted ever since the time of the emperor Tiberius. The fear of a rival had led many emperors to be severe against those who attempted to divine their successor.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.1
- ^ Theodosian Code 9.16.1-9.16.3.
- ^ Theodosian Code 12.1.21, 12.5.2
- ^ J. Kirsch, "God Against the Gods", Viking Compass, 2004.
- ^ C. G. Herbermann & Georg Grupp, "Constantine the Great", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1911, New Advent web site.
- ^ "he razed to their foundations those of them which had been the chief objects of superstitious reverence" http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.txt
- ^ C. G. Herbermann & Georg Grupp, "Constantine the Great", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1911, New Advent web site.
- ^ C. G. Herbermann & Georg Grupp, "Constantine the Great", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1911, New Advent web site.
- ^ "Libanius Oration" 30.7, For the Temples, [11]
- ^ J. Kirsch, "God against the Gods", p200, Viking Compass, 2004.
- ^ "The Codex Theodosianus On Religion", XVI.x.4, 4 CE.[12]
- ^ "Flavius Julius Constantius", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1914,[13]
- ^ Ammianus (Res Gestae 9.10, 19.12) describes Pagan sacrifices and worship taking place openly in Alexandria and Rome. The Roman Calendar of 354 cites many Pagan festivals as though they were still being openly observed. See also the descriptions of Pagan worship in the following works: Firmicius Maternus De Errore Profanorum Religionum; Vetus Orbis Descriptio Graeci Scriptoris sub Constantio.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.3
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.4
- ^ Theodosian Code 9.17.2
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.5
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.6
- ^ Symmachus Epistle 10
- ^ Theodosian Code 12.1.46
- ^ Sheridan, J.J., "The Altar of Victor – Paganism's Last Battle." L'Antiquite Classique 35 (1966): 186-187.
- ^ Theodosian Code 9.16.4, 9.16.5, 9.16.6
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae 22.4.3; Sozomen Ecclesiastical History 3.18.
- ^ D. Bowder, "The Age of Constantine and Julian",1978
- ^ J. Kirsch, "God Against the Gods", p201, Viking Compass, 2004
- ^ C. G. Herbermann & Georg Grupp, "Constantine the Great", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1911, New Advent web site.
- ^ "FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS", Karl Hoeber, Catholic Encyclopedia 1910, retrieved 13 May 2007.[14]
- ^ "Julian the Apostate and His Plan to Rebuild the Jerusalem Temple", Jeffrey Brodd, Biblical Archaeology Society, Bible Review, Oct 1995.
- ^ "FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS", Karl Hoeber, Catholic Encyclopedia 1910, retrieved 13 May 2007.[15]
- ^ Ammianus Res Gestae 22.12
- ^ Sozomen Ecclesiastical History 5.5 [16]
- ^ Ammianus Res Gestae 25.4.20[17]
- ^ Sozomen Ecclesiastical History 5.5[18]
- ^ Ammianus Res Gestae 25.4
- ^ R. Kirsch, "God against the Gods", Viking Compass, 2004.
- ^ Themistius Oration 5; Photius Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius 8.5
- ^ Ammianus Res Gestae 20.9; Themistius Oration 12.
- ^ Grindle, Gilbert. The Destruction of Paganism in the Roman Empire. (1892): 17-18.
- ^ Theodosian Code 9.16.9
- ^ Zosimus 4.3
- ^ Theodosian Code 17.1.60, 17.1.75, 16.1.1
- ^ Theodosian Code 9.16.7, 9.16.8, 9.16.10, 9.38.3, 9.38.4
- ^ Theodosian Code 9.16.9
- ^ "Gratian", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909.[19]
- ^ "Letter of Gratian to Ambrose", The Letters of Ambrose Bishop of Milan, 379AD.[20]
- ^ Theodosian Code 2.8.18-2.8.25, 16.7.1-16.7.5
- ^ Zosimus (4.35) indicated that change occurred in Gratian's character when he fell under the influence of evil courtiers.
- ^ Samuel Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire", 2d rev ed. , Meridian New York, 1958, p26.
- ^ R. Kirsch, "God Against the Gods", Viking Compass, 2004.
- ^ Ambrose Epistles 17-18; Symmachus Relationes 1-3.
- ^ Sheridan, J.J., "The Altar of Victor – Paganism's Last Battle." L'Antiquite Classique 35 (1966): 187.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.20; Symmachus Relationes 1-3; Ambrose Epistles 17-18.
- ^ For example, in the year 384 Quintus Aurelius Symmachus was Urban Prefect and Vettius Agorius Praetextatus held the post of Praefectus Praetorio Italiae Illyrici et Africae Iterum. These men were distinguished Pagans.
- ^ Theodosian Code 12.1.112
- ^ Theodosian Code 12.1.112. Theodosius dealt harshly with Arians, heretics and Christian apostates. A number of harsh laws were directed against apostates, indicated that many Christians may have been converting back to Paganism at this time, q.v. Theodosian Code 16.7.1, 1.7.2, 16.7.2, 16.7.3, 16.7.4, 16.7.5). Theodosius also legislated against private divination, q.v. Theodosian Code 16.10.7, 16.10.9, 9.16.11, 9.38.7, 9.38.8; Constitutiones Sirmondianae 8.
- ^ Zosimus 4.45
- ^ Ambrose was opposed to this reconstruction and paints a picture of all the dire consequences that he felt would result from this edict, q.v. Ambrose Epistles 40, 41.27.
- ^ Ambrose Epistles 17, 18, 57.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.10
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.11
- ^ "Valentian II", Encyclopedia Britannica, Ultimate DVD edition, 2003.
- ^ "St. Ambrose of Milan, Letters (1881). pp. 324-354. Letters 51-60., Letter 57: To the emperor Eugenius, retrieved 5th May 2007.[21]
- ^ For example, Theodosius ordered Cynegius (Zosimus 4.37), the praetorian prefect of the East, to permanently close down the temples and forbade the worship of the deities throughout Egypt and the East. Most of the destruction was perpetrated by Christian monks and bishops, q.v. Grindle, Gilbert. The Destruction of Paganism in the Roman Empire. (1892): 29-30.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.12
- ^ Studies in Comparative Religion", "The Conversion of the Roman Empire, Philip Hughes, Vol 3, CTS.
- ^ Zosimus 4.53-4.55, 4.58.
- ^ Zosimus 4.59
- ^ Symmachus Relatio 3.
- ^ Studies in Comparative Religion, "The Conversion of the Roman Empire, Philip Hughes, Vol 3, CTS.
- ^ http://www.users.csbsju.edu/~eknuth/npnf2-11/sulpitiu/lifeofst.html#14
- ^ Edward Gibbon, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", ch28
- ^ "Theophilus", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1912, New Advent Web Site.
- ^ Studies in Comparative Religion, "The Conversion of the Roman Empire, Philip Hughes, Vol 3, CTS.
- ^ Gibbons quotes the decree (16.10.22):'The pagans who remain, although we believe there are none, etc' and adds (note 67), in characteristic style, 'that the younger Theodosius was afterwards satisfied that his judgement had been somewhat premature': "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon, Chapter 28
- ^ It has been suggested that it was the daughter library situated in the Temple of Serapis that was destroyed in these riots whilst the main library was destroyed during the civil war that occurred under the Roman emperor Aurelian in the late 3rd century AD: "The Library of Alexandria", Encyclopedia Britannica, DVD edition 2003
- ^ a b c "Hypatia", Encyclopedia Britannica, DVD edition, 2003.
- ^ a b c d e "St. Cyril of Alexandria", J. Chapman, Catholic Enyclopedia, 1908.
- ^ Edward Gibbon writes:On a fatal day, in the holy season of Lent, Hypatia was torn from her chariot, stripped naked, dragged to the church, and inhumanly butchered by the hands of Peter the Reader and a troop of savage and merciless fanatics; her flesh was scrapped from her bones with sharp oyster shells, and her quivering limbs were delivered to the flames. The just progress of inquiry and punishment was stopped by seasonable gifts; but the murder of Hypatia has imprinted an indelible strain on the character and religion of Cyril of Alexandria.": "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Ch28.
- ^ Eunapius reflects some of the Pagan attitudes of this period in his writings.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.5.41, 16.5.42, 16.5.51, 16,10.15, 16.10.17, 16.10.19
- ^ Edward Gibbon, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", ch28.
- ^ Theodosian Code 2.8.22
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.13
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.14
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.16, 15.1.36
- ^ Theodosian Code 15.6.1, 15.6.2
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.15
- ^ Edward Gibbon, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", ch28.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.17
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.18
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.19
- ^ Edward Gibbon, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", ch28, note 54.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.5.43; Constitutiones Sirmondianae 12.
- ^ It was Theodosius II who commissioned the Theodosian Code, a compilation of the laws from 312 onwards, which is used extensively by scholars researching this period
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.5.42
- ^ Zosimus 5.46; Theodosian Code 16.5.42.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.5.46
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.5.51
- ^ Marcus Dodds, Preface to "The City of God", WM. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1890.
- ^ Tatian would declare:"And my soul being taught by God, I have learned that [Greek] writings lead to our being judged and condemned", R. MacMullen, "Christianizing the Roman empire AD100 - AD400", Yale University Press, 1986
- ^ Ramsay MacMullen, "Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries", Viking and Compass, 1997.
- ^ That amount of Christian texts that have survived, which attack Pagan accusations that the sack of Rome had been caused by the neglect of the traditional rites, may be indicative of a significant body of Pagan literature on this subject that did not survive.
- ^ "R. Kirsch, "God Against the Gods", p279, Viking and Compass, 1997.
- ^ Augustine of Hippo, "The City of God", Book 5, chapter 26.
- ^ Through all this the Eastern Roman Empire, to a large extent, had successfully escaped damage from barbarians by buying them off and luring them to the West.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.20
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.21
- ^ Edward Gibbon, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch 28, note 67.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.22, 16.10.23, 16.8.26.
- ^ A law in the Theodosian Code (16.2.47) refers to a tyrant who issued edicts in opposition to the church. This tyrant (i.e. usurper) is most likely to be identified with John the Primicerius.
- ^ This law (Theodosian Code 16.10.24) is interesting because it officially recognizes the fact that there were many people who only pretended to be Christian.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.5.63
- ^ Constitutiones Sirmondianae 6
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.7.1, 16.7.2, 16.7.3, 16.7.4, 16.7.5, 16.7.6; Justinian Code 1.7.2.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.7.7
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.25. Theodosius II married Eudocia, the daughter of a Pagan sophist named Leontius, who herself patronized various Pagans including Cyrus of Panopolis and the poet Nonnus.
- ^ Corpus Legum Novellarum Theodosii 2.3
- ^ Corpus Legum Novellarum Theodosii 2.3
- ^ Justinian Code 1.11.7
- ^ Justinian Code 1.11.8
- ^ These laws (Justinian Code 1.11.9, 1.11.10) do not give any date nor do they mention the emperors who promulgated them.
- ^ Sidonius Epistle 1.11.6
- ^ Photius Bibliotheca cod. 242
- ^ Marcellinus Chronicle s.a. 468
- ^ Photius Bibliotheca cod. 242
- ^ Theophanes Chronographia s.a. A.M. 5976-5980; John Malalas Chronicle 15.12-15.14.
- ^ There continued to be a sufficient number of Pagans during the reign of Justinian for a law to be published, in 527 (Justinian Code 1.5.12), which barred Pagans from office and confiscated their property.
- ^ R. MacMullen, "Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries", Yale University Press, 1997.
- ^ J.N Hillgarth,ed "Christianity and Paganism 350-750,:The Conversion of Western Europe", rev ed, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986.
- ^ R. Kirsch, "God Against the Gods", p278, Viking Compass, 1997.
- ^ Austin Flannery (General Editor), Vatican Council II - The Conciliar and Post Concilliar Documents, 1981 Edition
Bibliography
- Ramsay MacMullen, Christianizing the Roman Empire: AD 100-400 (1989)
- ——, Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries (1997) ISBN 0-3000-8077-8
External links
- James Hannam: Early Christians and the fate of Pagan Literature