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The constitution of [[Francisco Franco]]'s Spain enshrined the principles of Patriarchy, for example in stating that in a [[referendum]] the vote should be given only to "family heads", and that their opinion in the matter under consideration should be considered as representing the entire family. This was abolished upon the restoration of Spanish democracy in 1975. |
The constitution of [[Francisco Franco]]'s Spain enshrined the principles of Patriarchy, for example in stating that in a [[referendum]] the vote should be given only to "family heads", and that their opinion in the matter under consideration should be considered as representing the entire family. This was abolished upon the restoration of Spanish democracy in 1975. |
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==Feminist criticism== |
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[[Image:Beauvoir.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Simone de Beauvoir]] |
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[[Image:JohnStuartMill.jpg|thumb|150px|right|John Stuart Mill]] |
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{{Main|Patriarchy in feminism}} |
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{{POV|date=December 2008}} |
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The 20th century [[women's rights]] movement criticized the social domination of males in modern [[western world|Western society]] as unjust. [[Women's suffrage]] was introduced in all Western democracies by the end of the 20th century (see [[Timeline of women's suffrage]]) and [[List of the first female holders of political offices|female holders of political office]] and [[List of elected or appointed female heads of government|heads of state]] became more common as a consequence.{{Fact|date=December 2008}} The Women's Rights movement is also known as [[First-wave feminism]]. |
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[[Second-wave feminism]] in the 1960s to 1970s turned to [[feminist theory|theoretical]] criticism of patriarchy, and [[feminist history]] and [[feminist archaeology]] constructed the hypothesis of the patriarchy as a secondary imposition on an originally [[gynecocentric]] or [[matriarchal]] ''[[Urgesellschaft]]''. |
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[[Tribal society|Tribal societies]] are not universally patriarchal,{{Fact|date=December 2008}} and a number of indigenous [[matrilineal]] societies with egalitarian structures are on record.{{Fact|date=December 2008}} This has led to [[feminist]] criticism of patriarchy as the result of the hierarchical structure of urban civilization,{{Fact|date=December 2008}} in the [[feminist spirituality movement]] combined with calls to a return to a non-hierarchic model based on [[band society|paleolithic proto-society]].{{Fact|date=December 2008}} |
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In some [[feminist theory|feminist theories]], the opposite of feminism is patriarchy. It is not surprising, therefore, that the word ''patriarchy'' has a range of additional, negative associations when used in the context of feminist theory, where it is sometimes capitalized and used with the definite article (''the Patriarchy''), likely best understood as a form of collective [[personification]] (compare "blame it on the Government" to "blame it on the Patriarchy"). The use of the word ''patriarchy'' in [[list of feminist literature|feminist literature]] has become so loaded with emotive associations that some writers prefer to use an approximate [[synonym]],{{Fact|date=January 2009}} the more objective and technical [[androcentrism|''androcentric'']] (also from Greek – ''anēr'', genitive ''andros'', meaning man). |
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Fredrika Scarth, a feminist, reads Simone de Beauvoir's ''The Second Sex'' to be saying, "Neither men nor women live their bodies authentically under patriarchy."<ref>Fredrika Scarth, ''The Other Within: Ethics, Politics and the Body in Simone de Beauvoir'', (Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004), p. 100.</ref> [[Mary Daly]], a radical feminist, wrote, "Males and males only are the originators, planners, controllers, and legitimators of patriarchy."<ref>Mary Daly, ''Gyn/Ecology The Metaethics of Radical Feminism'', (Boston: Beacon Press, 1978), p. 29.</ref> Carole Pateman, another feminist, writes, "The patriarchal construction of the difference between masculinity and femininity is the political difference between freedom and subjection."<ref>Carole Pateman, ''The Sexual Contract'', (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), p. 207.</ref> |
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[[Liberal feminism|Liberal]], or mainstream, feminists do not propose to replace patriarchy with matriarchy, rather they argue for [[egalitarianism|equality]]. Some [[radical feminism|radical feminists]] and [[separatist feminism|separatist feminists]] have argued for [[gendercide]] against men, [[matriarchy]], or [[Separatist feminism|separation]].<ref>http://www.wie.org/j16/daly.asp?page=2</ref> However, [[Ronald Dworkin]] has argued that equality is a difficult idea.<ref>"People who praise it or disparage it disagree about what they are praising or disparaging.", Ronald Dworkin, ''Sovereign Virtue: The Theory and Practice of Equality'', (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), p. 2.</ref> It is particularly hard to work out what equality means when it comes to gender, because there are real differences between men and women (see [[Sexual dimorphism]] and [[Gender differences]]). Recent feminist writers speak of "feminisms of diversity", that seek to reconcile older debates between [[equality feminism]]s and [[difference feminism]]s. For instance, Judith Squires writes, "The whole conceptual force of 'equality' rests on the assumption of differences, which should in some respect be valued equally."<ref>Judith Squires, ''Gender in Political Theory'', (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999), p. 97.</ref> |
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For a leading feminist who writes against patriarchy see [[Marilyn French]]; and for one who is more sympathetic{{Fact|date=August 2008}} see [[Christina Hoff Sommers]]. |
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[[Image:Income inequity US.png||thumb|300px|right|Average Income USA (2005 Census Data)]] |
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In summary, some recent feminist writers have shown a tendency to admit [[misandry]] among some other members of the movement<ref name=Hoff_Sommers> Hoff Sommers, Christina, Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women (Touchstone/Simon & Schuster, 1995)</ref>, and acknowledge real differences in men and women that make diversity a more meaningful aim than [[reductionism|reductionistic]] equality (for example Judith Squires above). |
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Decades of [[legislation]] and [[affirmative action]] have not yet changed the fact that [[western world|western culture]] is male dominated in terms of male acquisition of territory and resources{{Fact|date=August 2008}}, and that it remains patriarchal{{Fact|date=August 2008}}, although women can vote in most countries of the world, and they outnumber men in [[higher education]] in many countries.<ref>"In terms of academic achievement, international education figures from 43 developed countries, published by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 2003, showed a consistent picture of women achieving better results than men at every level, particularly in literacy assessments.", [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1529-8817.2004.00098.x Ian W Craig, Emma Harper and Caroline S Loat, 'The Genetic Basis for Sex Differences in Human Behaviour: Role of the Sex Chromosomes', ''Annals of Human Genetics'' 68 (2004): 269–284.]</ref> |
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However, [[head of state|heads of state]], [[minister (government)|cabinet ministers]], and the top [[corporate title|executives]] of major [[company (law)|companies]] are still mostly men (see [[glass ceiling]]). Also, women's average [[income]] is still significantly [[Male-female income disparity in the United States|lower than men's average income]]. However, some economists argue that this is primarily due to education and career choices that women and men make, rather than the patriarchy.<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/02/AR2007040201262.html</ref> Sally Haslanger claims women are still marginalized within academic [[philosophy]] departments.<ref>Sally Haslanger, [http://www.mit.edu/~shaslang/papers/HaslangerCICP.pdf Article Title].</ref> |
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==Matriarchal and egalitarian societies== |
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{{Main|Matriarchy}} |
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During the 19th century, scholars such as [[Johann Jakob Bachofen]] advanced the idea that matriarchy represented an early stage in the development of human society.<ref name="Bamberger">Bamberger, Joan. "The Myth of Matriarchy: Why Men Rule in Primitive Society". ''Woman, Culture, and Society''. Stanford University Press, 1974.</ref> According to Bachofen, humans originally lived in a state of sexual promiscuity, where descent was traced exclusively through maternal lineage. This gave women a position of honor and power which was lost when human societies transitioned to [[monogamy]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Das Mutterrecht: Eine Untersuchung über die Gynaikokratie der alten Welt nach ihrer religiösen und rechtlichen Natur|first=Johann Jakob|last=Bachofen|year=1861|language=German}}</ref> This view, however, is now largely discredited, and both anthropologists and sociologists generally agree that human society throughout history has been patriarchal.<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="Bamberger"/> Nevertheless, there is considerable variation in the role that gender plays in human societies. Although there are no known examples of strictly matriarchal cultures,<ref name="Britannica"/><ref>{{cite book|title=[[The Inevitability of Patriarchy]]|first=Steven|last=Goldberg|publisher=William Morrow & Company|year=1973}}</ref> there are [[List of matrilineal or matrilocal societies|a number of societies]] that have been shown to be [[matrilinear]] or [[matrilocal]] and gynocentric, especially among indigenous tribal groups.<ref>{{cite book|title=Male dominance and female autonomy: domestic authority in matrilineal societies|first=Alice|last=Schlegel|year=1972|publisher=HRAF Press}}</ref> In addition, some [[hunter-gatherer]] groups have been characterized as largely [[egalitarianism|egalitarian]]<ref name="erdal">Erdal, D. & Whiten, A. (1996) "Egalitarianism and Machiavellian Intelligence in Human Evolution" in Mellars, P. & Gibson, K. (eds) Modelling the Early Human Mind. Cambridge Macdonald Monograph Series.</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{Wiktionary|patriarchy}} |
{{Wiktionary|patriarchy}} |
Revision as of 03:29, 5 June 2009
Patriarchy is the structuring of society on the basis of family units, where the father has the primary responsibility, and hence authority (decision making powers) over the rest of his family members. Patriarchy refers to not just the costs that fathers bear on behalf of their families and at home, but also in society at large: at the workplace, at home, and in human relationships at large. The concept of patriarchy is often used by extension (in anthropology and feminism) to refer to the expectation that men take primary responsibility for the welfare of the community as a whole, acting as representatives via public office, with various forms of authority.
Western civilization, like all societies in history, is patriarchal, but has recently attempted to legislate for egalitarianism due to sympathy for the Women's rights' movement.
The feminine form of patriarchy would be matriarchy, where the responsibility that men endure under patriarchy, is instead reversed and suffered by women. However, there are no known examples of matriarchal societies.[1]
The usage of the word patriarchy in the sense of a male-oriented social organization started in the English language in the 16th century, from the post-classical Latin patriarchia "office of a patriarch". It is a loanword from Byzantine Greek πατριαρχια "office of a patriarch", in use since the 6th or 7th century for the Christian office, but attested in the 4th century for the headship of a Jewish community, from the Hellenistic Greek term for such a community leader, πατριαρχης.[2]
The term patriarch, from post-classical Latin patriarcha "chief or head of a family or tribe", Anglo-Norman patriarche was the title of the bishop of any chief sees of the Roman Empire. The Biblical Patriarchs are the heads of the Israelite tribe before Moses. In late medieval use, it could more generically refer to any venerable old man.
The English term is first used in the sense of the societal organization rather than the Church office in the 17th century, by Francis Bacon.[3]
The adjective for patriarchy is patriarchal; and patriarchalism, or more commonly paternalism, refer to the practice or defence of patriarchy.
Patrimonalism describes the view of a state as the extended household of a mon-arch (sole ruler, archē as above) or deity. There are records of patrimonalism almost as far back as the earliest writing itself (about 5000 years ago). This is probably because patrimonalism directly facilitated the invention of writing — the first hereditary monarchs gained so much wealth as to need to keep accounts, and enough to pay those accountants. The earliest records of patrimonalism come from Ancient Near Eastern legal documents, the best known being the Code of Hammurabi and the Torah. Some aspects of patrimonalism can still be found in the few remaining monarchies in the world today, for example, British law concerning real estate (see Crown lands), especially in Australia. For more detail regarding patrimonalism see Traditional authority.
Some social customs reflect what is termed patrilineality or patrilocality.
Patrilineal describes the custom of tracing descent from paternal lineage. Typically, it also describes the custom of passing family responsibilities and assets from father to son. By contrast, cultures which trace their lineage maternally are called matrilineal.
Patrilocal describes the custom of brides relocating to the geographic community of the husband and his father's family. In a matrilocal society, a husband will relocate to the home community of his wife and her mother (see also marriage). Matrilocality can substantially increase the social influence of women in a culture, however, given that tribal and family leaders are still men in all known matrilocal societies[citation needed], matrilocality is not equivalent to matriarchy.
By contrast with these other customs, patriarchy can be seen to be distinctly about gender and the nuclear family, gender and public office, and about female-male relationships in general.
Sociology
Most sociologists reject predominantly biological explanations of patriarchy and contend that social and cultural conditioning is primarily responsible for establishing male and female gender roles.[4][5] According to standard sociological theory, patriarchy is the result of sociological constructions that are passed down from generation to generation.[4] These constructions are most pronounced in societies with traditional cultures and less economic development.[6] Even in modern developed societies, however, gender messages conveyed by family, mass media, and other institutions largely favor males having a dominant status.[5]
Benefits of patriarchy
Patriarchy is advanced as being beneficial for human evolution and social organisation on many grounds, crossing several disciplines. Although biology may explain its existence (see below), arguments for its social utility have been made since ancient times. These include elements of Greek Stoic Philosophy and the Roman social structure based on the pater familias,[7] but are also found in Akkadian records of Babylonian and Assyrian laws. George Lakoff proposes an ancient dichotomy of "Strict Father" as opposed to "Nurturing Parent" models of ethical theory (SFM and NPM).[8] In general, the main lines of argument are either pragmatic—namely, the reproductive advantages of male-as-provider—[9] or ethical—that any perceived male authority is contingent upon underlying perceptions of duty of care.
The constitution of Francisco Franco's Spain enshrined the principles of Patriarchy, for example in stating that in a referendum the vote should be given only to "family heads", and that their opinion in the matter under consideration should be considered as representing the entire family. This was abolished upon the restoration of Spanish democracy in 1975.
See also
- Anti-feminism
- Chinese patriarchy
- Domitius
- Gender role
- Homemaker
- Masculinity
- Nature versus nurture
- Patriarch magazines
- Patriarchs (Bible)
- Sociology of fatherhood
Notes and references
- ^ "Matriarchy". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007.
The view of matriarchy as constituting a stage of cultural development is now generally discredited. Furthermore, the consensus among modern anthropologists and sociologists is that a strictly matriarchal society never existed.
- ^ OED s.v. "patriarchy".
- ^ "The first [state] is Paternity or Patriarchy, which was when a family growing so great as it could not containe it selfe within one habitation, some branches of the descendents were forced to plant themselves into new families." Concerning the Post-Nati of Scotland (1626), in Three Speeches (1641) (cited after OED).
- ^ a b Sanderson, Stephen K. (2001). The Evolution of Human Sociality. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 198.
- ^ a b Henslin, James M. (2001). Essentials of Sociology. Taylor & Francis. pp. 65–67, 240.
- ^ Macionis, John J. (2000). Sociology: A Global Introduction. Prentice Hall. p. 347.
- ^ "Research into the nature of marriage in the Greco-Roman world ... shows ... [that] in Stoic traditions marriage promoted the full responsibility of a husband as a householder, father, and citizen and stability in society." Anthony C. Thiselton, First Corinthians: A Shorter Exegetical and Pastoral Commentary, (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2006), p. 102.
- ^ George Lakoff, Moral Politics, (Univ of Chicago Press, 1996) and Philosophy in the Flesh, (UCP, 1999).
- ^ Phillip Longman, 'The Return of Patriarchy', Foreign Policy, 2006.
Bibliography
- Adeline, Helen B. Fascinating Womanhood. New York: Random House, 2007.
- Baron-Cohen, Simon. The Essential Difference: The Truth about the Male and Female Brain. New York: Perseus Books Group, 2003.
- Beauvoir, Simone de. Le Deuxième Sexe. Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 1949. (original French edition)
- Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. London: Jonathan Cape, 1953. (first UK edition, in translation)
- Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1953. (first USA edition, in translation)
- Bornemann, Ernest. Das Patriarchat - Ursprung und Zukunft unseres Gesellschaftssystems, Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1991 (Original German edition 1975), ISBN 3-596-23416-6
- Bourdieu, Pierre. Masculine Domination. Translated by Richard Nice. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001.
- Brizendine, Louann. The Female Brain. New York: Morgan Road Books, 2006.
- Brown, Donald E. Human Universals. New York: McGraw Hill, 1991.
- Eisler, Riane. ' 'The Chalice and the Blade' '. Harper Collins, 1987. "The most important book since Darwin's ' 'Origin of Species' '--Ashley Montagu
- Jay, Jennifer W. 'Imagining Matriarchy: "Kingdoms of Women" in Tang China'. Journal of the American Oriental Society 116 (1996): 220-229.
- Konner, Melvin. The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit. 2nd edition, revised and updated. (Owl Books, 2003). 560p. ISBN 0805072799 [first published 1982, Endnotes
- Lepowsky, Maria. Fruit of the Motherland: Gender in an Egalitarian Society. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
- Mead, Margaret. 'Do We Undervalue Full-Time Wives'. Redbook 122 (1963).
- Mies, Maria. Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour. Palgrave MacMillan, 1999.
- Moir, Anne and David Jessel. Brain Sex: The Real Difference Between Men and Women.
- Ortner, Sherry Beth. 'Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?'. In MZ Rosaldo and L Lamphere (eds). Woman, Culture and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974, pp. 67-87.
- Ortner, Sherry Beth. 'So, Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?'. In S Ortner. Making Gender: The Politics and Erotics of Culture. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996, pp. 173-180.
- Pilcher, Jane and Imelda Wheelan. 50 Key Concepts in Gender Studies. London: Sage Publications, 2004.
- Pinker, Steven. The Blank Slate: A Modern Denial of Human Nature. London: Penguin Books, 2002.
External links
- 'Matriarchy'. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2007.
- 'Cattle ownership makes it a man's world'. New Scientist (2003).
- Mary Wollstonecraft. A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Boston: Peter Edes for Thomas and Andrews, 1792.
- Simone de Beauvoir. The Second Sex. Translated by HM Parshley. London: Penguin, 1972.
- 'Equality'. In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University, 2001.
- Times Literary Supplement review (by Mark Ridley) of The Inevitability of Patriarchy and reply by the author (Steven Goldberg).
- Phyllis M Kaberry. A Study of the Economic Position of Women in Bamenda, British Cameroons. London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1952.
- Steven Webster. 'Was it Matriarchy?' New York Review of Books (1972): 37–38.
- Phillip Longman. 'The Return of Patriarchy'. Foreign Policy (2006).
- Official site of the Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood.
- Beyond Ritual: Rethinking the Role of Patriarchy in African Traditional Religions.