A Paleolithic-style diet, popularly known as a Paleolithic diet, paleo diet, caveman diet, Stone Age diet or hunter-gatherer diet, is a contemporary diet regime, consisting of commonly available modern foods. It emulates the diet of wild plants and animals that humans and their close relatives habitually consumed during the Paleolithic (the Old Stone Age), a period of about 2 million years duration that ended about 10,000 years ago when Homo sapiens invented agriculture.[1] First popularized in the mid 1970s by a gastroenterologist named Walter L. Voegtlin,[2] this dietary approach has been expounded by a number of authors and researchers in several books[3][4][5] and academic journals.[6] Building upon the principles of evolutionary medicine,[7] this nutritional concept is based on the premise that modern humans are genetically adapted to the diet of their Paleolithic ancestors and that human genetics have scarcely changed since the dawn of agriculture, and therefore that an ideal diet for human health and well-being is one that resembles this ancestral diet.[8][9] Proponents of Paleolithic-style diets differ in their dietary prescriptions, but all agree that people today should eat mainly meat, fish, vegetables, fruit, roots and nuts, and avoid grains, legumes, dairy products, salt and refined sugar.[1][4][10]
This dietary approach is a controversial topic amongst nutritionists[11][12] and anthropologists.[13][14] Advocates argue that modern human populations subsisting on traditional diets similar to those of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers are largely free of diseases of affluence,[15][16] and that such diets produce beneficial health outcomes in controlled medical studies.[17] Supporters point to several potentially therapeutic nutritional characteristics of preagricultural diets.[9] Critics of this nutritional approach have taken issue with its underlying evolutionary logic,[18][19] and have disputed certain dietary prescriptions on the grounds that they pose health risks[18][20] and may not reflect real Paleolithic diets.[19][21] It has also been argued that such diets are not a realistic alternative for everyone,[22] and that meat-based diets are not environmentally sustainable.[23]
History
Gastroenterologist Walter L. Voegtlin was one of the first to suggest that following a diet similar to that of the late Paleolithic era would improve a person's health. In 1975, he published a book[2] in which he argued that humans are carnivorous animals and that the Stone Age diet was that of a carnivore—chiefly fats and protein, with only small amounts of carbohydrates.[24][25] His dietary prescriptions were based on his own medical treatments of various digestive problems, namely colitis, crohn's disease, irritable bowel syndrome and indigestion.[26] In 1985, S. Boyd Eaton, an associate clinical professor of radiology and an adjunct associate professor of anthropology at Emory University, published a key paper on Paleolithic nutrition in the New England Journal of Medicine.[6] This was followed by a book[3] in 1988, which was based on achieving the same proportions of nutrients (fat, protein, and carbohydrates, as well as vitamins and minerals) as were present in the diets of late Paleolithic people, not on excluding foods that were not available before the development of agriculture. As such, this nutritional approach included skimmed milk, whole-grain bread, brown rice, and potatoes prepared without fat, on the premise that such foods have the same nutritional properties as Paleolithic foods.[24] Since the end of the 1990s, several advocates of Paleolithic-style diets have published books[4][5][27] and created websites[28][29][30] to promote their dietary prescriptions.[31][32][33][34][35]
Practices
Paleolithic-style diets focus on eliminating more or less all foods that advocates believe were rarely or never consumed by humans before the Neolithic revolution, such as dairy products, grains and legumes.[1] Proponents have synthesized diets from commonly available modern foods that would emulate the nutritional characteristics of Paleolithic diets, allowing for some foods said to be unavailable to preagricultural peoples, such as cultivated plants and domesticated animal meat, as well as certain processed oils and beverages.[4][5][10][28][36] Dietary prescriptions are based on historical and ethnographic studies of hunter-gatherers as well as archaeological and anthropological evidence of Paleolithic diets.[37][38][9][39]
Permitted foods
Foods which are included in the diet are ones that can be obtained by using Paleolithic tools and practices, which means any food that can be hunted or fished, such as meat, offal, insects and seafood, and that can be gathered, such as eggs, fruits, nuts, seeds, vegetables, mushrooms, herbs and spices. Most, but not all,[40] advocates allow only those root vegetables that are edible raw (but can be eaten cooked),[4] or those that have a low glycemic load, such as beets, rutabagas, carrots, celeriac and turnips.[41] Natural sugars, including honey, maple sugar and date sugar are allowed in small amounts by some.[4] Practitioners are advised to drink mainly water, but certain other beverages, such as tea, coffee, juices, diet sodas and alcoholic beverages, are permitted by some advocates under certain conditions.[4][5] Some versions of the diet permit the use of oils with a low omega-6/omega-3 ratio, such as flaxseed oil, canola oil and olive oil,[5] or oils derived from foods which can be obtained and produced through Paleolithic means and are edible in their natural, uncooked state.[4] Examples include sesame oil, olive oil, and safflower oil, but not oils derived from beans (e.g. peanut oil) or grains (e.g. corn oil).[4] Not all proponents of the diet allow the use of oils, as they are a processed food.[28]
Restricted foods
The foods falling into this category are mainly grains, legumes (including peanuts), dairy products, salt and refined sugar (including table sugar, corn syrup, fructose and molasses). Practitioners are sometimes advised to avoid root vegetables that are said to be inedible raw, such as potatoes (but can be eaten cooked),[4] or that have a high glycemic load, including cassava, potatoes, taro, parsnips, sweet potatoes and yams.[41] But such root vegetables are not excluded by all advocates.[40] Some, but not all,[28] proponents of the diet allow the use of certain oils.[4][5] The diet also excludes yeast-containing foods, including baked goods, pickled foods, vinegar, fermented foods and beverages, as well as processed meats (made with nitrites and additives), such as hot dogs, bacon, sausage, and lunch meats. Some versions of the diet exclude fatty meats[5] and cashews.[4]
Dietary intake
Loren Cordain, a professor in the Department of Health and Exercise Science at Colorado State University, recommends that practitioners derive about 56–65% of their calories from animal foods and 36–45% from plant foods. He advocates a diet high in protein (19–35% calories) and relatively low in carbohydrates (22–40% calories), with a fat intake (28–58% calories) similar to or higher than that found in Western diets.[42][43] Staffan Lindeberg, an associate professor in the Department of Medicine at the University of Lund, advocates a Paleolithic-style diet without recommending any particular proportions of plants versus meat or macronutrient ratios.[1][44][37] The diet also calls for an increased consumption of omega-3 fatty acids from animal and plant sources.[45] Furthermore, eating a wide variety of plant foods is recommended to avoid high intakes of potentially harmful bioactive substances, such as goitrogens, which are present in certain roots, vegetables, beans and seeds.[1][37][46] Because calcium intake is often too low on a Paleolithic-style diet, especially when the intake of green leafy vegetables is limited, calcium supplementation may be considered.[1]
Food sources and preparation
The foods' source is just as important as the kind of foods being consumed. It is common practice to obtain foods from as natural a source as possible. Organic food, free range meat and eggs, and grass fed beef, are preferred, as are wild game meats like quail, rabbit, and venison.[47][48] Furthermore, unlike raw food diets, Paleolithic-style diets allow for the consumption of cooked foods.[4][10][36] Cooking is widely accepted to have been practised at least 250 000 years ago, in the Middle Paleolithic.[49]
Theory
According to S. Boyd Eaton, "we are the heirs of inherited characteristics accrued over millions of years; the vast majority of our biochemistry and physiology are tuned to life conditions that existed prior to the advent of agriculture some 10,000 years ago. Genetically our bodies are virtually the same as they were at the end of the Paleolithic Era some 20,000 years ago."[50]
Paleolithic nutrition has its roots in evolutionary biology and rests on the principles of evolutionary medicine.[7][51] This dietary approach is based on the premise that natural selection had 2 million or more years to genetically adapt the metabolism and physiology of the various human species to such a diet, and that in the 10,000 years since the invention of agriculture and its consequent major change in the human diet, natural selection has had too little time to make the optimal genetic adaptations to the new diet. Physiological and metabolic maladaptations result from the suboptimal genetic adaptations to the contemporary human diet, which in turn contribute to many of the so-called diseases of civilization.[9][8][7][16]
Loren Cordain argues that "today more than 70% of our dietary calories come from foods that our Paleolithic (Stone Age) ancestors rarely, if ever, ate. The result is epidemic levels of cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, arthritis, gastrointestinal disease, acne, and more."[29] According to Staffan Lindeberg, the "Paleolithic diet", basically meat, fish, vegetables, fruit and nuts, prevents heart disease, stroke and some forms of cancers and it has a beneficial effect on overweight, digestive problems and more;[28] it may have benefits even compared with prudent diets based on whole-grain cereals and low-fat milk.[52]
Interpretation of medical research
According to S. Boyd Eaton and colleagues, judging from subsistence patterns and biomarkers of hunter-gatherers studied in the last century, modern humans seem to be well adapted to the diet of their Paleolithic ancestors.[53] The diet of modern hunter-gatherer groups is believed to be representative of patterns for humans of 50 to 25 thousand years ago,[53] and these foragers,[54][55] including the elderly,[56][57] seem to be largely free of the signs and symptoms of chronic disease (such as obesity, high blood pressure, nonobstructive coronary atherosclerosis, and insulin resistance) that universally afflict the elderly in western societies (with the exception of osteoarthritis, which afflicts both populations).[8][16][53] Moreover, when these people adopt western diets, their health declines and they begin to exhibit signs and symptoms of "diseases of civilization".[15][53] In one clinical study, stroke and ischaemic heart disease appeared to be absent in a population living on the island of Kitava, in Papua New Guinea, where a subsistence lifestyle, uninfluenced by western dietary habits, was still maintained.[56][58]
The results of controlled medical studies on Paleolithic-style diets have also been interpreted as evidence of the health benefits of such diets.[59][60][61] The first animal experiment on a "Paleolithic diet" suggested that this diet, as compared with a cereal-based diet, conferred higher insulin sensitivity, lower C-reactive protein and lower blood pressure in domestic pigs.[61] Subsequently, a short-term intervention with such a diet in healthy volunteers showed some favourable effects on cardiovascular risk factors.[62] In the first controlled human trial on a "Paleolithic diet", researchers found that the diet improved glucose tolerance more than a Mediterranean-like diet in individuals with ischaemic heart disease.[17]
Nutritional factors
The purportedly novel foods (dairy products, legumes, cereals, refined cereals, refined sugars, refined vegetable oils, fatty meats, salt, and combinations of these foods) introduced as staples during the Neolithic and Industrial Eras are believed to have fundamentally altered several key nutritional characteristics of the human diet since the Paleolithic period, and these dietary compositional changes have been implicated as risk factors in the pathogenesis of many of the so-called "diseases of civilization",[9][63][64] including obesity, cardiovascular disease,[65] diabetes, osteoporosis,[66][67] autoimmune-related diseases,[68] certain cancers,[69][70][71] and acne,[72][73][74] as well as many diseases related to vitamin and mineral deficiencies.[68][75][76]
According to Cordain et al., seven crucial nutritional characteristics of ancestral hominin diets that have been fundamentally altered by food staples and food-processing procedures introduced during the Neolithic and Industrial Periods serve to inhibit the development of diseases of affluence in modern-day hunter-gatherers:[9]
- Glycemic load: Unrefined wild plant foods like those available to contemporary hunter-gatherers typically exhibit low glycemic indices.[77] Moreover, their diets are devoid of dairy products, such as milk, yoghurt, and cottage cheese, which have low glycemic indices, but are highly insulinotropic, with an insulin index similar to that of white bread.[78][79] These dietary characteristics may lower risk of diabetes, obesity and other related syndrome X diseases by placing less stress on the pancreas to produce insulin, and preventing insulin insensitivity.[80]
- Fatty acid composition: Hunter-gatherer diets generally maintain relatively high levels of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, moderately low levels of saturated fats (10–15% of total calories[81]) as well as a low omega-6:omega-3 fatty acid ratio. Moreover, they are devoid of artificial trans fat. These nutritional factors may serve to inhibit the development of cardiovascular disease.[9]
- Macronutrient composition: Dietary protein is characteristically elevated (19–35% of energy) at the expense of carbohydrate (22–40% of energy).[42][43] High protein diets may have a cardiovascular protective effect and may represent an effective weight loss strategy for the overweight or obese.[9] Furthermore, carbohydrate restriction may help prevent obesity and type 2 diabetes,[82][83] as well as atherosclerosis.[65]
- Micronutrient density: Fruits, vegetables, lean meats, and seafood, which are staples of the hunter-gatherer diet, are more nutrient-dense than refined sugars, grains, vegetable oils, and dairy products. Consequently, the vitamin and mineral content of the diet is very high compared with a standard diet, in many cases a multiple of the RDA.[39]
- Acid-base balance: Because of the absence of cereals and energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods, foods that displace base-yielding fruits and vegetables, the diet produces a net base load on the body, as opposed to a net acid load. Net acid producing diets may contribute to the development of osteoporosis and renal stones, loss of muscle mass, and age-related renal insufficiency.[66][84]
- Sodium-potassium ratio: Since no processed foods or added salt are included the sodium intake (≈726 mg) is lower than average U.S. values (3,271 mg) or recommended values (2,400 mg). Further, since potassium rich fruits and vegetables comprise ≈30% of the daily energy, the potassium content (≈9,062 mg) is nearly 3.5 times greater than average values (2,620 mg) in the U.S. diet.[39] Diets containing high amounts of salt induce and sustain increased acidity of body fluid, which may contribute to the development of osteoporosis and renal stones, loss of muscle mass, and age-related renal insufficiency. Moreover, the inverted ratio of potassium to sodium in the U.S. diet compared with preagricultural diets adversely affects cardiovascular function and contributes to hypertension and stroke.[67][85]
- Fiber content: Contemporary diets devoid of cereal grains, dairy products, refined oils and sugars, and processed foods have been shown to contain significantly more fiber (≈42.5 g/d) than either current or recommended values.[39]
Objections to Paleolithic-style diets
Comparative life expectancy
One of the most frequent criticisms of this nutritional approach is that it is unlikely that Paleolithic hunter-gatherers suffered from the diseases of modern civilization simply because they did not live long enough to develop these illnesses, which are typically associated with old age.[16][86][87][12][88] Advocates state in response that human populations with lifestyles resembling that of our pre-agricultural ancestors have no or little diseases of affluence, despite sufficient numbers of elderly.[16][89]
Criticism of evolutionary logic
According to Alexander Ströhle, Maike Wolters and Andreas Hahn,[19] with the Department of Food Science at the University of Hannover, the statement that the human genome evolved during the Pleistocene (a period from 1,808,000 to 11,550 years ago) is resting on an inadequate, but popular gene-centered view of evolution. They argue that evolution of organisms cannot be reduced to the genetic level with reference to mutation and that there is no one to one relationship between genotype and phenotype.[90]
They further question the notion that 10,000 years since the dawn of agriculture is a period not nearly sufficient to ensure an adequate adaptation to agrarian diets.[19] Ströhle et al. argue that the number of generations that a species existed in the old environment is irrelevant, and that the response to the change of the environment of a species would depend on the hereditability of the traits, the intensity of selection and the number of generations that selection acts.[92] They state that if the diet of Neolithic agriculturalists was in discordance with their physiology, then this would have created a selection pressure for evolutionary change and modern humans, such as Europeans, whose ancestors have subsisted on agrarian diets for 400–500 generations should be somehow adequately adapted to it. In response to this argument, Wolfgang Kopp states that "we have to take into account that death from atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease (CVD) occurs later during life, as a rule after the reproduction phase. Even a high mortality from CVD after the reproduction phase will create little selection pressure. Thus, it seems that a diet can be functional (it keeps us going) and dysfunctional (it causes health problems) at the same time."[91] Moreover, S. Boyd Eaton and colleagues have indicated that "comparative genetic data provide compelling evidence against the contention that long exposure to agricultural and industrial circumstances has distanced us, genetically, from our Stone Age ancestors."[16] According to Kopp, the implementation of high-glycemic and high-insulinogenic food, like refined cereals and sugars, into human nutrition only about 200 years, or 10 generations, ago, occurred too recently on an evolutionary time scale for the human genome to adjust.[91]
According to Ströhle et al.,[19] "whatever is the fact, to think that a dietary factor is valuable (functional) to the organism only when there was ‘genetical adaptation’ and hence a new dietary factor is dysfunctional per se because there was no evolutionary adaptation to it, such a panselectionist misreading of biological evolution seems to be inspired by a naive adaptationistic view of life."[93][94]
No evidence of adaptation to Paleolithic diets
Katharine Milton, a professor of physical anthropology at the University of California, has also disputed the evolutionary logic upon which are based Paleolithic-style diets. She questions the premise that the metabolism of modern humans must be genetically adapted to the dietary conditions of the Paleolithic.[13] According to Milton,[13] "there is little evidence to suggest that human nutritional requirements or human digestive physiology were significantly affected by such diets at any point in human evolution."[95][96][97][98]
Food energy excess causes diseases of affluence
According to Geoffrey Cannon,[12] science and health policy advisor to the World Cancer Research Fund, humans are designed to work physically hard to produce food for subsistence and to survive periods of acute food shortage, and are not adapted to a diet rich in energy-dense foods.[99] These are, in his view, the crucial evolutionary principles that underly the diseases of affluence. Similarly, William R. Leonard, a professor of anthropology at Northwestern University, states that the health problems facing industrial societies stem not from deviations from a specific ancestral diet but from an imbalance between calories consumed and calories burned, a state of energy excess uncharacteristic of ancestral lifestyles.[100]
Objections to low-carbohydrate and high-protein versions
The high protein and low-carbohydrate diet[101] recommended by Loren Cordain and colleagues based on worldwide modern hunter-gatherer diets[42][102][38] has attracted a number of criticisms,[103] including the following:
No superior therapeutic merits
It has been argued that relative freedom from degenerative diseases was, and still is, characteristic of all hunter-gatherer societies irrespective of the macronutrient characteristics of their diets.[18][104][105] Katharine Milton states that "hunter-gatherer societies, both recent and ancestral, displayed a wide variety of plant-animal subsistence ratios, illustrating the adaptability of human metabolism to a broad range of energy substrates. Because all hunter-gatherer societies are largely free of chronic degenerative disease, there seems little justification for advocating the therapeutic merits of one type of hunter-gatherer diet over another."[104]
Marion Nestle, a professor in the Department of Nutrition and Food Studies at New York University, states that based on research relating nutritional factors to chronic disease risks, and to observations of exceptionally low chronic disease rates among people eating vegetarian, Mediterranean and Asian diets, plant-based diets are most associated with health and longevity.[11][21]
According to Ströhle, Wolters and Hahn,[19] hunters like the Inuits, who traditionally obtain most of their dietary energy from wild animals and therefore eat a low-carbohydrate diet,[106] seem to have a high mortality from coronary heart disease,[107] and many populations of horticulturists, pastoralists and simple agriculturists living today are ingesting a high-carbohydrate diet without having signs and symptoms of CHD.[56][58][108][109][110] In response to this criticism, Wolfgang Kopp states that "carbohydrate food, consumed by hunter-gatherers, is high in fiber and low-glycemic in effect,[111][112] eliciting small amounts of insulin only. [...] Are high-carbohydrate diets atherogenic per se? Not if they have a low glycemic load. In this point, Stroehle et al. are right. However, it is the question, whether diets high in low-glycemic plant food (which is relatively high in indigestible fiber and relatively low in carbohydrate) should be labeled as “high-carbohydrate” diets."[91] Kopp also says that it is very likely that diets with only a moderately increased glycemic load are atherogenic to some degree.[113][65]
At odds with evidence of Paleolithic diets
It has also been argued that there are insufficient data to identify the relative proportions of animal and plant foods in the diets of Paleolithic humans.[115][21][13][14][94]
Furthermore, according to Katharine Milton, "data from ethnographic studies of nineteenth and twentieth century hunter-gatherers, as well as historical accounts and the archeological record, suggest that ancestral hunter-gatherers enjoyed a rich variety of different diets. Thus estimates of nutrient proportions for "the Paleolithic diet" are hypothetical, at best."[13] Echoing Milton's criticism, Ströhle et al.[19] argue that it is questionable if all hunter-gatherers living between 150,000 and 10,000 years ago in different geographical regions ate a low-carbohydrate diet.[116][117][1] They indicate that, because the plant–animal subsistence ratios of contemporary hunter-gatherers vary in a remarkable manner (0–90% food from gathering; 10–100% food from hunting and fishing),[118][119] it is likely that the macronutrient intake of preagricultural humans varied enormously.[116]
They also refer to a hypothesis (the 'Plant underground storage organs hypotheses') that suggests that carbohydrate tubers were eaten in high amounts by our preagricultural ancestors.[114][120][121][122] They add:[19] "Provided that humans are incapable of metabolizing high amounts of dietary protein and given the fact that wild African mammals are relatively low in fat, a diet supplemented with carbohydrates from tubers seems to be more efficient in meeting the energy requirements of early hunters and gatherers than a diet based on lean meat."[123][124]
Ströhle et al. further mention that Staffan Lindeberg, an advocate of a "Paleolithic diet", has accounted for a plant-based diet rich in carbohydrates as being consistent with the human evolutionary past.[1][8]
Comparative life expectancy
According to Geoffrey Cannon, "relatively carnivorous diets high in fat, and extremely high in protein evolved with physically very active populations who usually did not live long enough to suffer from chronic diseases. This does not mean us."[12] In response to this argument, S. Boyd Eaton and colleagues state that while Paleolithic humans did have a shorter average life expectancy than we do, studies of modern hunter-gatherer populations suggest that ancestral foragers that reached the age of 60 or beyond were almost completely free from manifestations of most chronic degenerative diseases.[16]
Possible contraindications
According to Erica Frank, vice-chairwoman of Family & Preventive Medicine at Emory University, when you eat an animal, you're eating toxins stored in its body fat. She quotes the EPA: "The average American intake is between 300 and 500 times the safe daily dose of dioxin."[20] She argues that dioxin, which is stored in animal fat, is a cancer-causing substance and disrupts hormones and the immune system. "People would be in error if they think they're doing themselves a service by eating bison."[20]
Sustainability concerns
Paleolithic-style diets have been criticized on the grounds that they are unobtainable for much of humanity.[22] According to Loren Cordain, if such a diet was widely adopted, it would compromise the food security of populations dependent on cereal grains for their subsistence. However, he says that where cereals are not a necessity, as in most western countries, reverting to a grain-free diet can be highly practical in terms of cutting long-term healthcare costs.[125] Barry Bogin, a professor of anthropology at the University of Michigan, argues that less intensive farming techniques, such as pasture-grazed cattle, will not produce sufficient meat to feed the world’s population.[126]
Concerns have also been raised about the detrimental effects of meat-based diets on the environment.[23] According to Anthony J. McMichael, director of the National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health at the Australian National University, "in order to achieve a world nutritional state that is health-supporting, equitable and ecologically sustainable, we can learn much from consideration of the interplay between the evolutionary, environmental and ecological realms."[23] He further indicates that the level of per-person meat consumption need only be moderate for dietary optimisation in accordance with human evolutionary biology.[23]
See also
- Evolutionary nutrition
- Gluten-free diet (related diet)
- Gluten-free, casein-free diet (related diet)
- Healthy diet
- Human evolution
- Hunter-gatherer fitness
- List of diets
Footnotes
- ^ a b c d e f g h Lindeberg, Staffan (June 2005). "Palaeolithic diet ("stone age" diet)". Scandinavian Journal of Food & Nutrition. 49 (2): 75–77. doi:10.1080/11026480510032043.
- ^ a b Voegtlin, Walter L (1975). The stone age diet: Based on in-depth studies of human ecology and the diet of man. Vantage Press. ISBN 0533013143.
- ^ a b Eaton, S. Boyd (1988). The Paleolithic Prescription: A Program of Diet & Exercise and a Design for Living. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0060158719.
{{cite book}}
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suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Audette, Ray V.; Gilchrist, Troy; Raymond V. Audette; Eades, Michael R. (2000). Neanderthin : Eat Like a Caveman to Achieve a Lean, Strong, Healthy Body. New York: St. Martin's Paperbacks. ISBN 0312975910.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d e f g Cordain, Loren (2002). The Paleo Diet: Lose Weight and Get Healthy by Eating the Food You Were Designed to Eat. Hoboken, N.J., New York: Wiley. ISBN 0471267554. Cite error: The named reference "Cordain11" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b Eaton SB, Konner M (1985). "Paleolithic nutrition. A consideration of its nature and current implications". N. Engl. J. Med. 312 (5): 283–89. PMID 2981409.
- ^ a b c Eaton SB, Strassman BI, Nesse RM, Neel JV, Ewald PW, Williams GC, Weder AB, Eaton SB 3rd, Lindeberg S, Konner MJ, Mysterud I, Cordain L. (February 2002). "Evolutionary health promotion" (PDF). Prev Med. 34 (2): 109–18. doi:10.1006/pmed.2001.0876. PMID 11817903.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "pmid11817903" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ a b c d Lindeberg S, Cordain L, and Eaton SB (2003). "Biological and clinical potential of a Paleolithic diet" (PDF). J Nutri Environ Med (3): 149–160.
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "Lindeberg7096" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ a b c d e f g h i j Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastian A, Mann N, Lindeberg S, Watkins BA, O'Keefe JH, Brand-Miller J (2005). "Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81 (2): 341–54. PMID 15699220.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "pmid15699220" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ a b c Cordain, Loren. "A Sample of Paleo Recipes". The Paleo Diet. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
- ^ a b Nestle M. (May 1999). "Animal v. plant foods in human diets and health: is the historical record unequivocal?". Proc Nutr Soc. 58 (2): 211–8. doi:10.1017/S0029665199000300. PMID 10466159. Cite error: The named reference "pmid10466159" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c d Cannon, Geoffrey (June 2006). "Sabre-tooth tigers and stud poker [Out of the Box]". Public Health Nutrition. 9 (4): 411–414. doi:10.1079/PHN2006959. Cite error: The named reference "OutoftheBox2006" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c d e Milton, K. (2002). Peter Ungar and Mark Teaford (ed.). Hunter-gatherer diets: wild foods signal relief from diseases of affluence (PDF). Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. pp. 111–122.
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(help) Cite error: The named reference "Milton20021" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ a b Richards MP (December 2002). "A brief review of the archaeological evidence for Palaeolithic and Neolithic subsistence". Eur J Clin Nutr. 56 (12): 1270–1278. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601646. PMID 12494313. Cite error: The named reference "pmid12494313" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b Kligler, Benjamin; Lee, Roberta A., ed. (2004). "Paleolithic diet". Integrative medicine. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 700 pages. ISBN 007140239X.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - ^ a b c d e f g Eaton, SB, Cordain, L, and Lindeberg, S. (2002). "Evolutionary Health Promotion. A consideration of common counter-arguments" (PDF). Prev Med (34): 119–123. doi:10.1006/pmed.2001.0966. PMID 11817904.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "pmid11817904" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ a b Lindeberg S, Jönsson T, Granfeldt Y, Borgstrand E, Soffman J, Sjöström K, Ahrén B (September 2007). "A Palaeolithic diet improves glucose tolerance more than a Mediterranean-like diet in individuals with ischaemic heart disease" (PDF). Diabetologia. 50 (9): 1795–807. doi:10.1007/s00125-007-0716-y. PMID 17583796.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Milton K (March 2000). "Hunter-gatherer diets-a different perspective". Am J Clin Nutr. 71 (3): 665–7. PMID 10702155. Cite error: The named reference "pmid10702155" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c d e f g h Ströhle A, Wolters M, Hahn A. (January 2007). "Carbohydrates and the diet-atherosclerosis connection--more between earth and heaven. Comment on the article "The atherogenic potential of dietary carbohydrate"". Prev Med. 44 (1): 82–4. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.08.014. PMID 16997359.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "pmid16997359" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ a b c Jeanie Lerche, Davis (2002-03-15). "The Caveman Diet – Eat Like a Caveman". MedicineNet. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
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- Cordain, Loren; Friel, Joe; (2005). The Paleo Diet for Athletes : A Nutritional Formula for Peak Athletic Performance. Emmaus, Pa: Rodale Books. ISBN 1594860890.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Eaton, S. Boyd (1988). The Paleolithic Prescription: A Program of Diet & Exercise and a Design for Living. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0060158719.
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suggested) (help) - Voegtlin, Walter L (1975). The stone age diet: Based on in-depth studies of human ecology and the diet of man. Vantage Press. pp. 277 pp. ISBN 0533013143.
- Aird, William C., ed. (2007). Endothelial Biomedicine. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1500 pp. ISBN 0521853761.
- Richards, M.P. & Hublin, J.J., ed. (2008). The Evolution of Hominid Diets: integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence. New York: Springer (in press).
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - Ungar, Peter S., ed. (2006). Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable (Human Evolution Series). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195183460.