Phenylalanine (talk | contribs) Reverted edits per WP:OR. |
Revert. How is that original research? The statements are well-sourced and relevant. |
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[[Image:White bread 800.jpg|thumb|High-[[insulin]]ogenic foods, like refined grains, were introduced in the human diet only about 200 years ago.<ref name="doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.09.003">{{cite journal |author=Kopp W |title=Reply to the comment of Ströhle et al. |journal=Prev Med. |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=84–5 |year=2007, January |pmid=16997359 |doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.09.003}}</ref>]] |
[[Image:White bread 800.jpg|thumb|High-[[insulin]]ogenic foods, like refined grains, were introduced in the human diet only about 200 years ago.<ref name="doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.09.003">{{cite journal |author=Kopp W |title=Reply to the comment of Ströhle et al. |journal=Prev Med. |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=84–5 |year=2007, January |pmid=16997359 |doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.09.003}}</ref>]] |
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They further question the notion that 10,000 years since the dawn of agriculture is a period not nearly sufficient to ensure an adequate [[adaptation]] to [[Agrarian society|agrarian]] diets.<ref name="pmid16997359"/> Referring to Wilson D.S. (1994),<ref name=WilsonDS>{{cite journal |author=Wilson DS |title=Adaptive genetic variation and human evolutionary psychology |journal=Ethol Sociobiol |volume=15 |issue= |pages=219–35 |year=1994|doi=10.1016/0162-3095(94)90015-9}}</ref> Ströhle et al. argue that "the number of [[generation]]s that a species existed in the old [[Natural environment|environment]] was irrelevant, and that the response to the change of the environment of a [[species]] would depend on the [[heredity|hereditability]] of the [[Trait (biology)|trait]]s, the intensity of [[selection]] and the number of generations that selection acts."<ref name="doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.09.003"/> They state that if the diet of [[Neolithic]] [[agriculturalist]]s had been in discordance with their [[physiology]], then this would have created a [[selection pressure]] for evolutionary change and modern humans, such as [[Genetic history of Europe|European]]s, whose ancestors have subsisted on agrarian diets for 400–500 generations should be somehow adequately adapted to it. |
They further question the notion that 10,000 years since the dawn of agriculture is a period not nearly sufficient to ensure an adequate [[adaptation]] to [[Agrarian society|agrarian]] diets.<ref name="pmid16997359"/> Referring to Wilson D.S. (1994),<ref name=WilsonDS>{{cite journal |author=Wilson DS |title=Adaptive genetic variation and human evolutionary psychology |journal=Ethol Sociobiol |volume=15 |issue= |pages=219–35 |year=1994|doi=10.1016/0162-3095(94)90015-9}}</ref> Ströhle et al. argue that "the number of [[generation]]s that a species existed in the old [[Natural environment|environment]] was irrelevant, and that the response to the change of the environment of a [[species]] would depend on the [[heredity|hereditability]] of the [[Trait (biology)|trait]]s, the intensity of [[selection]] and the number of generations that selection acts."<ref name="doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.09.003"/> They state that if the diet of [[Neolithic]] [[agriculturalist]]s had been in discordance with their [[physiology]], then this would have created a [[selection pressure]] for evolutionary change and modern humans, such as [[Genetic history of Europe|European]]s, whose ancestors have subsisted on agrarian diets for 400–500 generations should be somehow adequately adapted to it. |
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In response to this argument, Wolfgang Kopp states that "we have to take into account that death from atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease (CVD) occurs later during life, as a rule after the reproduction phase. Even a high mortality from CVD after the reproduction phase will create little [[selection pressure]]. Thus, it seems that a diet can be functional (it keeps us going) and dysfunctional (it causes health problems) at the same time."<ref name="doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.09.003"/> Moreover, S. Boyd Eaton and colleagues have indicated that "comparative genetic data provide compelling evidence against the contention that long exposure to agricultural and industrial circumstances has distanced us, genetically, from our Stone Age ancestors."<ref name="pmid11817904"/> According to Kopp, the implementation of high-[[glycemic]] and high-insulinogenic food, like refined cereals and sugars, into human nutrition only about 200 years, or 10 generations, ago, occurred too recently on an evolutionary time scale for the human genome to adjust.<ref name="doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.09.003"/> |
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According to Ströhle et al.,<ref name="pmid16997359"/> "whatever is the fact, to think that a dietary factor is valuable (functional) to the organism only when there was ‘genetical adaptation’ and hence a new dietary factor is dysfunctional per se because there was no evolutionary adaptation to it, such a [[Molecular evolution|panselectionist]] misreading of biological evolution seems to be inspired by a naive [[Adaptationism|adaptationistic]] view of life."<ref name=>{{cite journal |author=Mahner M, Bunge M |title=Function and functionalism: a synthetic perspective |journal=Philos Sci |volume=68 |issue= |pages=75–94 |year=2001 |url=http://grupobunge.wordpress.com/2006/08/07/function-and-functionalism-a-synthetic-perspective-parte-1/ |doi=10.1086/392867}}</ref><ref name=Strohle768>{{cite journal |author=Ströhle A, Hahn A |title=Evolutionary nutrition science and dietary recommendations of the Stone Age—The ideal answer to present-day nutritional questions or reason for criticism? Part 1: Concept, arguments and paleoanthropological findings |journal=Ernährungs-Umschau |format=PDF| volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=10–6 |year=2006 |language=German |url=http://www.dr-moosburger.at/pub/pub058.pdf}} [http://www.ernaehrungs-umschau.de/archiv/summaries/?page=3&id=2398 Abstract (in English)]</ref> |
According to Ströhle et al.,<ref name="pmid16997359"/> "whatever is the fact, to think that a dietary factor is valuable (functional) to the organism only when there was ‘genetical adaptation’ and hence a new dietary factor is dysfunctional per se because there was no evolutionary adaptation to it, such a [[Molecular evolution|panselectionist]] misreading of biological evolution seems to be inspired by a naive [[Adaptationism|adaptationistic]] view of life."<ref name=>{{cite journal |author=Mahner M, Bunge M |title=Function and functionalism: a synthetic perspective |journal=Philos Sci |volume=68 |issue= |pages=75–94 |year=2001 |url=http://grupobunge.wordpress.com/2006/08/07/function-and-functionalism-a-synthetic-perspective-parte-1/ |doi=10.1086/392867}}</ref><ref name=Strohle768>{{cite journal |author=Ströhle A, Hahn A |title=Evolutionary nutrition science and dietary recommendations of the Stone Age—The ideal answer to present-day nutritional questions or reason for criticism? Part 1: Concept, arguments and paleoanthropological findings |journal=Ernährungs-Umschau |format=PDF| volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=10–6 |year=2006 |language=German |url=http://www.dr-moosburger.at/pub/pub058.pdf}} [http://www.ernaehrungs-umschau.de/archiv/summaries/?page=3&id=2398 Abstract (in English)]</ref> |
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A few post Paleolithic dietary adaptations are known. Different mutations for [[Lactose intolerance|adult lactose tolerance]] occurred independently in and now dominate four separate pastoral populations which came to depend on dairy in their diets after the paleolithic; these mutations are still rare or absent in other modern populations.<ref name=AdultLactaseAfrica>{{cite web |url=http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTX038968.html|author=Coles Harriet |title=The lactase gene in Africa: Do you take milk? |publisher=The Human Genome, Wellcome Trust |date=2007-01-20 |accessdate=2008-07-18}}</ref> Some sources posit that [[Blood type|blood types]] other than O are in part an adaptation for cereal grains in the diet.<ref name=isbn039914255X>{{cite book | publisher=Putnam | year=1996 | author=D'amado, Dr. Peter J. | title=Eat Right 4 Your Type | isbn=039914255X}}</ref> |
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Katharine Milton, a professor of [[physical anthropology]] at the [[University of California]], has also disputed the evolutionary logic upon which the Paleolithic diet is based. She questions the premise that the metabolism of [[modern humans]] must be genetically adapted to the [[Paleolithic#Diet and nutrition|dietary conditions]] of the Paleolithic.<ref name="isbn0897897366"/> According to Milton,<ref name="isbn0897897366"/> "there is little evidence to suggest that human nutritional requirements or human digestive physiology were significantly affected by such diets at ''any'' point in human evolution."<ref name="pmid2843616">{{cite journal |author=Milton K, Demment MW |title=Digestion and passage kinetics of chimpanzees fed high and low fiber diets and comparison with human data. |journal=J Nutr |volume=118 |issue=9 |pages=1082–88 |year=1988, September |pmid=2843616 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10378206">{{cite journal |author=Milton K |title=Nutritional characteristics of wild primate foods: do the diets of our closest living relatives have lessons for us? |journal=Nutrition |volume=15 |issue=6 |format=PDF| pages=488–98 |year=1999, June |pmid=10378206 |doi=10.1016/S0899-9007(99)00078-7 |url=http://nature.berkeley.edu/miltonlab/pdfs/nutritionalchar.pdf}}</ref><ref name=meateating>{{cite journal |author=Milton K |title=A hypothesis to explain the role of meat-eating in human evolution |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=8 |issue=1 |format=PDF |pages=11–21 |year=1999 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1999)8:1<11::AID-EVAN6>3.0.CO;2-M |url=http://nature.berkeley.edu/miltonlab/pdfs/meateating.pdf}}</ref><ref name="pmid10906529">{{cite journal |author=Milton K |title=Back to basics: why foods of wild primates have relevance for modern human health |journal=Nutrition |format=PDF| volume=16 |pages=481–83 |year=2000 |pmid=10906529 |doi=10.1016/S0899-9007(00)00293-8 |url=http://nature.berkeley.edu/miltonlab/pdfs/backbasics.pdf}}</ref> |
Katharine Milton, a professor of [[physical anthropology]] at the [[University of California]], has also disputed the evolutionary logic upon which the Paleolithic diet is based. She questions the premise that the metabolism of [[modern humans]] must be genetically adapted to the [[Paleolithic#Diet and nutrition|dietary conditions]] of the Paleolithic.<ref name="isbn0897897366"/> According to Milton,<ref name="isbn0897897366"/> "there is little evidence to suggest that human nutritional requirements or human digestive physiology were significantly affected by such diets at ''any'' point in human evolution."<ref name="pmid2843616">{{cite journal |author=Milton K, Demment MW |title=Digestion and passage kinetics of chimpanzees fed high and low fiber diets and comparison with human data. |journal=J Nutr |volume=118 |issue=9 |pages=1082–88 |year=1988, September |pmid=2843616 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10378206">{{cite journal |author=Milton K |title=Nutritional characteristics of wild primate foods: do the diets of our closest living relatives have lessons for us? |journal=Nutrition |volume=15 |issue=6 |format=PDF| pages=488–98 |year=1999, June |pmid=10378206 |doi=10.1016/S0899-9007(99)00078-7 |url=http://nature.berkeley.edu/miltonlab/pdfs/nutritionalchar.pdf}}</ref><ref name=meateating>{{cite journal |author=Milton K |title=A hypothesis to explain the role of meat-eating in human evolution |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=8 |issue=1 |format=PDF |pages=11–21 |year=1999 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1999)8:1<11::AID-EVAN6>3.0.CO;2-M |url=http://nature.berkeley.edu/miltonlab/pdfs/meateating.pdf}}</ref><ref name="pmid10906529">{{cite journal |author=Milton K |title=Back to basics: why foods of wild primates have relevance for modern human health |journal=Nutrition |format=PDF| volume=16 |pages=481–83 |year=2000 |pmid=10906529 |doi=10.1016/S0899-9007(00)00293-8 |url=http://nature.berkeley.edu/miltonlab/pdfs/backbasics.pdf}}</ref> |
Revision as of 03:59, 19 July 2008
The Paleolithic diet[a] (or Paleolithic nutrition), also popularly known as the paleo diet (var.: paleodiet), caveman diet, Stone Age diet and hunter-gatherer diet, is a dietary regimen which seeks to mimic the diet of wild plants and animals that humans[b] habitually consumed during the Paleolithic, a period of about 2.5 million years duration that ended around 10,000 years ago with the development of agriculture.[1] Based upon commonly available modern foods, the Paleolithic diet consists mainly of lean meat, fish, vegetables, fruit, roots and nuts, and excludes grains, legumes, dairy products, salt, refined sugar and processed oils.[1][2][3]
First popularized in the mid 1970s by a gastroenterologist named Walter L. Voegtlin,[4] this nutritional concept has been expounded and adapted by a number of authors and researchers in several books[5][6][7] and academic journals.[8] Building upon the principles of evolutionary medicine,[9] it is based on the premise that modern humans are genetically adapted to the diet of their Paleolithic ancestors and that human genetics have scarcely changed since the dawn of agriculture, and therefore that an ideal diet for human health and well-being is one that resembles this ancestral diet.[3][10]
This dietary approach is a controversial topic amongst nutritionists[11][12] and anthropologists.[13][14] Advocates argue that modern human populations subsisting on traditional diets similar to those of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers are largely free of diseases of affluence,[15][16] and that such diets produce beneficial health outcomes in controlled medical studies.[17] Supporters point to several potentially therapeutic nutritional characteristics of preagricultural diets.[10] Critics of this nutritional approach have taken issue with its underlying evolutionary logic,[18][19] and have disputed certain dietary prescriptions on the grounds that they pose health risks[18][20] and may not reflect the features of ancient Paleolithic diets.[19][21] It has also been argued that such diets are not a realistic alternative for everyone,[22] and that meat-based diets are not environmentally sustainable.[23]
History
Gastroenterologist Walter L. Voegtlin was one of the first to suggest that following a diet similar to that of the Paleolithic era would improve a person's health. In 1975, he published a book[4] in which he argued that humans are carnivorous animals and that the ancestral Paleolithic diet was that of a carnivore—chiefly fats and protein, with only small amounts of carbohydrates.[24][25] His dietary prescriptions were based on his own medical treatments of various digestive problems, namely colitis, Crohn's disease, irritable bowel syndrome and indigestion.[26]
In 1985, Melvin Konner and S. Boyd Eaton, an associate clinical professor of radiology and an adjunct associate professor of anthropology at Emory University, published a key paper on Paleolithic nutrition in the New England Journal of Medicine.[8] Three years later, S. Boyd Eaton, Marjorie Shostak and Melvin Konner published a book about this nutritional approach,[5] which was based on achieving the same proportions of nutrients (fat, protein, and carbohydrates, as well as vitamins and minerals) as were present in the diets of late Paleolithic people, not on excluding foods that were not available before the development of agriculture. As such, this nutritional approach included skimmed milk, whole-grain bread, brown rice, and potatoes prepared without fat, on the premise that such foods have the same nutritional properties as Paleolithic foods.[24][27] In 1989, these authors published a second book on Paleolithic nutrition.[28][29]
Since the end of the 1990s, a number of medical doctors and nutritionists[30][31][32] have advocated a return to a so-called Paleolithic (preagricultural) diet.[14] Proponents of this nutritional approach have published books[6][7][33] and created websites[34][35] to promote their dietary prescriptions.[36][37][38][39][40] They have synthesized diets from commonly available modern foods that would emulate the nutritional characteristics of the ancient Paleolithic diet, some allowing specific foods that would have been unavailable to preagricultural peoples, such as certain processed oils and beverages.[6][7][34][41][42]
Practices
The Paleolithic diet is a modern dietary regimen that seeks to mimic the diet of preagricultural hunter-gatherers, one that corresponds to what was available in any of the ecological niches of Paleolithic humans.[1][3] Based upon commonly available modern foods, it includes cultivated plants and domesticated animal meat as an alternative to the wild sources of the original preagricultural diet.[1][2][43] The ancestral human diet is inferred from historical and ethnographic studies of modern-day hunter-gatherers as well as archaeological finds and anthropological evidence.[10][44][45]
The Paleolithic diet consists of foods that can be hunted and fished, such as meat, offal and seafood, and that can be gathered, such as eggs, insects, fruit, nuts, seeds, vegetables, mushrooms, herbs and spices.[1][2] Practitioners are advised to eat only the leanest cuts of meat, free of food additives, preferably wild game meats and grass-fed beef since they contain relatively high levels of omega-3 fats compared with grain-produced domestic meats.[1][2][43][46] Food groups that were rarely or never consumed by humans before the Neolithic (agricultural) revolution are excluded from the diet, mainly grains, legumes (e.g. peanuts), dairy products, salt, refined sugar and processed oils,[1][2] although some advocates consider the use of oils with low omega-6/omega-3 ratios, such as olive oil and canola oil, to be healthy and advisable.[43] Practitioners are permitted to drink mainly water, and some advocates recommend tea as a healthful drink,[43] but alcoholic and fermented beverages are restricted from the diet.[2][43] Furthermore, eating a wide variety of plant foods is recommended to avoid high intakes of potentially harmful bioactive substances, such as goitrogens, which are present in certain roots, vegetables and seeds.[1][44][47] Unlike raw food diets, the Paleolithic diet does not limit the consumption of cooked foods.[1] Cooking is widely accepted to have been practised by at least 250,000 years ago, in the early Middle Paleolithic.[48]
According to certain proponents of the Paleolithic diet, practitioners should derive about 56–65% of their food energy from animal foods and 36–45% from plant foods. They recommend a diet high in protein (19–35% energy) and relatively low in carbohydrates (22–40% energy), with a fat intake (28–58% energy) similar to or higher than that found in Western diets.[43][49][50] Furthermore, some proponents exclude from the diet foods which exhibit high glycemic indices, such as potatoes.[2] Staffan Lindeberg, an associate professor in the Department of Medicine at the University of Lund, advocates a Paleolithic diet, but does not recommend any particular proportions of plants versus meat or macronutrient ratios.[1][44] According to Lindeberg, calcium supplementation may be considered when the intake of green leafy vegetables and other dietary sources of calcium is limited.[1]
Basis
Rationale
According to S. Boyd Eaton, "we are the heirs of inherited characteristics accrued over millions of years; the vast majority of our biochemistry and physiology are tuned to life conditions that existed prior to the advent of agriculture some 10,000 years ago. Genetically our bodies are virtually the same as they were at the end of the Paleolithic Era some 20,000 years ago."[51]
Paleolithic nutrition has its roots in evolutionary biology and rests on the principles of evolutionary medicine.[9][52] The reasoning underlying this nutritional approach is that natural selection had sufficient time to genetically adapt the metabolism and physiology of Paleolithic humans to the varying dietary conditions of that era. But in the 10,000 years since the invention of agriculture and its consequent major change in the human diet, natural selection has had too little time to make the optimal genetic adaptations to the new diet.[1] Physiological and metabolic maladaptations result from the suboptimal genetic adaptations to the contemporary human diet, which in turn contribute to many of the so-called diseases of civilization.[3]
Loren Cordain, a professor in the Department of Health and Exercise Science at Colorado State University, argues that "today more than 70% of our dietary calories come from foods that our Paleolithic (Stone Age) ancestors rarely, if ever, ate. The result is epidemic levels of cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, arthritis, gastrointestinal disease, acne, and more."[35] According to Staffan Lindeberg, the Paleolithic diet, basically meat, fish, vegetables, fruit and nuts, prevents heart disease, stroke and some forms of cancers and it has a beneficial effect on overweight, digestive problems and more;[34] it may have benefits even compared with prudent diets based on whole-grain cereals and low-fat milk.[53]
Medical research
Based on the subsistence patterns and biomarkers of hunter-gatherers studied in the last century, advocates argue that modern humans are well adapted to the diet of their Paleolithic ancestor.[54] The diet of modern hunter-gatherer groups is believed to be representative of patterns for humans of 50 to 25 thousand years ago,[54] and individuals from these and other technologically primitive societies,[55][56] including those individuals who reach the age of 60 or beyond,[57][58] seem to be largely free of the signs and symptoms of chronic disease (such as obesity, high blood pressure, nonobstructive coronary atherosclerosis, and insulin resistance)[c] that universally afflict the elderly in western societies (with the exception of osteoarthritis, which afflicts both populations).[3][16][54] Moreover, when these people adopt western diets, their health declines and they begin to exhibit signs and symptoms of "diseases of civilization".[15][54] In one clinical study, stroke and ischaemic heart disease appeared to be absent in a population living on the island of Kitava, in Papua New Guinea, where a subsistence lifestyle, uninfluenced by western dietary habits, was still maintained.[57][59]
The results of controlled medical studies on the Paleolithic diet have also been interpreted as evidence of the health benefits of this diet.[60][61][62] The first animal experiment on a Paleolithic diet suggested that this diet, as compared with a cereal-based diet, conferred higher insulin sensitivity, lower C-reactive protein and lower blood pressure in domestic pigs.[62] Subsequently, a short-term intervention with such a diet in healthy volunteers showed some favourable effects on cardiovascular risk factors.[63] In the first controlled human trial on a Paleolithic diet, researchers found that the diet improved glucose tolerance more than a Mediterranean diet in individuals with ischaemic heart disease.[17]
Nutritional factors
The novel foods introduced as staples during the Neolithic and Industrial Eras, namely dairy products, beans, cereals, refined cereals, refined sugars, refined vegetable oils, alcohol, salt and fatty domestic meats,[d] are believed to have fundamentally altered several key nutritional characteristics of the human diet since the Paleolithic period, and these dietary compositional changes have been implicated as risk factors in the pathogenesis of many of the so-called "diseases of civilization",[3][10][64][65] including obesity, cardiovascular disease,[66] diabetes, osteoporosis,[67][68] autoimmune-related diseases,[69] certain cancers,[70][71] and acne,[72][73][74] as well as many diseases related to vitamin and mineral deficiencies.[69][75][76]
According to Cordain et al., seven crucial nutritional characteristics of ancestral hominin diets that have been fundamentally altered by food staples and food-processing procedures introduced during the Neolithic and Industrial Periods serve to inhibit the development of diseases of affluence in modern-day hunter-gatherers:[10]
- Glycemic load: Unrefined wild plant foods like those available to contemporary hunter-gatherers typically exhibit low glycemic indices.[77] Moreover, their diets are devoid of dairy products, such as milk, yoghurt, and cottage cheese, which have low glycemic indices, but are highly insulinotropic, with an insulin index similar to that of white bread.[78][79] These dietary characteristics may lower risk of diabetes, obesity and other related syndrome X diseases by placing less stress on the pancreas to produce insulin, and preventing insulin insensitivity.[80]
- Fatty acid composition: Hunter-gatherer diets generally maintain relatively high levels of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, moderately low levels of saturated fats (10–15% of total food energy[81]) as well as a low omega-6:omega-3 fatty acid ratio. Moreover, they are devoid of artificial trans fat. These nutritional factors may serve to inhibit the development of cardiovascular disease.[10]
- Macronutrient composition: Dietary protein is characteristically elevated (19–35% of energy) at the expense of carbohydrate (22–40% of energy).[49][50] High protein diets may have a cardiovascular protective effect and may represent an effective weight loss strategy for the overweight or obese.[10] Furthermore, carbohydrate restriction may help prevent obesity and type 2 diabetes,[82][83] as well as atherosclerosis.[66]
- Micronutrient density: Fruits, vegetables, lean meats, and seafood, which are staples of the hunter-gatherer diet, are more nutrient-dense than refined sugars, grains, vegetable oils, and dairy products. Consequently, the vitamin and mineral content of the diet is very high compared with a standard diet, in many cases a multiple of the RDA.[2]
- Acid-base balance: Because of the absence of cereals and energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods, foods that displace base-yielding fruits and vegetables, the diet produces a net base load on the body, as opposed to a net acid load. Net acid producing diets may contribute to the development of osteoporosis and renal stones, loss of muscle mass, and age-related renal insufficiency.[67][84]
- Sodium-potassium ratio: Since no processed foods or added salt are included the sodium intake (~726 mg) is lower than average U.S. values (3,271 mg) or recommended values (2,400 mg). Further, since potassium-rich fruits and vegetables comprise ~30% of the daily energy, the potassium content (~9,062 mg) is nearly 3.5 times greater than average values (2,620 mg) in the U.S. diet.[2] Diets containing high amounts of salt induce and sustain increased acidity of body fluid, which may contribute to the development of osteoporosis and renal stones, loss of muscle mass, and age-related renal insufficiency. Moreover, the inverted ratio of potassium to sodium in the U.S. diet compared with preagricultural diets adversely affects cardiovascular function and contributes to hypertension and stroke.[68][85]
- Fiber content: Contemporary diets devoid of cereal grains, dairy products, refined oils and sugars, and processed foods have been shown to contain significantly more fiber (~42.5 g/d) than either current or recommended values.[2]
Criticism of the Paleolithic diet
Comparative life expectancy
One of the most frequent criticisms of the Paleolithic diet is that it is unlikely that preagricultural hunter-gatherers suffered from the diseases of modern civilization simply because they did not live long enough to develop these illnesses, which are typically associated with old age.[12][16][86][87][88] In response to this argument, advocates of the paleodiet state that while Paleolithic hunter-gatherers did have a short average life expectancy, modern human populations with lifestyles resembling that of our preagricultural ancestors have no or little diseases of affluence, despite sufficient numbers of elderly.[16][89]
Causes of the diseases of affluence
Critics further contend that food energy excess, rather than the consumption of specific novel foods, such as grains and dairy products, underlies the diseases of affluence. According to Geoffrey Cannon,[12] science and health policy advisor to the World Cancer Research Fund, humans are designed to work physically hard to produce food for subsistence and to survive periods of acute food shortage, and are not adapted to a diet rich in energy-dense foods.[90] Similarly, William R. Leonard, a professor of anthropology at Northwestern University, states that the health problems facing industrial societies stem not from deviations from a specific ancestral diet but from an imbalance between calories consumed and calories burned, a state of energy excess uncharacteristic of ancestral lifestyles.[91]
Evolutionary logic
The evolutionary assumptions underlying the Paleolithic diet have also been disputed.[13][19][27][92] According to Alexander Ströhle, Maike Wolters and Andreas Hahn,[19] with the Department of Food Science at the University of Hannover, the statement that the human genome evolved during the Pleistocene (a period from 1,808,000 to 11,550 years ago) is resting on an inadequate, but popular gene-centered view of evolution. They argue that evolution of organisms cannot be reduced to the genetic level with reference to mutation and that there is no one to one relationship between genotype and phenotype.[93]
They further question the notion that 10,000 years since the dawn of agriculture is a period not nearly sufficient to ensure an adequate adaptation to agrarian diets.[19] Referring to Wilson D.S. (1994),[95] Ströhle et al. argue that "the number of generations that a species existed in the old environment was irrelevant, and that the response to the change of the environment of a species would depend on the hereditability of the traits, the intensity of selection and the number of generations that selection acts."[94] They state that if the diet of Neolithic agriculturalists had been in discordance with their physiology, then this would have created a selection pressure for evolutionary change and modern humans, such as Europeans, whose ancestors have subsisted on agrarian diets for 400–500 generations should be somehow adequately adapted to it.
In response to this argument, Wolfgang Kopp states that "we have to take into account that death from atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease (CVD) occurs later during life, as a rule after the reproduction phase. Even a high mortality from CVD after the reproduction phase will create little selection pressure. Thus, it seems that a diet can be functional (it keeps us going) and dysfunctional (it causes health problems) at the same time."[94] Moreover, S. Boyd Eaton and colleagues have indicated that "comparative genetic data provide compelling evidence against the contention that long exposure to agricultural and industrial circumstances has distanced us, genetically, from our Stone Age ancestors."[16] According to Kopp, the implementation of high-glycemic and high-insulinogenic food, like refined cereals and sugars, into human nutrition only about 200 years, or 10 generations, ago, occurred too recently on an evolutionary time scale for the human genome to adjust.[94]
According to Ströhle et al.,[19] "whatever is the fact, to think that a dietary factor is valuable (functional) to the organism only when there was ‘genetical adaptation’ and hence a new dietary factor is dysfunctional per se because there was no evolutionary adaptation to it, such a panselectionist misreading of biological evolution seems to be inspired by a naive adaptationistic view of life."[96][97]
A few post Paleolithic dietary adaptations are known. Different mutations for adult lactose tolerance occurred independently in and now dominate four separate pastoral populations which came to depend on dairy in their diets after the paleolithic; these mutations are still rare or absent in other modern populations.[98] Some sources posit that blood types other than O are in part an adaptation for cereal grains in the diet.[99]
Katharine Milton, a professor of physical anthropology at the University of California, has also disputed the evolutionary logic upon which the Paleolithic diet is based. She questions the premise that the metabolism of modern humans must be genetically adapted to the dietary conditions of the Paleolithic.[13] According to Milton,[13] "there is little evidence to suggest that human nutritional requirements or human digestive physiology were significantly affected by such diets at any point in human evolution."[100][101][102][103]
Criticism of low-carbohydrate and high-protein versions
The high protein and low-carbohydrate diet[e] recommended by Loren Cordain and colleagues based on the dietary patterns of worldwide modern-day hunter-gatherers[45][49][104] has attracted a number of criticisms,[12][105] including the following:
Therapeutic merits
It has been argued that relative freedom from degenerative diseases was, and still is, characteristic of all hunter-gatherer societies irrespective of the macronutrient characteristics of their diets.[18][106][107] Katharine Milton states that "hunter-gatherer societies, both recent and ancestral, displayed a wide variety of plant-animal subsistence ratios, illustrating the adaptability of human metabolism to a broad range of energy substrates. Because all hunter-gatherer societies are largely free of chronic degenerative disease, there seems little justification for advocating the therapeutic merits of one type of hunter-gatherer diet over another."[106]
According to Marion Nestle, a professor in the Department of Nutrition and Food Studies at New York University, judging from research relating nutritional factors to chronic disease risks and to observations of exceptionally low chronic disease rates among people eating vegetarian, Mediterranean and Asian diets, it seems clear that plant-based diets are most associated with health and longevity.[11][21]
Ströhle, Wolters and Hahn[19] argue that hunters like the Inuit, who traditionally obtain most of their dietary energy from wild animals and therefore eat a low-carbohydrate diet,[108] seem to have a high mortality from coronary heart disease,[109] and that many populations of horticulturists, pastoralists and simple agriculturists living today are ingesting a high-carbohydrate diet without having signs and symptoms of CHD.[57][59][110][111][112] In response to this criticism, Wolfgang Kopp states that "carbohydrate food, consumed by hunter-gatherers, is high in fiber and low-glycemic in effect,[113][114] eliciting small amounts of insulin only. [...] Are high-carbohydrate diets atherogenic per se? Not if they have a low glycemic load. In this point, Stroehle et al. are right. However, it is the question, whether diets high in low-glycemic plant food (which is relatively high in indigestible fiber and relatively low in carbohydrate) should be labeled as “high-carbohydrate” diets."[94] Kopp also says that it is very likely that diets with only a moderately increased glycemic load are atherogenic to some degree.[66][115]
According to Erica Frank, professor of health care at the University of British Columbia, eating an animal also involves absorbing the toxins stored in its body fat. She quotes the EPA: "The average American intake is between 300 and 500 times the safe daily dose of dioxin."[20] She argues that dioxin, which is stored in animal fat, is a cancer-causing substance and disrupts hormones and the immune system. "People would be in error if they think they're doing themselves a service by eating bison."[20]
Anthropological evidence
Critics have argued that there are insufficient data to determine the average daily intake of animal and plant foods by Paleolithic humans.[13][14][21][97][117] Furthermore, according to Katharine Milton, "data from ethnographic studies of nineteenth and twentieth century hunter-gatherers, as well as historical accounts and the archeological record, suggest that ancestral hunter-gatherers enjoyed a rich variety of different diets. Thus estimates of nutrient proportions for "the Paleolithic diet" are hypothetical, at best."[13] Echoing Milton's criticism, Ströhle et al.[19] argue that it is questionable if all hunter-gatherers living between 150,000 and 10,000 years ago in different geographical regions ate a low-carbohydrate diet.[1][118][119] They indicate that, because the plant–animal subsistence ratios of contemporary hunter-gatherers vary in a remarkable manner (0–90% food from gathering; 10–100% food from hunting and fishing),[120][121] it is likely that the macronutrient intake of preagricultural humans varied enormously.[118]
They also refer to a hypothesis (the 'Plant underground storage organs hypotheses') that suggests that carbohydrate tubers were eaten in high amounts by our preagricultural ancestors.[116][122][123][124] They add:[19] "Provided that humans are incapable of metabolizing high amounts of dietary protein and given the fact that wild African mammals are relatively low in fat, a diet supplemented with carbohydrates from tubers seems to be more efficient in meeting the energy requirements of early hunters and gatherers than a diet based on lean meat."[125][126] Ströhle et al. further mention that Staffan Lindeberg, an advocate of the Paleolithic diet, has accounted for a plant-based diet rich in carbohydrates as being consistent with the human evolutionary past.[1][3]
Sustainability concerns
The Paleolithic diet has been criticized on the grounds that it cannot be implemented on a worldwide scale.[22] According to Loren Cordain, if such a diet was widely adopted, it would compromise the food security of populations dependent on cereal grains for their subsistence. However, he says that where cereals are not a necessity, as in most western countries, reverting to a grain-free diet can be highly practical in terms of cutting long-term healthcare costs.[127] Barry Bogin, a professor of anthropology at the University of Michigan, argues that less intensive farming techniques, such as pasture-grazed cattle, will not produce sufficient meat to feed the world’s population.[128]
Concerns have also been raised about the detrimental effects of meat-based diets on the environment.[23] According to Anthony J. McMichael, director of the National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health at the Australian National University, "in order to achieve a world nutritional state that is health-supporting, equitable and ecologically sustainable, we can learn much from consideration of the interplay between the evolutionary, environmental and ecological realms."[23] He further indicates that the level of per-person meat consumption need only be moderate for dietary optimisation in accordance with human evolutionary biology.[23]
See also
- Bushfood
- Gluten-free diet (related diet)
- Gluten-free, casein-free diet (related diet)
- Healthy diet
- Human evolution
- Hunter-gatherer fitness
- List of diets
Notes
- a The term "Paleolithic diet" and it's derivatives refer both to the ancient diet of Paleolithic humans (see Paleolithic#Diet and Nutrition) and the modern dietary regimen which is based on it.[14] In the article, the term is used in this last sense.
- b In this article, "human" refers to any member of the Homo genus (since ca. 2.5 million years).
- c Stroke, coronary heart disease, diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, female breast cancer, cervical cancer, colorectal cancer, and chronic liver disease/cirrhosis.[16]
- d During the Paleolithic, cereals and beans were rarely eaten and never in large amounts on a daily basis.[1]
- e See "Practices" section.
References
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(help) - ^ a b c d e f g Lindeberg S, Cordain L, Eaton SB (2003, September). "Biological and clinical potential of a Paleolithic diet" (PDF). J Nutri Environ Med. 13 (3): 149–60. doi:10.1080/13590840310001619397.
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(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Voegtlin, Walter L. (1975). The stone age diet: Based on in-depth studies of human ecology and the diet of man. Vantage Press. ISBN 0533013143.
- ^ a b Eaton, S. Boyd (1988). The Paleolithic Prescription: A Program of Diet & Exercise and a Design for Living. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0060158719.
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- ^ a b Eaton SB, Konner M (1985). "Paleolithic nutrition. A consideration of its nature and current implications". N. Engl. J. Med. 312 (5): 283–89. PMID 2981409.
- ^ a b Eaton SB, Strassman BI, Nesse RM, Neel JV, Ewald PW, Williams GC, Weder AB, Eaton SB 3rd, Lindeberg S, Konner MJ, Mysterud I, Cordain L (2002, February). "Evolutionary health promotion" (PDF). Prev Med. 34 (2): 109–18. doi:10.1006/pmed.2001.0876. PMID 11817903.
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(help) - ^ Thorburn AW, Brand JC, Truswell AS (1987, January). "Slowly digested and absorbed carbohydrate in traditional bushfoods: a protective factor against diabetes?". Am J Clin Nutr. 45 (1): 98–106. PMID 3541565.
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Further reading
- Bogin, Barry (1997). "The evolution of human nutrition". In Romanucci-Ross, Lola; Moerman, Daniel E.; & Tancredi, Laurence R. (ed.). The Anthropology of Medicine: From Culture to Method (3 ed.). South Hadley, Mass.: Bergen and Garvey. pp. 96–142. ISBN 0897895169.
{{cite book}}
: External link in
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|chapterurl=
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - Barnicot NA (2005, April/June). "Human nutrition: evolutionary perspectives". Integr Physiol Behav Sci. 40 (2): 114–17. doi:10.1007/BF02734246. PMID 17393680.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - Eaton SB (2006, February). "The ancestral human diet: what was it and should it be a paradigm for contemporary nutrition?". Proc Nutr Soc. 65 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1079/PNS2005471. PMID 16441938.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - Leonard WR, Snodgrass JJ, Robertson ML (2007). "Effects of brain evolution on human nutrition and metabolism" (PDF). Annu Rev Nutr. 27: 311–27. doi:10.1146/annurev.nutr.27.061406.093659. PMID 17439362.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Milton K (2003). "Micronutrient intakes of non-human primates: are humans different?" (PDF). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A. 136: 47–59. doi:10.1016/S1095-6433(03)00084-9. PMID 14527629.
External links