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{{Short description|Pre-WWI Neo-Aramaic dialects}} |
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{{redirect|NENA|other uses|Nena (disambiguation)}} |
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{{Infobox language family |
{{Infobox language family |
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|name=Northeastern Neo-Aramaic |
|name=Northeastern Neo-Aramaic |
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|fam5=[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] |
|fam5=[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] |
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|fam6=[[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]] |
|fam6=[[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]] |
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|child1=[[ |
|child1=[[Suret language|Suret]] |
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|child2=[[Lishanid Noshan]] |
|child2=[[Lishanid Noshan]] |
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|child3=[[Bohtan Neo-Aramaic]] |
|child3=[[Bohtan Neo-Aramaic]] |
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|child4=[[Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic]] |
|child4=[[Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic]] |
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|child5=[[ |
|child5=[[Hertevin language|Hértevin]] |
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|child6=[[ |
|child6=[[Hulaula language|Hulaulá]] |
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|child7=[[ |
|child7=[[Koy Sanjaq Surat]] |
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|child8=[[ |
|child8=[[Lishana Deni]] |
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|child9=[[ |
|child9=[[Senaya language|Senaya]] |
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|child10=[[ |
|child10=[[Lishan Didan|Lishán Didán]] |
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|child11=[[ |
|child11=[[Jewish Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]] |
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|child12=[[ |
|child12=[[Qaraqosh Neo-Aramaic]] |
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|glotto=nort3241 |
|glotto=nort3241 |
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|glottorefname=North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic |
|glottorefname=North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic |
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}} |
}} |
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'''Northeastern Neo-Aramaic''' (NENA) is a grouping of related dialects of [[Neo-Aramaic]] spoken before [[World War I]] as a vernacular language by Jews and Christians between the [[Tigris]] and [[Lake Urmia]], stretching north to [[Lake Van]] and southwards to [[Mosul]] and [[Kirkuk]]. As a result of the [[ |
'''Northeastern Neo-Aramaic''' ('''NENA''') is a grouping of related dialects of [[Neo-Aramaic]] spoken before [[World War I]] as a vernacular language by Jews and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] Christians between the [[Tigris]] and [[Lake Urmia]], stretching north to [[Lake Van]] and southwards to [[Mosul]] and [[Kirkuk]]. As a result of the [[Assyrian genocide]], Christian speakers were forced out of the area that is now Turkey and in the early 1950s most [[Kurdish Jews|Jewish speakers]] moved to Israel. The [[Kurdish-Turkish conflict]] resulted in further dislocations of speaker populations.<ref name="Khan" /><ref>Bird, Isabella, ''Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan, including a summer in the Upper Karun region and a visit to the Nestorian rayahs'', London: J. Murray, 1891, vol. ii, pp. 282 and 306</ref> As of the 1990s, the NENA group had an estimated number of fluent speakers among the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] just below 500,000, spread throughout the Middle East and the [[Assyrian diaspora]]. In 2007, linguist [[Geoffrey Khan]] wrote that many dialects were nearing extinction with fluent speakers difficult to find.<ref name=Khan/> |
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The other branches of Neo-Aramaic are [[Western Neo-Aramaic]], [[Central Neo-Aramaic]] (Turoyo and Mlahso), and [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]].<ref name=Khan>{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=G. |title=The North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects |journal=Journal of Semitic Studies |date=1 January 2007 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1093/jss/fgl034}}</ref> Some linguists classify NENA as well as [[Turoyo]] and [[Mlahso]] as a single [[dialect continuum]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Ronald |title="Stammbaum" or Continuum? The Subgrouping of Modern Aramaic Dialects Reconsidered |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=2008 |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=505–531 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25608409 |
The other branches of Neo-Aramaic are [[Western Neo-Aramaic]], [[Central Neo-Aramaic]] (Turoyo and Mlahso), and [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]].<ref name=Khan>{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=G. |title=The North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects |journal=Journal of Semitic Studies |date=1 January 2007 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1093/jss/fgl034}}</ref> Some linguists classify NENA as well as [[Turoyo]] and [[Mlahso]] as a single [[dialect continuum]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Ronald |title="Stammbaum" or Continuum? The Subgrouping of Modern Aramaic Dialects Reconsidered |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=2008 |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=505–531 |jstor=25608409 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25608409 |issn=0003-0279}}</ref> |
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==Influences== |
==Influences== |
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However, not all varieties of one or other religious groups are intelligible with all others of the group. Likewise, in some places Jews and Assyrian Christians from the same locale speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Aramaic, where in other places their language is quite similar. The differences can be explained by the fact that NENA communities gradually became isolated into small groups spread over a wide area, and some had to be highly mobile due to various ethnic and religious persecutions. |
However, not all varieties of one or other religious groups are intelligible with all others of the group. Likewise, in some places Jews and Assyrian Christians from the same locale speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Aramaic, where in other places their language is quite similar. The differences can be explained by the fact that NENA communities gradually became isolated into small groups spread over a wide area, and some had to be highly mobile due to various ethnic and religious persecutions. |
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The influence of classical Aramaic varieties |
The influence of classical Aramaic varieties – [[Syriac language|Syriac]] on Christian varieties and [[Targum]]ic on Jewish communities – gives a dual heritage that further distinguishes language by faith. Many of the Jewish speakers of NENA varieties, the [[Kurdish Jews]], now live in [[Israel]], where Neo-Aramaic is [[endangered language|endangered]] by the dominance of [[Hebrew language|Modern Hebrew]]. Many Christian NENA speakers, who usually are [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]], are in [[diaspora]] in [[North America]], [[Europe]], [[Australia]], the [[Caucasus]] and elsewhere, although indigenous communities remain in northern [[Iraq]], south east [[Turkey]], north east [[Syria]] and north west [[Iran]], an area roughly comprising what had been ancient [[Assyria]].<ref>[[Wolfhart Heinrichs|Heinrichs, Wolfhart]] (ed.) (1990). ''Studies in Neo-Aramaic''. Scholars Press: Atlanta, Georgia. {{ISBN|1-55540-430-8}}.</ref> |
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==Grouping== |
==Grouping== |
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{{Northeastern Neo-Aramaic dialects map}} |
{{Northeastern Neo-Aramaic dialects map}} |
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[[SIL Ethnologue]] assigns ISO codes to twelve NENA varieties, two of them extinct: |
[[SIL Ethnologue]] assigns ISO codes to twelve NENA varieties, two of them extinct: |
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*[[Suret language|Suret (Assyrian Neo-Aramaic)]] [{{ethnolink|aii}}], 235,000 speakers (1994)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/aii/|title=Redirected|date=19 November 2019}}</ref> |
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* Neo-Syriac [syr] (''Sooreth, Suret, Soorath, Soorith, Suras, Sureth''), historically derived from the dialect of the [[Lake Urmia]] region, now mostly spoken in [[Iranian Azerbaijan]] and [[Iraqi Kurdistan|northern Iraq]]. |
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* Suret (Chaldean Neo-Aramaic) [{{ethnolink|cld}}], 216,000 speakers (1994) |
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* |
*[[Judeo-Aramaic languages]], spoken by Jewish communities in Israel |
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*[[ |
** [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani]] [{{ethnolink|bjf}}] (Israel), extinct |
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** [[ |
** [[Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic]] [{{ethnolink|huy}}], 10,000 speakers (1990s) |
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** [[ |
** [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho]] [{{ethnolink|lsd}}] 7,500 speakers (1990s) |
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** [[Jewish |
** [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia]] [{{ethnolink|trg}}], 4,500 speakers (2000) |
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** [[ |
** [[Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic]] [{{ethnolink|aij}}], 2,200 speakers (1990s) |
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* [[Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan]] [{{ethnolink|bhn}}] (Georgia), 1,000 speakers (1990s) |
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* [[Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin]] [{{ethnolink|hrt}}] (Turkey), 1,000 speakers (1990s) |
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* [[ |
* [[Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic]] [{{ethnolink|kqd}}] (Iraq), 900 speakers (1990s) |
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* [[ |
* [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya]] [{{ethnolink|syn}}] (Iran), 460 speakers (1990s) |
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* [[Koy Sanjaq Surat]] [kqd] (Iraq), 900 speakers (1990s) |
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==List of dialects== |
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* [[Senaya]] [syn] (Iran), 460 speakers (1990s) |
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Below is a full list of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic dialects from the North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Database Project (as of 2023):<ref>{{cite web | last=Khan | first=Geoffrey | author-link=Geoffrey Khan | title=Dialects | website=The North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Database Project | url=https://nena.ames.cam.ac.uk/dialects/ | access-date=2023-10-07}}</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable sortable" |
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! Dialect !! Religion !! Country !! Region |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Sulemaniyya|Sulemaniyya, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qaraqosh|Qaraqosh (Baghdede)]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Tisqopa|Tisqopa]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Aradhin|Aradhin, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Karəmlesh|Karəmlesh]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Derabun|Derabun]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Ankawa|Ankawa]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Billin|Billin]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Ashitha|Ashitha]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Umra d-Shish|Umra d-Shish]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Baṭnaya|Baṭnaya]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Sanandaj|Sanandaj, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || W |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Shōsh-u-Sharmən|Shōsh-u-Sharmən]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Alqosh|Alqosh]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Peshabur|Peshabur]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Koy Sanjaq|Koy Sanjaq, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Arbel|Arbel]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bēṣpən|Bēṣpən]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Mēr|Mēr]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Išši|Išši]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Baznaye|Baznaye]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Gaznax|Gaznax]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Harbole|Harbole]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin (Artun)|Hertevin (Artun)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Sardarid|Sardarid]] || Christian || {{flag|Iran}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan|Bohtan]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Sanandaj|Sanandaj, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Iran}} || W |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Rustaqa|Rustaqa]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Dobe|Dobe]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Ruwanduz|Ruwanduz]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Saqǝz|Saqǝz]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || W |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Telkepe|Telkepe]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Iṣṣin|Iṣṣin]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Mar-Yaqo|Mar-Yaqo]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Tən|Tən]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzan|Barzan]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure|Betanure]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Shǝnno|Shǝnno]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || NW |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bokan|Bokan]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || W |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Amedia|Amedia, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho|Zakho, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho|Zakho, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmi|Urmi, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Diyana-Zariwaw|Diyana-Zariwaw]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Sablagh|Sablagh]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || W |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Jilu|Jilu]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Challək|Challək]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Darband|Darband]] || Christian || {{flag|Iran}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bebede|Bebede]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Dere|Dere]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Nargəzine-Xarjawa|Nargəzine-Xarjawa]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Aqra|Aqra (Xərpa)]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Aqra|Aqra (town)]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Xarjawa|Xarjawa]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Mangesh|Mangesh]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bidaro|Bidaro]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hamziye|Hamziye]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Gargarnaye|Gargarnaye]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barwar|Barwar]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Nerwa|Nerwa, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Salamas|Salamas, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Iran}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bne Lagippa|Bne Lagippa]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Kerend|Kerend]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || W |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Koy Sanjaq|Koy Sanjaq, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Tikab|Tikab]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || W |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qarah Ḥasan|Qarah Ḥasan]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || W |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bijar|Bijar]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || W |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bariṭle|Bariṭle]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Baqopa|Baqopa]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Sharanish|Sharanish]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zawitha|Zawitha]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Solduz|Solduz]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Sulemaniyya|Sulemaniyya, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Ḥalabja|Ḥalabja]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Xanaqin|Xanaqin]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qaladeze|Qaladeze]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Nerwa|Nerwa, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Meze|Meze]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Shaqlawa|Shaqlawa, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hassana|Hassana]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Marga|Marga]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bersive|Bersive]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qarawilla|Qarawilla]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Challa|Challa, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Sāt|Sāt]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bāz|Bāz (Maha Xtaya)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Ṭāl|Ṭāl]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Sarspido|Sarspido (duplicate?)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Van|Van]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Halana|Halana]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bnerumta|Bnerumta (Upper Tiyari)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Tel Tamməṛ|Tel Tamməṛ (Upper Tiyari)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Walṭo|Walṭo (Upper Tiyari)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Sarspido|Sarspido (Lower Tiyari)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Halmun|Halmun]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Txuma Gawaya|Txuma Gawaya]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Txuma Mazṛa|Txuma Mazṛa]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Txuma Gudəkθa|Txuma Gudəkθa]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Txuma Gəssa|Txuma Gəssa]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Txuma Bərəjnaye|Txuma Bərəjnaye]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Arbuš|Arbuš]] || Christian || || |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bāz (Khabur)|Bāz (Khabur)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Dīz|Dīz]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Jilu (Khabur)|Jilu (Khabur)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Šamməsdin Nočiya|Šamməsdin Nočiya]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Šamməsdin Iyyəl|Šamməsdin Iyyəl]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Šamməsdin Marbišo|Šamməsdin Marbišo]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barwar of Qočanəṣ|Barwar of Qočanəṣ]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Gawar|Gawar, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qočanəṣ|Qočanəṣ]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Van|Van (Timur, Khabur)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Saṛa|Saṛa (Khabur)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Saṛa|Saṛa (Armenia)]] || Christian || {{flag|Georgia}}, {{flag|Armenia}} || |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Lewən|Lewən]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmi|Urmi, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Iran}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bne|Bne ~ Mne Maθa (Lower Tiyari)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bne|Bne ~ Mne Belaθa (Upper Tiyari)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bāz|Bāz (Aruntus)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Mawana|Mawana]] || Christian || {{flag|Iran}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Gawilan|Gawilan]] || Christian || {{flag|Iran}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Salamas|Salamas, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Komane|Komane]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Derəgni|Derəgni]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bədyəl|Bədyəl]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Enəške|Enəške]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Təlla|Təlla]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Darbandoke|Darbandoke]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Shiyuz|Shiyuz]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qasr Shirin|Qasr Shirin]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iran}} || W |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bāz|Bāz (Shwawa)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bāz|Bāz (Aghgab)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Shahe|Shahe]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bəjil|Bəjil]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Umra|Umra]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Gargarnaye|Gargarnaye (Azran)]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Dohok|Dohok, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Jənnet|Jənnet]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hoz|Hoz]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Harmashe|Harmashe]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Dohok|Dohok, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hawdiyan|Hawdiyan]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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|- |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Aradhin|Aradhin, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Azax|Azax]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bāz|Bāz (Rekan)]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Yarda|Yarda]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Alanish|Alanish]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Gzira|Gzira]] || Jewish || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Gawar|Gawar, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Dawadiya|Dawadiya]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Challa|Challa, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Nəxla|Nəxla (Gerbish)]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Nəxla|Nəxla (Dinarta)]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Nuhawa|Nuhawa]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Nəxla|Nəxla (Sanaye)]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Sandu|Sandu]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Shaqlawa|Shaqlawa, Jewish]] || Jewish || {{flag|Iraq}} || NE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Dehe|Dehe]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Gramun|Gramun]] || Christian || {{flag|Turkey}} || SE |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Tazacand|Tazacand]] || Christian || {{flag|Iran}} || NW |
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|- |
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| [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Amedia|Amedia, Christian]] || Christian || {{flag|Iraq}} || NW |
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|} |
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==References== |
==References== |
||
{{Reflist}} |
{{Reflist}} |
||
== |
== Sources == |
||
*{{cite book |last1=Coghill |first1=Eleanor |title=Neo-Aramaic Dialect Studies |publisher=Gorgias Press |isbn=978-1-4632-1161-5 |pages=91–104 |chapter=Some notable features in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic dialects of Iraq}} |
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* [http://elar.soas.ac.uk/deposit/0291 ELAR archive of Documentation of the North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic dialect cluster of Gargarnaye] |
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*{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Samuel Ethan |title=The Relationships of the Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1994 |volume=114 |issue=2 |pages=154–162 |doi=10.2307/605827 |jstor=605827 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/605827 |issn=0003-0279}} |
|||
*{{cite book |last1=Fox |first1=Samuel Ethan |title=Neo-Aramaic Dialect Studies |date=2008 |publisher=Gorgias Press |isbn=978-1-4632-1161-5 |pages=1–18 |chapter= North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic and the Middle Aramaic Dialects}} |
|||
*{{cite book |last1=Gutman |first1=Ariel |title=Attributive constructions in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic|url=https://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/123 |date=2018 |publisher=Language Science Press |isbn=978-3-96110-081-1 |language=en}} |
|||
*{{cite book|last1=Khan |first1=Geoffrey |title=Empirical Approaches to Language Typology [EALT] |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-019919-2 |doi=10.1515/9783110199192.197 |chapter=Grammatical borrowing in North-eastern Neo-Aramaic|date=2007|pages=197–214 }} |
|||
*{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Geoffrey |title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook |date=2012 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-025158-6 |pages=708–724 |language=en |chapter=North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic}} |
|||
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Khan |editor1-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Napiorkowska |editor2-first=Lidia |title=Neo-Aramaic in Its Linguistic Context |date=2015 |publisher=Gorgias Press |isbn=978-1-4632-0410-5 |language=en}} |
|||
*{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Geoffrey |title=Remarks on the Historical Development and Syntax of the Copula in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects |journal=Aramaic Studies |date=2018 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=234–269 |doi=10.1163/17455227-01602010|s2cid=195503300 |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/288091 }} |
|||
*{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Geoffrey |title=Perfects in Indo-European Languages and Beyond |date=2020 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=978-90-272-6090-1 |language=en |chapter=The Perfect in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic}} |
|||
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Khan |editor1-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Noorlander |editor2-first=Paul |title=Studies in the Grammar and Lexicon of Neo-Aramaic |series=Semitic Languages and Cultures |date=2021 |volume=5 |publisher=Open Book Publishers |doi=10.11647/OBP.0209 |isbn=978-1-78374-952-2 |s2cid=231785174 |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/46304 |language=English |doi-access=free }} |
|||
*{{cite book |last1=Ragagnin |first1=Elisabetta |title=Eine hundertblättrige Tulpe - Bir ṣadbarg lāla |date=2020 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-220924-0 |pages=361–371 |chapter=Some Notes on Turkic and Mongolic Elements in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Varieties}} |
|||
*{{cite journal |last1=Mutzafi |first1=Hezy |title=Etymological Notes on North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic |journal=Aramaic Studies |date=2005 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=83–107 |doi=10.1177/1477835105053516}} |
|||
*{{cite journal |last1=Mutzafi |first1=Hezy |title=On the Etymology of Some Enigmatic Words in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic |journal=Aramaic Studies |date=2006 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=83–99 |doi=10.1177/1477835106066037}} |
|||
*{{cite journal |last1=Mutzafi |first1=Hezy |title=Folk Etymology in the North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects |journal=Aramaic Studies |date=2018 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=215–233 |doi=10.1163/17455227-01602007|s2cid=195509710}} |
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==External links== |
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*[https://nena.ames.cam.ac.uk/dialects/ The North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Database Project] by [[Geoffrey Khan]] et al. (University of Cambridge) |
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[[Category:Eastern Aramaic languages]] |
[[Category:Eastern Aramaic languages]] |
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[[Category:Neo-Aramaic languages]] |
[[Category:Neo-Aramaic languages]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Iraq]] |
[[Category:Languages of Iraq]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Israel]] |
[[Category:Languages of Israel]] |
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[[Category:Syriac languages]] |
Revision as of 15:28, 26 January 2024
Northeastern Neo-Aramaic | |
---|---|
NENA | |
Geographic distribution | Traditionally spoken northeast to the plain of Urmia in Iran, southeast to the plain of Mosul in Iraq, southwest to Al-Hasakah Governorate in Syria and as northwest as Tur Abdin in Turkey. Diaspora speakers in North America, Europe and Israel (the Jewish dialects). |
Linguistic classification | Afro-Asiatic
|
Subdivisions | |
Glottolog | nort3241 |
Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) is a grouping of related dialects of Neo-Aramaic spoken before World War I as a vernacular language by Jews and Assyrian Christians between the Tigris and Lake Urmia, stretching north to Lake Van and southwards to Mosul and Kirkuk. As a result of the Assyrian genocide, Christian speakers were forced out of the area that is now Turkey and in the early 1950s most Jewish speakers moved to Israel. The Kurdish-Turkish conflict resulted in further dislocations of speaker populations.[1][2] As of the 1990s, the NENA group had an estimated number of fluent speakers among the Assyrians just below 500,000, spread throughout the Middle East and the Assyrian diaspora. In 2007, linguist Geoffrey Khan wrote that many dialects were nearing extinction with fluent speakers difficult to find.[1]
The other branches of Neo-Aramaic are Western Neo-Aramaic, Central Neo-Aramaic (Turoyo and Mlahso), and Mandaic.[1] Some linguists classify NENA as well as Turoyo and Mlahso as a single dialect continuum.[3]
Influences
The NENA languages contain a large number of loanwords and some grammatical features from the extinct East Semitic Akkadian language of Mesopotamia (the original language of the Assyrians) and also in more modern times from their surrounding languages: Kurdish, Arabic, Persian, Azerbaijani and Turkish language. These languages are spoken by both Jews and Christian Assyrians from the area. Each variety of NENA is clearly Jewish or Assyrian.
However, not all varieties of one or other religious groups are intelligible with all others of the group. Likewise, in some places Jews and Assyrian Christians from the same locale speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Aramaic, where in other places their language is quite similar. The differences can be explained by the fact that NENA communities gradually became isolated into small groups spread over a wide area, and some had to be highly mobile due to various ethnic and religious persecutions.
The influence of classical Aramaic varieties – Syriac on Christian varieties and Targumic on Jewish communities – gives a dual heritage that further distinguishes language by faith. Many of the Jewish speakers of NENA varieties, the Kurdish Jews, now live in Israel, where Neo-Aramaic is endangered by the dominance of Modern Hebrew. Many Christian NENA speakers, who usually are Assyrian, are in diaspora in North America, Europe, Australia, the Caucasus and elsewhere, although indigenous communities remain in northern Iraq, south east Turkey, north east Syria and north west Iran, an area roughly comprising what had been ancient Assyria.[4]
Grouping
SIL Ethnologue assigns ISO codes to twelve NENA varieties, two of them extinct:
- Suret (Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) [aii], 235,000 speakers (1994)[5]
- Suret (Chaldean Neo-Aramaic) [cld], 216,000 speakers (1994)
- Judeo-Aramaic languages, spoken by Jewish communities in Israel
- Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani [bjf] (Israel), extinct
- Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic [huy], 10,000 speakers (1990s)
- Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho [lsd] 7,500 speakers (1990s)
- Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia [trg], 4,500 speakers (2000)
- Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic [aij], 2,200 speakers (1990s)
- Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan [bhn] (Georgia), 1,000 speakers (1990s)
- Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin [hrt] (Turkey), 1,000 speakers (1990s)
- Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic [kqd] (Iraq), 900 speakers (1990s)
- Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya [syn] (Iran), 460 speakers (1990s)
List of dialects
Below is a full list of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic dialects from the North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Database Project (as of 2023):[6]
References
- ^ a b c Khan, G. (1 January 2007). "The North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects". Journal of Semitic Studies. 52 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1093/jss/fgl034.
- ^ Bird, Isabella, Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan, including a summer in the Upper Karun region and a visit to the Nestorian rayahs, London: J. Murray, 1891, vol. ii, pp. 282 and 306
- ^ Kim, Ronald (2008). ""Stammbaum" or Continuum? The Subgrouping of Modern Aramaic Dialects Reconsidered". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 128 (3): 505–531. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 25608409.
- ^ Heinrichs, Wolfhart (ed.) (1990). Studies in Neo-Aramaic. Scholars Press: Atlanta, Georgia. ISBN 1-55540-430-8.
- ^ "Redirected". 19 November 2019.
- ^ Khan, Geoffrey. "Dialects". The North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Database Project. Retrieved 2023-10-07.
Sources
- Coghill, Eleanor. "Some notable features in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic dialects of Iraq". Neo-Aramaic Dialect Studies. Gorgias Press. pp. 91–104. ISBN 978-1-4632-1161-5.
- Fox, Samuel Ethan (1994). "The Relationships of the Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 114 (2): 154–162. doi:10.2307/605827. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 605827.
- Fox, Samuel Ethan (2008). "North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic and the Middle Aramaic Dialects". Neo-Aramaic Dialect Studies. Gorgias Press. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-1-4632-1161-5.
- Gutman, Ariel (2018). Attributive constructions in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic. Language Science Press. ISBN 978-3-96110-081-1.
- Khan, Geoffrey (2007). "Grammatical borrowing in North-eastern Neo-Aramaic". Empirical Approaches to Language Typology [EALT]. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 197–214. doi:10.1515/9783110199192.197. ISBN 978-3-11-019919-2.
- Khan, Geoffrey (2012). "North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 708–724. ISBN 978-3-11-025158-6.
- Khan, Geoffrey; Napiorkowska, Lidia, eds. (2015). Neo-Aramaic in Its Linguistic Context. Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-4632-0410-5.
- Khan, Geoffrey (2018). "Remarks on the Historical Development and Syntax of the Copula in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects". Aramaic Studies. 16 (2): 234–269. doi:10.1163/17455227-01602010. S2CID 195503300.
- Khan, Geoffrey (2020). "The Perfect in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic". Perfects in Indo-European Languages and Beyond. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-6090-1.
- Khan, Geoffrey; Noorlander, Paul, eds. (2021). Studies in the Grammar and Lexicon of Neo-Aramaic. Semitic Languages and Cultures. Vol. 5. Open Book Publishers. doi:10.11647/OBP.0209. ISBN 978-1-78374-952-2. S2CID 231785174.
- Ragagnin, Elisabetta (2020). "Some Notes on Turkic and Mongolic Elements in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Varieties". Eine hundertblättrige Tulpe - Bir ṣadbarg lāla. De Gruyter. pp. 361–371. ISBN 978-3-11-220924-0.
- Mutzafi, Hezy (2005). "Etymological Notes on North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic". Aramaic Studies. 3 (1): 83–107. doi:10.1177/1477835105053516.
- Mutzafi, Hezy (2006). "On the Etymology of Some Enigmatic Words in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic". Aramaic Studies. 4 (1): 83–99. doi:10.1177/1477835106066037.
- Mutzafi, Hezy (2018). "Folk Etymology in the North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects". Aramaic Studies. 16 (2): 215–233. doi:10.1163/17455227-01602007. S2CID 195509710.
External links
- The North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Database Project by Geoffrey Khan et al. (University of Cambridge)