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'''Nootropics''' ({{IPAc-en|n|oʊ|.|ə|ˈ|t|r|ɒ|p|ᵻ|k|s}} {{respell|noh|ə|TROP|iks}}), also known as '''smart drugs''' and '''cognitive enhancers''', are [[drug]]s, [[dietary supplement|supplements]], and other substances that improve [[cognitive function]], particularly [[executive functions]], memory, creativity, or [[motivation]], in healthy individuals.<ref name="Smart drugs">{{cite journal | vauthors = Frati P, Kyriakou C, Del Rio A, Marinelli E, Vergallo GM, Zaami S, Busardò FP | title = Smart drugs and synthetic androgens for cognitive and physical enhancement: revolving doors of cosmetic neurology | journal = Curr Neuropharmacol | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–11 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 26074739 | pmc = 4462043 | doi = 10.2174/1570159X13666141210221750 }}</ref> While many substances are purported to improve cognition, research is at a preliminary stage as of 2018, and the effects of the majority of these agents are not fully determined. |
'''Nootropics''' ({{IPAc-en|n|oʊ|.|ə|ˈ|t|r|ɒ|p|ᵻ|k|s}} {{respell|noh|ə|TROP|iks}}), also known as '''smart drugs''' and '''cognitive enhancers''', are [[drug]]s, [[dietary supplement|supplements]], and other substances that may improve [[cognitive function]], particularly [[executive functions]], memory, creativity, or [[motivation]], in healthy individuals.<ref name="Smart drugs">{{cite journal | vauthors = Frati P, Kyriakou C, Del Rio A, Marinelli E, Vergallo GM, Zaami S, Busardò FP | title = Smart drugs and synthetic androgens for cognitive and physical enhancement: revolving doors of cosmetic neurology | journal = Curr Neuropharmacol | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–11 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 26074739 | pmc = 4462043 | doi = 10.2174/1570159X13666141210221750 }}</ref> While many substances are purported to improve cognition, research is at a preliminary stage as of 2018, and the effects of the majority of these agents are not fully determined. |
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The use of cognition-enhancing drugs by healthy individuals in the absence of a [[medical indication]] |
The use of cognition-enhancing drugs by healthy individuals in the absence of a [[medical indication]] spans numerous controversial issues, including the [[Medical ethics|ethics]] and fairness of their use, concerns over [[adverse effect]]s, and the [[drug diversion|diversion]] of [[prescription drug]]s for nonmedical uses, among others.<ref name="Smart drugs" /><ref name="Cognition-enhancing drug culture">{{cite journal | vauthors = Albertson TE, Chenoweth JA, Colby DK, Sutter ME | title = The Changing Drug Culture: Use and Misuse of Cognition-Enhancing Drugs | journal = FP Essent | volume = 441 | issue = | pages = 25–9 | year = 2016 | pmid = 26881770 | doi = | url = }}</ref> Nonetheless, the international sales of cognition-enhancing supplements exceeded {{currency|1|US}} billion in 2015 when global demand for these compounds grew.<ref name="BMJ nootropics">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chinthapalli K | title = The billion dollar business of being smart | journal = BMJ | volume = 351 | issue = | pages = h4829 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26370589 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.h4829 }}</ref> |
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The word ''nootropic'' was coined in 1972 by a Romanian psychologist and chemist, [[Corneliu E. Giurgea]],<ref name="isbn0-06-088473-8">{{Cite book|author=Gazzaniga, Michael S. |title=The Ethical Brain: The Science of Our Moral Dilemmas (P.S.) |publisher=Harper Perennial |location=New York, N.Y |year=2006 |page=184 |isbn=0-06-088473-8 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name="pmid4541214">{{Cite journal|author=Giurgea C |title=[Pharmacology of integrative activity of the brain. Attempt at nootropic concept in psychopharmacology] ("Vers une pharmacologie de l'active integrative du cerveau: Tentative du concept nootrope en psychopharmacologie") |language=French |journal=Actual Pharmacol (Paris) |volume=25 |issue= |pages=115–56 |year=1972 |pmid=4541214 |doi= |url=}}</ref> from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words νοῦς (''nous''), or "mind", and τρέπειν (''trepein''), meaning to bend or turn.<ref>{{cite web|title=nootropicTranslation|url=http://medicine.academic.ru/88188/nootropic|accessdate=October 6, 2014}}</ref> |
The word ''nootropic'' was coined in 1972 by a Romanian psychologist and chemist, [[Corneliu E. Giurgea]],<ref name="isbn0-06-088473-8">{{Cite book|author=Gazzaniga, Michael S. |title=The Ethical Brain: The Science of Our Moral Dilemmas (P.S.) |publisher=Harper Perennial |location=New York, N.Y |year=2006 |page=184 |isbn=0-06-088473-8 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name="pmid4541214">{{Cite journal|author=Giurgea C |title=[Pharmacology of integrative activity of the brain. Attempt at nootropic concept in psychopharmacology] ("Vers une pharmacologie de l'active integrative du cerveau: Tentative du concept nootrope en psychopharmacologie") |language=French |journal=Actual Pharmacol (Paris) |volume=25 |issue= |pages=115–56 |year=1972 |pmid=4541214 |doi= |url=}}</ref> from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words νοῦς (''nous''), or "mind", and τρέπειν (''trepein''), meaning to bend or turn.<ref>{{cite web|title=nootropicTranslation|url=http://medicine.academic.ru/88188/nootropic|accessdate=October 6, 2014}}</ref> |
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{{See also|Yerkes–Dodson law}} |
{{See also|Yerkes–Dodson law}} |
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[[Image:HebbianYerkesDodson.svg|thumb|right|Hebbian version of the [[Yerkes–Dodson law]] ]] |
[[Image:HebbianYerkesDodson.svg|thumb|right|Hebbian version of the [[Yerkes–Dodson law]] ]] |
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[[Systematic review]]s and [[meta-analyses]] of clinical research in humans established that certain [[central nervous system]] [[stimulant]]s, when used at low (therapeutic) concentrations, unambiguously enhance cognition in the healthy individuals;<ref name="Unambiguous PFC D1 A2" /><ref name="Cognitive and motivational effects">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ilieva IP, Hook CJ, Farah MJ | title = Prescription Stimulants' Effects on Healthy Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, and Episodic Memory: A Meta-analysis | journal = J. Cogn. Neurosci. | volume = 27| issue = | pages = 1–21 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25591060 | doi = 10.1162/jocn_a_00776 }}</ref><ref name="Systematic 2014 - Amph, MPH, Modafinil">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bagot KS, Kaminer Y | title = Efficacy of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in non-attention deficit hyperactivity disorder youth: a systematic review | journal = Addiction | volume = 109 | issue = 4 | pages = 547–557 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24749160 | doi = 10.1111/add.12460 | pmc=4471173}}</ref><ref name="Continuum" /> in particular, the classes of stimulants that demonstrate cognition-enhancing effects in humans act as [[receptor agonist|direct agonists]] or [[indirect agonist]]s of [[dopamine receptor D1|dopamine receptor D<sub>1</sub>]], [[Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor|adrenoceptor A<sub>2</sub>]], or both receptors in the [[prefrontal cortex]].<ref name="Unambiguous PFC D1 A2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Spencer RC, Devilbiss DM, Berridge CW | title = The Cognition-Enhancing Effects of Psychostimulants Involve Direct Action in the Prefrontal Cortex | journal = Biol. Psychiatry | volume = 77 | issue = 11 | pages = 940–950 | year = June 2015 | pmid = 25499957 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.09.013 | pmc=4377121}}</ref><ref name="Cognitive and motivational effects" /><ref name="Continuum">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wood S, Sage JR, Shuman T, Anagnostaras SG |title=Psychostimulants and cognition: a continuum of behavioral and cognitive activation |journal=Pharmacol. Rev. |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=193–221 |date=January 2014 |pmid=24344115 |doi=10.1124/pr.112.007054 |pmc=3880463}}</ref><ref name="NHMH_3e-Higher Cognitive Function" /> Relatively high doses of stimulants cause cognitive deficits.<ref name="Continuum" /><ref name="NHMH_3e-Higher Cognitive Function" /> |
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[[Systematic review]]s and [[meta-analyses]] of [[clinical research]] in humans established that certain [[central nervous system]] [[stimulant]]s, when taken at low doses, enhanced cognition in healthy people;<ref name="Unambiguous PFC D1 A2" /><ref name="Cognitive and motivational effects">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ilieva IP, Hook CJ, Farah MJ | title = Prescription Stimulants' Effects on Healthy Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, and Episodic Memory: A Meta-analysis | journal = J. Cogn. Neurosci. | volume = 27| issue = | pages = 1–21 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25591060 | doi = 10.1162/jocn_a_00776 }}</ref><ref name="Systematic 2014 - Amph, MPH, Modafinil">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bagot KS, Kaminer Y | title = Efficacy of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in non-attention deficit hyperactivity disorder youth: a systematic review | journal = Addiction | volume = 109 | issue = 4 | pages = 547–557 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24749160 | doi = 10.1111/add.12460 | pmc=4471173}}</ref> in particular, the classes of stimulants that demonstrated cognition-enhancing effects in humans act as [[receptor agonist|direct agonists]] or [[indirect agonist]]s of [[dopamine receptor D1|dopamine receptor D<sub>1</sub>]], [[Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor|adrenoceptor A<sub>2</sub>]], or both types of receptor in the [[prefrontal cortex]].<ref name="Unambiguous PFC D1 A2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Spencer RC, Devilbiss DM, Berridge CW | title = The Cognition-Enhancing Effects of Psychostimulants Involve Direct Action in the Prefrontal Cortex | journal = Biol. Psychiatry | volume = 77 | issue = 11 | pages = 940–950 | year = June 2015 | pmid = 25499957 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.09.013 | pmc=4377121}}</ref><ref name="Cognitive and motivational effects" /><ref name="Continuum">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wood S, Sage JR, Shuman T, Anagnostaras SG |title=Psychostimulants and cognition: a continuum of behavioral and cognitive activation |journal=Pharmacol. Rev. |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=193–221 |date=January 2014 |pmid=24344115 |doi=10.1124/pr.112.007054 |pmc=3880463}}</ref><ref name="NHMH_3e-Higher Cognitive Function">{{cite book | vauthors = Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2015 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 9780071827706 | edition = 3rd | chapter = Chapter 14: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control}}</ref> Relatively high doses of stimulants caused cognitive deficits.<ref name="Continuum" /><ref name="NHMH_3e-Higher Cognitive Function" /> |
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⚫ | * [[Methylphenidate]]{{snd}} a [[benzylpiperidine]] that |
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A 2014 systematic review noted that low doses of amphetamine also improved [[memory consolidation]], in turn leading to improved [[Recall (memory)|recall of information]] in non-ADHD youth.<ref name="Systematic 2014 - Amph, MPH, Modafinil" /> It also improved [[incentive salience|task saliency]] (motivation to perform a task) and performance on tedious tasks that required a high degree of effort.<ref name="Cognitive and motivational effects" /><ref name="Continuum" /><ref name="NHMH_3e-Higher Cognitive Function" /> |
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⚫ | * [[Eugeroics]] ([[armodafinil]] and [[modafinil]]){{snd}} are classified as |
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⚫ | * [[Methylphenidate]]{{snd}} a [[benzylpiperidine]] that had cognitive effects (e.g., [[working memory]], [[episodic memory]], and [[inhibitory control]], aspects of [[Attention#Clinical model|attention]], and planning latency) in healthy people.<ref name="Unambiguous PFC D1 A2" /><ref name="Cognitive and motivational effects" /><ref name="Systematic 2014 - Amph, MPH, Modafinil" /> It also may improve task saliency and performance on tedious tasks.<ref name="NHMH_3e-Higher Cognitive Function" /> At above optimal doses, methylphenidate had off–target effects that decreased learning.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Urban|first1=KR|last2=Gao|first2=WJ|title=Performance enhancement at the cost of potential brain plasticity: neural ramifications of nootropic drugs in the healthy developing brain.|journal=Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience|date=2014|volume=8|page=38|pmid=24860437|doi=10.3389/fnsys.2014.00038|pmc=4026746}}</ref> |
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⚫ | * [[Xanthines]] (most notably, [[caffeine]]){{snd}} shown to increase alertness, performance, and, in some studies, memory.<ref name="Continuum" /><ref>{{Cite journal| author = Rogers, P. |title = Caffeine, mood and mental performance in everyday life|journal = Psychology Today| volume = 32|issue = 1| pages = 84–89|year = 2007| doi = 10.1111/j.1467-3010.2007.00607.x}}</ref> Children and adults who |
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⚫ | * [[Eugeroics]] ([[armodafinil]] and [[modafinil]]){{snd}} are classified as "wakefulness promoting" agents; modafinil increased alertness, particularly in [[sleep deprived]] individuals, and was noted to facilitate reasoning and problem solving in non-ADHD youth.<ref name="Systematic 2014 - Amph, MPH, Modafinil" /><ref name="Mod">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mereu M, Bonci A, Newman AH, Tanda G | title = The neurobiology of modafinil as an enhancer of cognitive performance and a potential treatment for substance use disorders | journal = Psychopharmacology | volume = 229 | issue = 3 | pages = 415–34 |date=October 2013 | pmid = 23934211 | doi = 10.1007/s00213-013-3232-4 | pmc=3800148}}</ref> Modafinil did not produce improvements in mood, memory, and motivation in sleep deprived or non-sleep deprived individuals.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Meulen |first1=Ruud ter |last2=Hall |first2=Wayne |last3=Mohammed |first3=Ahmed |title=Rethinking Cognitive Enhancement |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198727392 |page=116 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aAIXDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |language=en}}</ref> |
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* [[Nicotine]]{{snd}} A meta-analysis of 41 [[double-blind]], [[placebo]]-controlled studies concluded that [[nicotine]] or smoking had significant positive effects on aspects of fine motor abilities, alerting and orienting attention, and episodic and working memory.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Meta-analysis of the acute effects of nicotine and smoking on human performance |vauthors=Heishman SJ, Kleykamp BA, Singleton EG |journal=[[Psychopharmacology (journal)|Psychopharmacology]] |volume=210 |issue=4 |pages=453–69 |date=June 2010 |pmid=20414766 |pmc=3151730 |doi=10.1007/s00213-010-1848-1}}</ref> A 2015 review noted that stimulation of the [[α4β2 nicotinic receptor]] can improve the performance of specific aspects of [[Attention#Clinical model|attention]];<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sarter M|title=Behavioral-cognitive targets for cholinergic enhancement|journal=Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences|date=August 2015|volume=4|pages=22–26|doi=10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.01.004}}</ref> among the [[nicotinic receptor]] subtypes, nicotine has the highest [[binding affinity]] at the α4β2 receptor (k<sub>i</sub>=1 {{abbr|nM|nanomolar}}), which is also the biological target that mediates nicotine's [[addictive]] properties.<ref name="Nicotine IUPHAR">{{cite web|title=Nicotine: Biological activity|url=http://www.guidetopharmacology.org/GRAC/LigandDisplayForward?tab=biology&ligandId=2585|website=IUPHAR/BPS Guide to Pharmacology|publisher=International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology|accessdate=February 7, 2016}}</ref> |
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⚫ | * [[Xanthines]] (most notably, [[caffeine]]){{snd}} were shown in a 2007 study to increase alertness, performance, and, in some studies, memory.<ref name="Continuum" /><ref>{{Cite journal| author = Rogers, P. |title = Caffeine, mood and mental performance in everyday life|journal = Psychology Today| volume = 32|issue = 1| pages = 84–89|year = 2007| doi = 10.1111/j.1467-3010.2007.00607.x}}</ref> Children and adults who consumed low doses of caffeine showed increased alertness, yet a higher dose was needed to improve performance.<ref name=Kiefer2007>{{Cite journal| author = Kiefer, I.|title = Brain Food|journal = Scientific American Mind| volume = 18|issue = 5| pages = 58–63|year = 2007| url = http://www.nature.com/scientificamericanmind/journal/v18/n5/full/scientificamericanmind1007-58.html| accessdate = November 1, 2009 | doi = 10.1038/scientificamericanmind1007-58}}</ref> |
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* [[Nicotine]]{{snd}} A meta-analysis of 41 preliminary human studies concluded that [[nicotine]] or smoking caused small improvements in fine motor abilities, alerting and orienting attention, and episodic and working memory.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Meta-analysis of the acute effects of nicotine and smoking on human performance |vauthors=Heishman SJ, Kleykamp BA, Singleton EG |journal=[[Psychopharmacology (journal)|Psychopharmacology]] |volume=210 |issue=4 |pages=453–69 |date=June 2010 |pmid=20414766 |pmc=3151730 |doi=10.1007/s00213-010-1848-1}}</ref> |
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===Racetams=== |
===Racetams=== |
Revision as of 18:28, 12 July 2018
Nootropics (/noʊ.əˈtrɒpɪks/ noh-ə-TROP-iks), also known as smart drugs and cognitive enhancers, are drugs, supplements, and other substances that may improve cognitive function, particularly executive functions, memory, creativity, or motivation, in healthy individuals.[1] While many substances are purported to improve cognition, research is at a preliminary stage as of 2018, and the effects of the majority of these agents are not fully determined.
The use of cognition-enhancing drugs by healthy individuals in the absence of a medical indication spans numerous controversial issues, including the ethics and fairness of their use, concerns over adverse effects, and the diversion of prescription drugs for nonmedical uses, among others.[1][2] Nonetheless, the international sales of cognition-enhancing supplements exceeded US$1 billion in 2015 when global demand for these compounds grew.[3]
The word nootropic was coined in 1972 by a Romanian psychologist and chemist, Corneliu E. Giurgea,[4][5] from the Greek words νοῦς (nous), or "mind", and τρέπειν (trepein), meaning to bend or turn.[6]
Availability and prevalence
In 2008, the most commonly used class of drug was stimulants, such as caffeine.[7] Manufacturer's marketing claims for dietary supplements are usually not formally tested and verified by independent entities.[8]
Use by students
The use of prescription stimulants is especially prevalent among students.[9] Surveys suggest that 0.7–4.5% of German students have used cognitive enhancers in their lifetime.[10][11][12] Stimulants such as dimethylamylamine and methylphenidate are used on college campuses and by younger groups.[13] Based upon studies of self-reported illicit stimulant use, 5–35% of college students use diverted ADHD stimulants, which are primarily intended for performance enhancement rather than as recreational drugs.[14][15][16] Several factors positively and negatively influence an individual's willingness to use a drug for the purpose of enhancing cognitive performance. Among them are personal characteristics, drug characteristics, and characteristics of the social context.[10][11][17][18]
Side effects
The main concern with pharmaceutical drugs is adverse effects, which also apply to nootropics with undefined effects. Long-term safety evidence is typically unavailable for nootropics.[13] Racetams — piracetam and other compounds that are structurally related to piracetam — have few serious adverse effects and low toxicity, but there is little evidence that they enhance cognition in people having no cognitive impairments.[19]
In the United States, dietary supplements may be marketed if the manufacturer can show that the supplement is generally recognized as safe, and if the manufacturer does not make any claims about using the supplement to treat or prevent any disease or condition; supplements that contain drugs or advertise health claims are illegal under US law.[20]
Drugs
Central nervous system stimulants
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/HebbianYerkesDodson.svg/220px-HebbianYerkesDodson.svg.png)
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of clinical research in humans established that certain central nervous system stimulants, when taken at low doses, enhanced cognition in healthy people;[21][22][23] in particular, the classes of stimulants that demonstrated cognition-enhancing effects in humans act as direct agonists or indirect agonists of dopamine receptor D1, adrenoceptor A2, or both types of receptor in the prefrontal cortex.[21][22][24][25] Relatively high doses of stimulants caused cognitive deficits.[24][25]
A 2014 systematic review noted that low doses of amphetamine also improved memory consolidation, in turn leading to improved recall of information in non-ADHD youth.[23] It also improved task saliency (motivation to perform a task) and performance on tedious tasks that required a high degree of effort.[22][24][25]
- Methylphenidate – a benzylpiperidine that had cognitive effects (e.g., working memory, episodic memory, and inhibitory control, aspects of attention, and planning latency) in healthy people.[21][22][23] It also may improve task saliency and performance on tedious tasks.[25] At above optimal doses, methylphenidate had off–target effects that decreased learning.[26]
- Eugeroics (armodafinil and modafinil) – are classified as "wakefulness promoting" agents; modafinil increased alertness, particularly in sleep deprived individuals, and was noted to facilitate reasoning and problem solving in non-ADHD youth.[23][27] Modafinil did not produce improvements in mood, memory, and motivation in sleep deprived or non-sleep deprived individuals.[28]
- Xanthines (most notably, caffeine) – were shown in a 2007 study to increase alertness, performance, and, in some studies, memory.[24][29] Children and adults who consumed low doses of caffeine showed increased alertness, yet a higher dose was needed to improve performance.[30]
- Nicotine – A meta-analysis of 41 preliminary human studies concluded that nicotine or smoking caused small improvements in fine motor abilities, alerting and orienting attention, and episodic and working memory.[31]
Racetams
Racetams, such as piracetam, oxiracetam, and aniracetam, which are often marketed as cognitive enhancers and sold over-the-counter. Racetams are often referred to as nootropics, but this property is not well established.[32] The racetams have poorly understood mechanisms, although piracetam and aniracetam are known to act as positive allosteric modulators of AMPA receptors and appear to modulate cholinergic systems.[33]
According to the US Food and Drug Administration, "Piracetam is not a vitamin, mineral, amino acid, herb or other botanical, or dietary substance for use by man to supplement the diet by increasing the total dietary intake. Further, piracetam is not a concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract or combination of any such dietary ingredient. [...] Accordingly, these products are drugs, under section 201(g)(1)(C) of the Act, 21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)(C), because they are not foods and they are intended to affect the structure or any function of the body. Moreover, these products are new drugs as defined by section 201(p) of the Act, 21 U.S.C. § 321(p), because they are not generally recognized as safe and effective for use under the conditions prescribed, recommended, or suggested in their labeling."[34]
Miscellaneous
- L-Theanine – A 2014 systematic review and meta-analysis found that concurrent caffeine and L-theanine use had synergistic psychoactive effects that promoted alertness, attention, and task switching;[35] these effects were most pronounced during the first hour post-dose.[35] However, the European Food Safety Authority reported that, when L-theanine is used by itself (i.e. without caffeine), there is insufficient information to determine if these effects exist.[36]
- Tolcapone – a systematic review noted that it improved verbal episodic memory and episodic memory encoding.[37]
- Levodopa – a systematic review noted that it improved verbal episodic memory and episodic memory encoding.[37]
- Atomoxetine – may improve working memory and attention when used at certain doses.[25]
Dietary supplements
- Panax ginseng – A review by the Cochrane Collaboration concluded that "there is a lack of convincing evidence to show a cognitive enhancing effect of Panax ginseng in healthy participants and no high quality evidence about its efficacy in patients with dementia."[38] According to the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, "[a]lthough Asian ginseng has been widely studied for a variety of uses, research results to date do not conclusively support health claims associated with the herb."[39]
- Ginkgo biloba – An extract of Ginkgo biloba leaf is marketed in dietary supplement form with claims it can enhance cognitive function in people without known cognitive problems, although there is no high-quality evidence to support such effects on memory or attention in healthy people.[40][41]
Null findings in systematic reviews
- Omega-3 fatty acids: DHA and EPA – two Cochrane Collaboration reviews on the use of supplemental omega-3 fatty acids for ADHD and learning disorders conclude that there is limited evidence of treatment benefits for either disorder.[42][43] Two other systematic reviews noted no cognition-enhancing effects in the general population or middle-aged and older adults.[44][45]
- Folate – no cognition-enhancing effects in middle-aged and older adults.[45]
- Vitamin B6 – no cognition-enhancing effects in middle-aged and older adults.[45]
- Vitamin B12 – no cognition-enhancing effects in middle-aged and older adults.[45]
- Vitamin E – no cognition-enhancing effects in middle-aged and older adults.[45]
- Pramipexole – no significant cognition-enhancing effects in healthy individuals.[37]
- Guanfacine – no significant cognition-enhancing effects in healthy individuals.[37]
- Clonidine – no significant cognition-enhancing effects in healthy individuals.[37]
- Fexofenadine – no significant cognition-enhancing effects in healthy individuals.[37]
- Salvia officinalis – Although some evidence is suggestive of cognition benefits, the study quality is so poor that no conclusions can be drawn from it.[46]
See also
- Cognitive science
- Human enhancement
- List of drugs used by militaries
- Neurobiological effects of physical exercise § Cognitive control and memory
- Neuroenhancement
- Contentment
References
- ^ a b Frati P, Kyriakou C, Del Rio A, Marinelli E, Vergallo GM, Zaami S, Busardò FP (January 2015). "Smart drugs and synthetic androgens for cognitive and physical enhancement: revolving doors of cosmetic neurology". Curr Neuropharmacol. 13 (1): 5–11. doi:10.2174/1570159X13666141210221750. PMC 4462043. PMID 26074739.
- ^ Albertson TE, Chenoweth JA, Colby DK, Sutter ME (2016). "The Changing Drug Culture: Use and Misuse of Cognition-Enhancing Drugs". FP Essent. 441: 25–9. PMID 26881770.
- ^ Chinthapalli K (September 2015). "The billion dollar business of being smart". BMJ. 351: h4829. doi:10.1136/bmj.h4829. PMID 26370589.
- ^ Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2006). The Ethical Brain: The Science of Our Moral Dilemmas (P.S.). New York, N.Y: Harper Perennial. p. 184. ISBN 0-06-088473-8.
- ^ Giurgea C (1972). "[Pharmacology of integrative activity of the brain. Attempt at nootropic concept in psychopharmacology] ("Vers une pharmacologie de l'active integrative du cerveau: Tentative du concept nootrope en psychopharmacologie")". Actual Pharmacol (Paris) (in French). 25: 115–56. PMID 4541214.
- ^ "nootropicTranslation". Retrieved October 6, 2014.
- ^ Greely, Henry; Sahakian, Barbara; Harris, John; Kessler, Ronald C.; Gazzaniga, Michael; Campbell, Philip; Farah, Martha J. (December 10, 2008). "Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy". Nature. 456 (7223). Nature Publishing Group: 702–705. Bibcode:2008Natur.456..702G. doi:10.1038/456702a. ISSN 1476-4687. OCLC 01586310. PMID 19060880. Retrieved March 25, 2014.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (|url-access=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Dietary Supplements: What You Need to Know". US Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved February 14, 2015.
- ^ McCabe, Sean Esteban; Knight, John R.; Teter, Christian J.; Wechsler, Henry (January 1, 2005). "Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: prevalence and correlates from a national survey". Addiction. 100 (1): 96–106. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.00944.x. PMID 15598197.
- ^ a b Sattler, S.; Sauer, C.; Mehlkop, G.; Graeff, P. (2013). "The Rationale for Consuming Cognitive Enhancement Drugs in University Students and Teachers". PLoS ONE. 8 (7): e68821. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...868821S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068821. PMC 3714277. PMID 23874778.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ a b Sattler, Sebastian; Wiegel, Constantin (February 25, 2013). "Cognitive Test Anxiety and Cognitive Enhancement: The Influence of Students' Worries on Their Use of Performance-Enhancing Drugs". Substance Use & Misuse. 48 (3). Informa Healthcare New York: 220–232. doi:10.3109/10826084.2012.751426. Retrieved April 5, 2014.
- ^ Bossaer, John. "The Use and Misuse of Prescription Stimulants as "Cognitive Enhancers" by Students at One Academic Health Sciences Center". Academic Medicine. Archived from the original on April 10, 2015. Retrieved October 6, 2014.
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