Volunteer Marek (talk | contribs) you're the one who started this, you're the one who has been reverted by multiple editors, you're the one using a non-reliable sources. You get consensus. |
Kind Tennis Fan (talk | contribs) |
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{{Short description|Intergovernmental military alliance}} |
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{{Redirect|OTAN|other uses|NATO (disambiguation)|and|OTAN (disambiguation)}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}} |
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{{Use Oxford spelling|date=July 2021}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024|cs1-dates=l}} |
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{{Coord|50|52|34.16|N|4|25|19.24|E|type:landmark|display=title}} |
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{{Infobox |
{{Infobox organization |
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|name=North Atlantic Treaty Organization |
| name = North Atlantic Treaty Organization |
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|native_name=''{{lang|fr|Organisation du |
| native_name = ''{{lang|fr|Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord}}'' |
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| native_name_lang = fr |
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|abbreviation = NATO, ''{{lang|fr|OTAN}}'' |
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| logo = NATO OTAN landscape logo.svg |
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| logo_size = 150px |
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|image_size=125px |
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| logo_caption = Logo |
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|caption=[[Flag of NATO|Flag]]<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.nato.int/multi/natologo.htm|title= The official Emblem of NATO|accessdate=20 February 2008 |publisher=NATO}}</ref> |
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| image = NATO flag.svg{{!}}border |
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|map=North Atlantic Treaty Organization (orthographic projection).svg |
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| image_size = 125px |
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|msize = 220px |
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| caption = [[Flag of NATO|Flag]] |
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| map = North Atlantic Treaty Organization (orthographic projection) in NATO blue.svg |
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|type=[[Military alliance]] |
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| msize = 250px |
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|motto= ''[[Animus in consulendo liber]]''<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/multi/animus.htm |title= The Official motto of NATO |work= NATO |date= 20 January 2011 |accessdate= 8 August 2013}}</ref> |
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| mcaption = Member states shown in dark blue |
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|headquarters=[[Brussels]], Belgium |
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| abbreviation = NATO, ''{{lang|fr|OTAN}}'' |
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|membership={{Collapsible list |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;|title=[[Member states of NATO|28 states]]|{{flagicon|ALB|size=22px}} [[Albania]] |{{flagicon|BEL|size=22px}} [[Belgium]] |{{flagicon|BUL|size=22px}} [[Bulgaria]] |{{flagicon|CAN|size=22px}} [[Canada]] |{{flagicon|CRO|size=22px}} [[Croatia]] |{{flagicon|CZE|size=22px}} [[Czech Republic]] |{{flagicon|DEN|size=22px}} [[Denmark]] |{{flagicon|EST|size=22px}} [[Estonia]] |{{flagicon|FRA|size=22px}} [[France]] |{{flagicon|GER|size=22px}} [[Germany]] |{{flagicon|GRE|size=22px}} [[Greece]] |{{flagicon|HUN|size=22px}} [[Hungary]] |{{flagicon|ISL|size=22px}} [[Iceland]] |{{flagicon|ITA|size=22px}} [[Italy]] |{{flagicon|LVA|size=22px}} [[Latvia]] |{{flagicon|LTU|size=22px}} [[Lithuania]] |{{flagicon|LUX|size=22px}} [[Luxembourg]] |{{flagicon|NED|size=22px}} [[Netherlands]] |{{flagicon|NOR|size=22px}} [[Norway]] |{{flagicon|POL|size=22px}} [[Poland]] |{{flagicon|POR|size=22px}} [[Portugal]] |{{flagicon|ROU|size=22px}} [[Romania]] |{{flagicon|SVK|size=22px}} [[Slovakia]] |{{flagicon|SVN|size=22px}} [[Slovenia]] |{{flagicon|ESP|size=22px}} [[Spain]] |{{flagicon|TUR|size=22px}} [[Turkey]] |{{flagicon|UK|size=22px}} [[United Kingdom]] |{{flagicon|USA|size=22px}} [[United States]]}} |
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| formation = {{Start date and age|1949|4|4|df=y|p=y}} |
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|language=[[English language|English]]<br>[[French language|French]]<ref>"English and French shall be the official languages for the entire North Atlantic Treaty Organization.", [http://www.nato.int/docu/comm/49-95/c490917a.htm Final Communiqué following the meeting of the North Atlantic Council on 17 September 1949]. "(..) the English and French texts [of the Treaty] are equally authentic (...)" [http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/official_texts_17120.htm The North Atlantic Treaty, Article 14]</ref> |
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| type = [[Military alliance]] |
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|leader_title=[[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe#Supreme Allied Commander Europe .28SACEUR.29|Supreme Allied Commander (SACEUR)]] |
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| headquarters = [[Brussels]], Belgium |
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|leader_name=[[Philip M. Breedlove]] |
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| expenses = '''Total''': {{USD|1.264 trillion|link=yes}}<br /> |
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|leader_title2=[[Secretary General of NATO|Secretary General]] |
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'''Excluding the US''': {{USD|404 billion|link=yes}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/2023/7/pdf/230707-def-exp-2023-en.pdf|title=Defence Expenditure of NATO Countries (2014–2023)|website=NATO|access-date=20 November 2023|archive-date=15 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715092752/https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/2023/7/pdf/230707-def-exp-2023-en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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|leader_name2=[[Jens Stoltenberg]] |
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| expenses_year = 2023 |
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|leader_title3={{nowrap|[[Chairman of the NATO Military Committee|Chairman of the NATO<br>Military Committee]]}} |
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| membership = {{Collapsible list|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; |
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|leader_name3=[[Petr Pavel]] |
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|title = [[Member states of NATO|32 states]] |
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|formation=4 April 1949 |
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|{{flaglist|Albania}} |
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|website={{URL|nato.int}} |
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|{{flaglist|Belgium}} |
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|{{flaglist|Bulgaria}} |
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|{{flaglist|Canada}} |
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|{{flaglist|Croatia}} |
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|{{nowrap|{{flaglist|Czech Republic}}}} |
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|{{flaglist|Denmark}} |
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|{{flaglist|Estonia}} |
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|{{flaglist|Finland}} |
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|{{flaglist|France}} |
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|{{flaglist|Germany}} |
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|{{flaglist|Greece}} |
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|{{flaglist|Hungary}} |
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|{{flaglist|Iceland}} |
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|{{flaglist|Italy}} |
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|{{flaglist|Latvia}} |
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|{{flaglist|Lithuania}} |
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|{{flaglist|Luxembourg}} |
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|{{flaglist|Montenegro}} |
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|{{flaglist|Netherlands}} |
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|{{nowrap|{{flaglist|North Macedonia}}}} |
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|{{flaglist|Norway}} |
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|{{flaglist|Poland}} |
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|{{flaglist|Portugal}} |
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|{{flaglist|Romania}} |
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|{{flaglist|Slovakia}} |
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|{{flaglist|Slovenia}} |
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|{{flaglist|Spain}} |
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|{{flaglist|Sweden}} |
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|{{flaglist|Turkey}} |
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|{{nowrap|{{flaglist|United Kingdom}}}} |
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|{{nowrap|{{flaglist|United States}}}} |
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}} |
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| languages = {{hlist|[[English language|English]]|[[French language|French]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 September 1949 |title=Final Communiqué |url=https://www.nato.int/docu/comm/49-95/c490917a.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206002220/http://www.nato.int/docu/comm/49-95/c490917a.htm |archive-date=6 December 2006 |access-date=2 March 2024 |website=www.nato.int |quote=English and French shall be the official languages for the entire North Atlantic Treaty Organization.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=NATO |date=4 April 1949 |title=The North Atlantic Treaty |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_17120.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914102953/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/official_texts_17120.htm |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=2 March 2024 |website=NATO |language=en |quote=This Treaty, of which the English and French texts are equally authentic}}.</ref>}} |
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| leader_title = [[Secretary General of NATO|Secretary General]] |
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| leader_name = [[Jens Stoltenberg]] |
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| leader_title2 = [[Chair of the NATO Military Committee]] |
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| leader_name2 = [[Rob Bauer]] |
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| leader_title3 = [[Supreme Allied Commander Europe]] |
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| leader_name3 = [[Christopher G. Cavoli]] |
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| leader_title4 = [[Allied Command Transformation#Supreme Allied Commander Transformation|Supreme Allied Commander Transformation]] |
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| leader_name4 = [[Philippe Lavigne]] |
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| website = {{URL|https://www.nato.int/|nato.int}} |
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| footnotes = {{center|'''Anthem:''' "[[The NATO Hymn]]" }}{{center|'''Motto:''' "[[Animus in consulendo liber]]" }} |
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}} |
}} |
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The '''North Atlantic Treaty Organization''' ('''NATO''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|eɪ|t|oʊ}} {{respell|NAY|toh}}; {{lang-fr|Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord}}, '''OTAN'''), also called the '''North Atlantic Alliance''', is an [[intergovernmental organization|intergovernmental]] [[military alliance]] of 32 [[Member states of NATO|member states]]—30 European<!-- Please do not change into something like "29 European and 1 Asian" (or "1 transcontinental" or "1 Eurasian") because of Turkey. Current consensus, as established in [[Talk:NATO/Archive 4#Eurasian?]], is to consider Turkey as European for this purpose (the definition of 'Europe' here is more political than geographical). If we were going to be geographically rigorous, we would have to remember that Portugal, Spain, France, the Netherlands and the UK all have territory in several other continents as well. --> and 2 North American. Established in the [[aftermath of World War II]], the organization implements the [[North Atlantic Treaty]], signed in [[Washington, D.C.]], on 4 April 1949.<ref name="NATO Homepage">{{cite web |date=n.d. |title=What is NATO? |url=https://www.nato.int/nato-welcome/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228095023/https://www.nato.int/nato-welcome/index.html |archive-date=28 February 2022 |access-date=3 March 2022 |website=NATO – Homepage |publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Cook |first1=Lorne |date=25 May 2017 |title=NATO, the world's biggest military alliance, explained |website=[[Military Times]] |agency=Associated Press |url=https://www.militarytimes.com/news/pentagon-congress/2017/05/25/nato-the-world-s-biggest-military-alliance-explained/ |url-status=live |access-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525215404/http://www.militarytimes.com/articles/nato-the-worlds-biggest-military-alliance-explained |archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref> NATO is a [[collective security]] system: its independent member states agree to defend each other against attacks by third parties. During the [[Cold War]], NATO operated as a check on the threat posed by the [[Soviet Union]]. The alliance remained in place after the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] and the [[Warsaw Pact]], and has been involved in military operations in the [[Balkans]], the [[Middle East]], [[South Asia]] and Africa. The organization's motto is {{langnf|la|[[animus in consulendo liber]]|a mind unfettered in deliberation}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/multi/animus.htm |title=Animus in consulendo liber |publisher=NATO |accessdate=23 March 2015 |archive-date=9 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109002130/http://www.nato.int/multi/animus.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The organization's strategic concepts include [[Deterrence theory|deterrence]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14751798.2023.2270230 |title=Szenes, Zoltan. "Reinforcing deterrence: assessing NATO's 2022 Strategic Concept." Defense & Security Analysis 39.4 (2023): 539–560. |doi=10.1080/14751798.2023.2270230 |access-date=7 March 2024 |archive-date=31 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331123940/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14751798.2023.2270230 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[NATO headquarters|NATO's main headquarters]] are located in [[Brussels]], Belgium, while [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|NATO's military headquarters]] are near [[Mons, Belgium|Mons]], Belgium. The alliance has increased its [[NATO Response Force]] deployments in Eastern Europe,<ref>{{Cite web |title=NATO to accelerate deployment of up to 300,000 soldiers on eastern border |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2023/03/19/7394109/ |access-date=14 June 2023 |website=Ukrainska Pravda |language=en |archive-date=19 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319140033/https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2023/03/19/7394109/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the combined militaries of all [[Member states of NATO|NATO members]] include around 3.5 million soldiers and personnel.<ref>{{cite news |last=Batchelor |first=Tom |date=9 March 2022 |title=Where are Nato troops stationed and how many are deployed across Europe? |newspaper=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/nato-troops-russia-ukraine-estonia-map-b2031894.html |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=8 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608211009/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/nato-troops-russia-ukraine-estonia-map-b2031894.html |url-status=live }}</ref> All member states together cover an area of 25.07 million km² and about 966.88 million people.<ref>"[https://www.worlddata.info/alliances/nato.php] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309125749/https://www.worlddata.info/alliances/nato.php|date=9 March 2024}}." worlddata.info. Retrieved on 9 March 2024. "Members of the NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization."</ref> Their combined military spending {{as of|2022|lc=on}} constituted around 55 percent of [[List of countries by military expenditures|the global nominal total]].<ref name="sipri1">{{cite web |date=24 April 2023 |title=World military expenditure reaches new record high as European spending surges |url=https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2023/world-military-expenditure-reaches-new-record-high-european-spending-surges |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428171848/https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2023/world-military-expenditure-reaches-new-record-high-european-spending-surges |archive-date=28 April 2023 |access-date=29 April 2023 |website=SIPRI |publisher= |url-status=live }}</ref> Moreover, members have agreed to reach or maintain the target defence spending of at least two percent of their [[GDP]] by 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |last=NATO |title=The Wales Declaration on the Transatlantic Bond |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_112985.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180610061817/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_112985.htm |archive-date=10 June 2018 |access-date=2 March 2024 |website=NATO |language=en}}</ref><ref name="NYT spending">{{Cite news |last=Erlanger |first=Steven |date=26 March 2014 |title=Europe Begins to Rethink Cuts to Military Spending |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/27/world/europe/europe-begins-to-rethink-cuts.html |url-status=live |access-date=3 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329132620/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/27/world/europe/europe-begins-to-rethink-cuts.html |archive-date=29 March 2014 |quote=Last year, only a handful of NATO countries met the target, according to NATO figures, including the United States, at 4.1 percent, and Britain, at 2.4 percent.}}</ref> |
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NATO formed with [[North Atlantic Treaty#Founding members|twelve founding members]] and has [[Enlargement of NATO|added new members]] ten times, most recently when [[Sweden]] joined the alliance on 7 March 2024.<ref name="swe-membership-final">{{cite web|title=Notification Reference No. 2024-008|url=https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/NATO-Sweden-Accession-Protocol-Notification-of-Entry-Into-Force-March-7-2024.pdf|website=United States Department of State|date=7 March 2024|access-date=7 March 2024|archive-date=7 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307141956/https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/NATO-Sweden-Accession-Protocol-Notification-of-Entry-Into-Force-March-7-2024.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition, NATO currently recognizes [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and [[Ukraine]] as aspiring members.<ref name="NATO Homepage" /> Enlargement has led to tensions with non-member [[Russia]], one of the 18 additional countries participating in NATO's [[Partnership for Peace]] programme. Another nineteen countries are involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes with NATO. |
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NATO was little more than a political association until the [[Korean War]] galvanized the organization's member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two US supreme commanders. The course of the [[Cold War]] led to a rivalry with nations of the [[Warsaw Pact]], which formed in 1955. Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion—doubts that led to the development of the [[Strike Force (France)|independent French nuclear deterrent]] and the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure in 1966 for 30 years. After the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] in 1989, the organization was drawn into the [[breakup of Yugoslavia]], and conducted its first military interventions in [[NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia from 1992 to 1995]] and later [[1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia in 1999]]. Politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. |
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[[s:North Atlantic Treaty#Article 5|Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty]], requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the [[September 11 attacks|11 September 2001 attacks]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Invocation of Article 5 confirmed |url=http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2001/1001/e1002a.htm |work=North Atlantic Treaty Organization |accessdate=January 29, 2013}}</ref> after which troops were deployed to [[Afghanistan]] under the NATO-led [[International Security Assistance Force|ISAF]]. The organization has operated a range of additional roles since then, including sending [[NATO Training Mission – Iraq|trainers to Iraq]], assisting in counter-piracy operations<ref>{{cite web |title=Counter-piracy operations |url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_48815.htm |work=North Atlantic Treaty Organization |accessdate=27 May 2011}}</ref> and in 2011 enforcing a [[no-fly zone]] [[2011 military intervention in Libya|over Libya]] in accordance with [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973|U.N. Security Council Resolution 1973]]. The less potent Article 4, which merely invokes consultation among NATO members, has been invoked five times: by [[Turkey]] in 2003 over the [[Iraq War]]; twice in 2012 by Turkey over the [[Syrian Civil War]], after the [[June 2012 interception of Turkish aircraft|downing]] of an unarmed Turkish [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F-4 reconnaissance jet]], and after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria;<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/03/us-syria-crisis-alliance-idUSBRE8921F220121003 |title= NATO demands halt to Syria aggression against Turkey |work= [[Reuters]] |first= Adrian |last= Croft |date= 3 October 2012 |accessdate= 3 October 2012}}</ref> in 2014 by Poland, following the [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|Russian intervention in Crimea]];<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/news_107716.htm |title= Statement by the North Atlantic Council following meeting under article 4 of the Washington Treaty |work= NATO Newsroom |date= 4 March 2014 |accessdate= 2 April 2014}}</ref> and again by Turkey in 2015 after threats by [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|the Islamic State]] to its territorial integrity.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/26/middleeast/turkey-nato-talks/index.html |title=Turkey calls for rare NATO talks after attacks along Syrian border |last1=Ford |first1=Dana |date=26 July 2015 |website=www.cnn.com |publisher=CNN |accessdate=26 July 2015}}</ref> |
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== History == |
== History == |
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{{Main|History of NATO}} |
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=== |
=== 20th century === |
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The [[Treaty of Dunkirk]] was signed by France and the United Kingdom on 4 March 1947, during the [[aftermath of World War II]] and the [[Cold War (1947–1953)|start of the Cold War]], as a ''Treaty of Alliance and Mutual Assistance'' in the event of possible attacks by Germany or the [[Soviet Union]]. In March 1948, this alliance was expanded in the [[Treaty of Brussels]] to include the [[Benelux]] countries, forming the Brussels Treaty Organization, commonly known as the [[Western Union (alliance)|Western Union]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.cvce.eu/en/collections/unit-content/-/unit/d5906df5-4f83-4603-85f7-0cabc24b9fe1/051bd03c-4887-4f53-82eb-0f12e59f8dbd |title= The origins of WEU: Western Union |website= University of Luxembourg |date= December 2009 |access-date= 23 July 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180621020009/https://www.cvce.eu/en/collections/unit-content/-/unit/d5906df5-4f83-4603-85f7-0cabc24b9fe1/051bd03c-4887-4f53-82eb-0f12e59f8dbd |archive-date= 21 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Talks for a wider military alliance, which could include North America, also began that month in the United States, where their foreign policy under the [[Truman Doctrine]] promoted international solidarity against actions they saw as communist aggression, such as the [[1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état|February 1948 coup d'état in Czechoslovakia]]. These talks resulted in the signature of the [[North Atlantic Treaty]] on 4 April 1949 by the member states of the Western Union plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland.<ref name=history>{{cite web |url= http://nato.int/cps/en/natohq/declassified_139339.htm |title= A short history of NATO |publisher= NATO |access-date= 26 March 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170326231233/http://nato.int/cps/en/natohq/declassified_139339.htm |archive-date= 26 March 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Canadian diplomat [[Lester B. Pearson]] was a key author and drafter of the treaty.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/declassified_161511.htm | title=Canada and NATO – 1949 | access-date=14 April 2022 | archive-date=8 April 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408074851/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/declassified_161511.htm | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8LgDutkaOU0C&dq=%22author+of+the+north+atlantic+treaty%22&pg=PA293 |title=Speaking Out: A Congressman's Lifelong Fight Against Bigotry, Famine, and War |isbn=9781569768914 |accessdate=24 April 2022 |last1=Findley |first1=Paul |year=2011 |publisher=Chicago Review Press, Incorporated |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404032047/https://books.google.com/books?id=8LgDutkaOU0C&dq=%22author+of+the+north+atlantic+treaty%22&pg=PA293 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nktsAAAAIAAJ&q=%22founder+of+the+north+atlantic+treaty%22 |title=The McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography: An International Reference Work |year=1973 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=9780070796331 |accessdate=24 April 2022 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404085605/https://books.google.com/books?id=nktsAAAAIAAJ&q=%22founder+of+the+north+atlantic+treaty%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[File:Truman signing North Atlantic Treaty.jpg|thumb|The [[North Atlantic Treaty]] was signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949 and was ratified by the United States that August.|alt=Eleven men in suits stand around a large desk at which another man is signing a document.]] |
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The [[Treaty of Brussels]], signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the United Kingdom, is considered the precursor to the NATO agreement. The treaty and the Soviet [[Berlin Blockade]] led to the creation of the [[Western European Union]]'s Defence Organization in September 1948.{{sfn|Isby|Kamps Jr.|1985|p=13}} However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the [[Soviet Armed Forces|military power of the USSR]] and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism, so talks for a new military alliance began almost immediately resulting in the [[North Atlantic Treaty]], which was signed in Washington, D.C. on 4 April 1949. It included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland.<ref name=history>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/history/nato-history.html |title= A short history of NATO |publisher= NATO |date= 2 April 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> The first [[Secretary General of NATO|NATO Secretary General]], [[Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay|Lord Ismay]], stated in 1949 that the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down."{{sfn|Reynolds|1994|p=13}} Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a [[1949 anti-NATO riot in Iceland|pro-neutrality, anti-membership riot]] in March 1949. The creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called [[Atlanticism]] which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation.<ref name=Straus>{{cite journal|last=Straus|first=Ira|title=Atlanticism as the core 20 th century U.S. strategy for internationalism|journal=Streit Council|date=June 2005|series=Annual Meeting of the Society of Historians of American Foreign Relations|url=http://streitcouncil.org/uploads/PDF/Straus-%20Atlanticism%20as%20the%20core%2020th%20century%20US%20Strategy%20for%20internationalism.pdf|accessdate=10 July 2013}}</ref> |
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The members agreed that an armed attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. Consequently, they agreed that, if an armed attack occurred, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence, would assist the member being attacked, taking such action as it deemed necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor. Although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which clearly states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily. The treaty was later clarified to include both the member's territory and their "vessels, forces or aircraft" above the Tropic of Cancer, including some [[Overseas departments]] of France.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/official_texts_17245.htm |title= Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of Greece and Turkey |work= NATO |date= 4 April 1949 |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> |
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The creation of NATO brought about some [[standardization]] of allied [[military terminology]], procedures, and technology, which in many cases meant European countries adopting US practices. The roughly 1300 [[Standardization Agreement]]s (STANAG) codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved. Hence, the [[7.62x51mm NATO|7.62×51 NATO]] rifle cartridge was introduced in the 1950s as a standard firearm cartridge among many NATO countries. [[Fabrique Nationale de Herstal]]'s [[FN FAL|FAL]], which used 7.62 NATO cartridge, was adopted by 75 countries, including many outside of NATO.{{sfn|Willbanks|2004|pp=129–130}} Also, [[aircraft marshalling|aircraft marshalling signals]] were standardized, so that any NATO aircraft could land at any NATO base. Other standards such as the [[NATO phonetic alphabet]] have made their way beyond NATO into civilian use. |
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=== Cold War === |
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{{Main|Cold War}} |
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The outbreak of the [[Korean War]] in June 1950 was crucial for NATO as it raised the apparent threat of all Communist countries working together, and forced the alliance to develop concrete military plans.{{sfn|Isby|Kamps Jr.|1985|pp=13–14}} [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe]] (SHAPE) was formed to direct forces in Europe, and began work under Supreme Allied Commander [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in January 1951.<ref name=pace>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/4.htm |title= NATO the first five years 1949-1954 |first= Hastings |last= Ismay |authorlink= Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay |publisher= NATO |date= 4 September 2001 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> In September 1950, the [[NATO Military Committee]] called for an ambitious buildup of conventional forces to meet the Soviets, subsequently reaffirming this position at the February 1952 meeting of the [[North Atlantic Council]] in [[Lisbon]]. The Lisbon conference, seeking to provide the forces necessary for NATO's Long-Term Defence Plan, called for an expansion to ninety-six [[division (military)|division]]s. However this requirement was dropped the following year to roughly thirty-five divisions with heavier use to be made of nuclear weapons. At this time, NATO could call on about fifteen ready divisions in Central Europe, and another ten in Italy and Scandinavia.{{sfn|Osgood|1962|p=76}}{{sfn|Park|1986|p=28}} Also at Lisbon, the post of [[Secretary General of NATO]] as the organization's chief civilian was created, and [[Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay|Lord Ismay]] was eventually appointed to the post.<ref>{{cite news |work= [[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,816183,00.html |title= NATO: The Man with the Oilcan |date= 24 March 1952 |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> |
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[[File:West German Bundeswehr 1960.jpg|thumb|left|The German Bundeswehr provided the largest element of the allied land forces guarding the frontier in Central Europe.|alt=Two soldiers crouch under a tree while a tank sits on a road in front of them.]] |
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In September 1952, the first major NATO [[Military exercise|maritime exercises]] began; [[Exercise Mainbrace]] brought together 200 ships and over 50,000 personnel to practice the defence of Denmark and Norway.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Baldwin |first=Hanson |date= 28 September 1952 |title=Navies Meet the Test in Operation ''Mainbrace'' |journal=New York Times |pages=E7 |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20711FF3A5B117A93CAAB1782D85F468585F9 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> Other major exercises that followed included [[Exercise Grand Slam]] and [[Exercise Longstep]], naval and amphibious exercises in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], Italic Weld, a combined air-naval-ground exercise in [[northern Italy]], Grand Repulse, involving the [[British Army on the Rhine]] (BAOR), the Netherlands Corps and [[Allied Air Forces Central Europe]] (AAFCE), Monte Carlo, a simulated atomic air-ground exercise involving the [[Allied Force Command Heidelberg|Central Army Group]], and Weldfast, a combined amphibious landing exercise in the Mediterranean Sea involving American, British, Greek, Italian and Turkish naval forces.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/archives/1st5years/chapters/9.htm |title= The increase in strength |publisher= NATO |date= 17 September 2001 |accessdate = 4 September 2013 |first= Hastings |last= Ismay |authorlink= Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay |work= NATO the first five years 1949-1954}}</ref> |
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[[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] also joined the alliance in 1952, forcing a series of controversial negotiations, in which the United States and Britain were the primary disputants, over how to bring the two countries into the military command structure.<ref name=pace/> While this overt military preparation was going on, covert [[stay-behind]] arrangements initially made by the Western European Union to continue resistance after a successful Soviet invasion, including [[Operation Gladio|Operation ''Gladio'']], were transferred to NATO control. Ultimately unofficial bonds began to grow between NATO's armed forces, such as the [[NATO Tiger Association]] and competitions such as the [[Canadian Army Trophy]] for tank gunnery.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.natotigers.org/tigerassociation/index.php |title= Organisation |work= NATO Tiger Association |accessdate= 4 September 2013 |year= 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://canadianarmytrophy.com/ |title= Historical Overview |work= Canadian Army Trophy |date= 5 October 2012 |accessdate= 4 September 2013}}</ref> |
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In 1954, the Soviet Union suggested that it should join NATO to preserve peace in Europe.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2009/04/03/f-nato-fast-facts.html |date= 6 April 2009 |title=Fast facts about NATO |publisher=[[CBC News]] |accessdate=16 July 2011}}</ref> The NATO countries, fearing that the Soviet Union's motive was to weaken the alliance, ultimately rejected this proposal. |
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On 17 December 1954, the North Atlantic Council approved MC 48, a key document in the evolution of NATO nuclear thought. MC 48 emphasized that NATO would have to use atomic weapons from the outset of a war with the Soviet Union whether or not the Soviets chose to use them first. This gave SACEUR the same prerogatives for automatic use of nuclear weapons as existed for the commander-in-chief of the US [[Strategic Air Command]]. |
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The incorporation of [[West Germany]] into the organization on 9 May 1955 was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent" by [[Halvard Lange]], [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (Norway)|Foreign Affairs Minister of Norway]] at the time.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/9/newsid_2519000/2519979.stm |title= West Germany accepted into Nato |work=BBC News |date= 9 May 2011 |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> A major reason for Germany's entry into the alliance was that without German manpower, it would have been impossible to field enough conventional forces to resist a Soviet invasion.{{sfn|Isby|Kamps Jr.|1985|p=15}} One of its immediate results was the creation of the [[Warsaw Pact]], which was signed on 14 May 1955 by the Soviet Union, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, and East Germany, as a formal response to this event, thereby delineating the two opposing sides of the [[Cold War]]. |
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Three major exercises were held concurrently in the northern autumn of 1957. Operation ''Counter Punch'', [[Operation Strikeback|Operation ''Strikeback'']], and [[Operation Deep Water|Operation ''Deep Water'']] were the most ambitious military undertaking for the alliance to date, involving more than 250,000 men, 300 ships, and 1,500 aircraft operating from Norway to Turkey.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891351,00.html |title=Emergency Call |accessdate=27 September 2008 |work= [[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date= 30 September 1957}}</ref> |
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=== French withdrawal === |
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[[File:NATO AB in France map-en.svg|thumb|Map of the NATO air bases in France before [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s 1966 withdrawal from NATO military integrated command|alt=A map of France with red and blue markings indicating air force bases as of 1966.]] |
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NATO's unity was breached early in its history with a crisis occurring during [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s presidency of France.<ref>.Garret Martin, "The 1967 withdrawal from NATO – a cornerstone of de Gaulle's grand strategy?" ''Journal of Transatlantic Studies'' (2011) 9#3 pp 232-243.</ref> De Gaulle protested against America's strong role in the organization and what he perceived as a [[Special Relationship|special relationship]] between it and the United Kingdom. In a memorandum sent to President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and Prime Minister [[Harold Macmillan]] on 17 September 1958, he argued for the creation of a tripartite directorate that would put France on an equal footing with the US and the UK.{{sfn|Wenger|Nuenlist|Locher|2007|pp=67–69}} |
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Considering the response to be unsatisfactory, de Gaulle began constructing an independent defence force for his country. He wanted to give France, in the event of an East German incursion into West Germany, the option of coming to a separate peace with the [[Eastern bloc]] instead of being drawn into a larger NATO-Warsaw Pact war.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-215_162-3334439.html |title= Not Enough NATO In Afghanistan |work= [[CBS News]] |date= 22 September 2009 |accessdate= 4 September 2013 |first= Alan |last= Dowd}}</ref> In February 1959, France withdrew its [[Mediterranean Fleet (France)|Mediterranean Fleet]] from NATO command,{{sfn|National Defense University|1997|p=50}} and later banned the stationing of foreign [[nuclear weapon]]s on French soil. This caused the United States to transfer two hundred military aircraft out of France and return control of the [[United States Air Force in France|air force bases]] that had operated in France since 1950 to the French by 1967. |
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Though France showed solidarity with the rest of NATO during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] in 1962, de Gaulle continued his pursuit of an independent defence by removing France's [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and [[English Channel|Channel]] fleets from NATO command.{{sfn|van der Eyden|2003|pp=104–106}} In 1966, all French armed forces were removed from NATO's integrated military command, and all non-French NATO troops were asked to leave France. US Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]] was later quoted as asking de Gaulle whether his order included "the bodies of American soldiers in France's cemeteries?"{{sfn|Schoenbaum|1988|p=421}} This withdrawal forced the relocation of SHAPE from [[Rocquencourt]], near Paris, to [[Casteau]], north of [[Mons]], Belgium, by 16 October 1967.<ref name=bigmove>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2007/issue2/english/history.html |title= The Big Move |work= NATO Review |first= François |last= Le Blévennec |date= 25 October 2011 |accessdate=19 December 2011}}</ref> France remained a member of the alliance, and committed to the defence of Europe from possible Warsaw Pact attack with its own forces stationed in the Federal Republic of Germany throughout the Cold War. A series of secret accords between US and French officials, the [[Lemnitzer-Ailleret Agreements]], detailed how French forces would dovetail back into NATO's command structure should East-West hostilities break out.<ref name=WP-France>{{cite news |work=The Washington Post |url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/11/AR2009031100547.html |title= After 43 Years, France to Rejoin NATO as Full Member |date= 12 March 2009 |first= Edward |last= Cody |accessdate=19 December 2011}}</ref> |
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=== Détente and escalation === |
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{{Main|Détente}} |
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[[File:Leonid Brezhnev and Richard Nixon talks in 1973.png|thumb|left|Détente led to many high level meetings between leaders from both NATO and the Warsaw Pact.|alt=Two older men in suits sit next to each other, while a third stands behind leaning in to listen to the right man talk.]] |
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During most of the Cold War, NATO's watch against the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact did not actually lead to direct military action. On 1 July 1968, the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] opened for signature: NATO argued that its [[nuclear sharing]] arrangements did not breach the treaty as US forces controlled the weapons until a decision was made to go to war, at which point the treaty would no longer be controlling. Few states knew of the NATO nuclear sharing arrangements at that time, and they were not challenged. In May 1978, NATO countries officially defined two complementary aims of the Alliance, to maintain security and pursue détente. This was supposed to mean matching defences at the level rendered necessary by the Warsaw Pact's offensive capabilities without spurring a further [[arms race]].{{sfn|Garthoff|1994|pp=659–661}} |
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[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-098967, Aufnahme der Bundesrepublik in die NATO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|[[West Germany]] joined NATO in 1955, which led to the formation of the rival [[Warsaw Pact]] during the [[Cold War]].|alt=A long rectangular room with multiple rows of seated individuals on each side, and flags hanging at the far end.]] |
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[[File:NATO and the Warsaw Pact 1973.svg|thumb|During the Cold War, most of Europe was divided between two alliances. Members of NATO are shown in blue, with members of the [[Warsaw Pact]] in red.|alt=A map of Europe showing several countries on the left in blue, while ones on the right are in red. Other unaffiliated countries are in white.]] |
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The North Atlantic Treaty was largely dormant until the [[Korean War]] initiated the establishment of NATO to implement it with an integrated military structure. This included the formation of [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe]] (SHAPE) in 1951, which adopted many of the Western Union's military structures and plans,<ref name=pace>{{cite web |url= http://archives.nato.int/nato-first-5-years-1949-1954-by-lord-ismay-secretary-general-of-north-atlantic-treaty-organization;isad |title= NATO the first five years 1949–1954 |first= Hastings |last= Ismay |author-link= Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay |publisher= NATO |date= 4 September 2001 |access-date= 10 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170315234941/http://archives.nato.int/nato-first-5-years-1949-1954-by-lord-ismay-secretary-general-of-north-atlantic-treaty-organization%3Bisad |archive-date= 15 March 2017 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> including their [[Standardization Agreement|agreements on standardizing equipment]] and [[Status of forces agreement|agreements on stationing foreign military forces]] in European countries. In 1952, the post of [[Secretary General of NATO]] was established as the organization's chief civilian. That year also saw the first major NATO [[Military exercise|maritime exercises]], [[Exercise Mainbrace]] and the accession of Greece and Turkey to the organization.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Baldwin |first=Hanson |date=28 September 1952 |title=Navies Meet the Test in Operation Mainbrace |journal=New York Times |page=E7 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1952/09/28/archives/navies-meet-the-test-in-operation-mainbrace-important-role-in.html |access-date=10 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010140743/http://www.nytimes.com/1952/09/28/archives/navies-meet-the-test-in-operation-mainbrace-important-role-in.html |archive-date=10 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |magazine= [[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,816183,00.html |title= NATO: The Man with the Oilcan |date= 24 March 1952 |access-date= 17 January 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120108012303/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,816183,00.html |archive-date= 8 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Following the [[London and Paris Conferences]], [[West Germany]] was permitted to rearm militarily, as they joined NATO in May 1955, which was, in turn, a major factor in the creation of the Soviet-dominated [[Warsaw Pact]], delineating the two opposing sides of the [[Cold War]].<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.politico.com/story/2014/05/this-day-in-politics-106640 |title= Soviet Union establishes Warsaw Pact, May 14, 1955 |website= Politico |first= Andrew |last= Glass |date= 14 May 2014 |access-date= 10 June 2022 |archive-date= 24 September 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220924060153/https://www.politico.com/story/2014/05/this-day-in-politics-106640 |url-status= live }}</ref> |
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On 12 December 1979, in light of a build-up of Warsaw Pact nuclear capabilities in Europe, ministers approved the deployment of US [[BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile|GLCM]] [[cruise missile]]s and [[Pershing II]] theatre nuclear weapons in Europe. The new warheads were also meant to strengthen the western negotiating position regarding nuclear disarmament. This policy was called the [[NATO Double-Track Decision|Dual Track]] policy.{{sfn|Njølstad|2004|pp=280–282}} Similarly, in 1983–84, responding to the stationing of [[Warsaw Pact]] [[RSD-10 Pioneer|SS-20]] medium-range missiles in Europe, NATO deployed modern Pershing II missiles tasked to hit military targets such as tank formations in the event of war.{{sfn|Njølstad|2004|pp=278–279}} This action led to [[peace movement]] protests throughout Western Europe, and support for the deployment wavered as many doubted whether the push for deployment could be sustained. |
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The building of the [[Berlin Wall]] in 1961 marked a height in Cold War tensions, when 400,000 US troops were stationed in Europe.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/should-united-states-keep-troops-germany |title= Should the United States Keep Troops in Germany? |first= Dan |last= Olmsted |date= September 2020 |access-date= 22 February 2021 |website= National WW2 Museum |archive-date= 25 January 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210125212146/https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/should-united-states-keep-troops-germany |url-status= live }}</ref> Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion – doubts that led to the development of the [[Strike Force (France)|independent French nuclear deterrent]] and the withdrawal of [[France]] from NATO's military structure in 1966.{{sfn|van der Eyden|2003|pp=104–106}}<ref name="WP-France">{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/11/AR2009031100547.html |title=After 43 Years, France to Rejoin NATO as Full Member |date=12 March 2009 |first=Edward |last=Cody |access-date=19 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026171515/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/11/AR2009031100547.html |archive-date=26 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1982, the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/spain/88.htm|title=Spain and NATO|access-date=10 April 2021|website=Country Studies US |publisher=Source: U.S. Library of Congress|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415105730/http://countrystudies.us/spain/88.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The membership of the organization at this time remained largely static. In 1974, as a consequence of the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]], Greece withdrew its forces from NATO's military command structure but, with Turkish cooperation, were readmitted in 1980. The [[Falklands War]] between the United Kingdom and [[Argentina]] did not result in NATO involvement because article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty specifies that collective self-defense is only applicable to attacks on member state territories north of the [[Tropic of Cancer]].{{sfn|Kaplan|2004|pp=89–91}} On 30 May 1982, NATO gained a new member when, following a referendum, the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance. At the peak of the Cold War, 16 member nations maintained an approximate strength of 5,252,800 active military, including as many as 435,000 forward deployed US forces, under a command structure that reached a peak of 78 headquarters, organized into four echelons.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA532510 |title= NATO Command Structure: Considerations for the Future |first1= W. Bruce |last1= Weinrod |first2= Charles L. |last2= Barry |work= Center for Technology and National Security Policy |publisher= National Defense University |date=September 2010 |format= PDF |accessdate= 4 September 2013}}</ref> |
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The [[Revolutions of 1989]] in Europe led to a strategic re-evaluation of NATO's purpose, nature, tasks, and focus on the continent. In October 1990, [[East Germany]] [[German reunification|became part of the Federal Republic of Germany]] and the alliance, and in November 1990, the alliance signed the [[Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe]] (CFE) in Paris with the Soviet Union. It mandated specific military reductions across the continent, which continued after the collapse of the [[Warsaw Pact]] in February 1991 and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] that December, which removed the ''de facto'' main adversaries of NATO.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jul/15/russia.nato |title= Kremlin tears up arms pact with Nato |first= Luke |last= Harding |work= The Observer |date= 14 July 2007 |access-date= 1 May 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130831182652/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jul/15/russia.nato |archive-date= 31 August 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> This began a drawdown of military spending and equipment in Europe. The CFE treaty allowed signatories to remove 52,000 pieces of conventional armaments in the following sixteen years,<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheet/cfe |title= The Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty and the Adapted CFE Treaty at a Glance |date= August 2017 |first= Daryl |last= Kimball |website= Arms Control Association |access-date= 22 February 2021 |archive-date= 24 February 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210224222245/https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheet/cfe |url-status= live }}</ref> and allowed military spending by NATO's European members to decline by 28 percent from 1990 to 2015.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://carnegieeurope.eu/2015/09/02/politics-of-2-percent-nato-and-security-vacuum-in-europe-pub-61139 |title= The Politics of 2 Percent: NATO and the Security Vacuum in Europe |first= Jan |last= Techau |date= 2 September 2015 |website= Carnegie Europe |access-date= 22 February 2021 |archive-date= 23 September 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180923231851/http://carnegieeurope.eu/2015/09/02/politics-of-2-percent-nato-and-security-vacuum-in-europe-pub-61139 |url-status= live }}</ref> In 1990, several Western leaders gave assurances to [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] that NATO would not expand further east, as revealed by memoranda of private conversations.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eichler |first1=Jan |title=NATO's Expansion After the Cold War: Geopolitics and Impacts for International Security |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=9783030666415 |pages=34, 35}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/russia-programs/2017-12-12/nato-expansion-what-gorbachev-heard-western-leaders-early|title=Declassified documents show security assurances against NATO expansion to Soviet leaders from Baker, Bush, Genscher, Kohl, Gates, Mitterrand, Thatcher, Hurd, Major, and Woerner|date=12 December 2017|website=|publisher=National Security Archive|url-status=live|archive-date=23 December 2019|access-date=3 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223011430/https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/russia-programs/2017-12-12/nato-expansion-what-gorbachev-heard-western-leaders-early}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Klaus |last=Wiegrefe |url=https://www.spiegel.de/ausland/nato-osterweiterung-aktenfund-stuetzt-russische-version-a-1613d467-bd72-4f02-8e16-2cd6d3285295 |title=Neuer Aktenfund von 1991 stützt russischen Vorwurf |publisher=[[Der Spiegel]] |date=18 February 2022 |access-date=3 March 2022 |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303104526/https://www.spiegel.de/ausland/nato-osterweiterung-aktenfund-stuetzt-russische-version-a-1613d467-bd72-4f02-8e16-2cd6d3285295 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Peter |last=Baker |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/09/us/politics/russia-ukraine-james-baker.html |title=In Ukraine Conflict, Putin Relies on a Promise That Ultimately Wasn't |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=9 January 2022 |access-date=3 March 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301223355/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/09/us/politics/russia-ukraine-james-baker.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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=== After the Cold War === |
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[[File:Berlin Wall at NATO Headquarters.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|The [[Fall of the Berlin Wall]] in 1989 marked a turning point in NATO's role in Europe, and this section of the wall is now displayed outside [[NATO headquarters]].|alt=Two tall concrete sections of a wall in a grass lawn in front of a curved building with blue-glass windows.]] |
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The [[Revolutions of 1989]] and the dissolution of the [[Warsaw Pact]] in 1991 removed the ''de facto'' main adversary of NATO and caused a strategic re-evaluation of NATO's purpose, nature, tasks, and their focus on the continent of Europe. This shift started with the 1990 signing in Paris of the [[Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe]] between NATO and the Soviet Union, which mandated specific military reductions across the continent that continued after the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in December 1991.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/jul/15/russia.nato |title= Kremlin tears up arms pact with Nato |first= Luke |last= Harding |work=The Observer |date= 14 July 2007 |accessdate=1 May 2012}}</ref> At that time, European countries accounted for 34 percent of NATO's military spending; by 2012, this had fallen to 21 percent.<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://www.economist.com/node/21551491 |title= The future of NATO: Bad timing |date= 31 March 2012 |journal= [[The Economist]] |accessdate=3 April 2012 }}</ref> NATO also began a gradual expansion to include newly autonomous [[Central and Eastern Europe]]an nations, and extended its activities into political and humanitarian situations that had not formerly been NATO concerns. |
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In the 1990s, the organization extended its activities into political and humanitarian situations that had not formerly been NATO concerns.<ref name=rfe>{{cite news |url= https://www.rferl.org/a/nato-announces-special-summit-in-london-in-december/29754567.html |title= NATO Announces Special 70th Anniversary Summit In London In December |website= Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date= 6 February 2019 |access-date= 6 April 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190406165903/https://www.rferl.org/a/nato-announces-special-summit-in-london-in-december/29754567.html |archive-date= 6 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[breakup of Yugoslavia]], the organization conducted its first [[List of NATO operations|military interventions]] in [[NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia from 1992 to 1995]] and later [[1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia in 1999]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.uri.edu/iaics/files/16-Jing-Ke.pdf|title=Did the US Media Reflect the Reality of the Kosovo War in an Objective Manner? A Case Study of The Washington Post and The Washington Times|last=Jing Ke|date=2008|website=University of Rhode Island|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323093720/https://web.uri.edu/iaics/files/16-Jing-Ke.pdf|archive-date=23 March 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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[[File:Gorbachev Bush 19900601.jpg|thumb|left|Reforms made under [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] led to the end of the [[Warsaw Pact]].|alt=Two men in suits sit signing documents at a large table in front of their country's flags. Two others stand outside watching them.]] |
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Politically, the organization sought better relations with the newly autonomous [[Central and Eastern Europe]]an states, and diplomatic forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbours were set up during this post-Cold War period, including the [[Partnership for Peace]] and the [[Mediterranean Dialogue]] initiative in 1994, the [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council]] in 1997, and the [[NATO–Russia relations|NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council]] in 1998. At the [[1999 Washington summit]], [[Hungary]], [[Poland]], and the [[Czech Republic]] officially joined NATO, and the organization also issued new guidelines for membership with individualized "[[Membership Action Plan]]s". These plans governed the subsequent addition of new alliance members.<ref>{{cite web|last=NATO|title=Relations with the Republic of North Macedonia (Archived)|url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48830.htm|access-date=16 February 2022|website=NATO|language=en|archive-date=10 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310022112/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48830.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The first post-Cold War expansion of NATO came with [[German reunification]] on 3 October 1990, when the former [[East Germany]] became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance. This had been agreed in the [[Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany|Two Plus Four Treaty]] earlier in the year. To secure Soviet approval of a united Germany remaining in NATO, it was agreed that foreign troops and nuclear weapons would not be stationed in the east, and there are diverging views on whether negotiators gave commitments regarding further NATO expansion east.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/141845/mary-elise-sarotte/a-broken-promise |title= A Broken Promise? |first= Mary Elise |last= Sarotte |work= Foreign Affairs |date=September–October 2014 |accessdate= 28 August 2014}}</ref> [[Jack Matlock]], American ambassador to the Soviet Union during its final years, said that the West gave a "clear commitment" not to expand, and declassified documents indicate that Soviet negotiators were given the impression that NATO membership was off the table for countries such as Czechoslovakia, Hungary, or Poland.<ref name = "Spiegel review">{{Cite news |last1= Klussmann |first1= Uwe |last2= Schepp |first2= Matthias |last3= Wiegrefe |first3= Klaus |date= 26 November 2009 |title= NATO's Eastward Expansion: Did the West Break Its Promise to Moscow? |url= http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/nato-s-eastward-expansion-did-the-west-break-its-promise-to-moscow-a-663315.html |work= [[Spiegel Online]] |accessdate= 7 April 2014 }}</ref> In 1996, Gorbachev wrote in his ''Memoirs'', that "during the negotiations on the unification of Germany they gave assurances that NATO would not extend its zone of operation to the east,"{{sfn|Gorbachev|1996|p=675}} and |
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repeated this view in an interview in 2008.<ref name="me">{{cite news |title = Gorbachev: US could start new Cold War |author=Blomfield A and Smith M |location=Paris |date=6 May 2009 |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/1933223/Gorbachev-US-could-start-new-Cold-War.html |publisher=The Telegraph |accessdate=22 May 2009}}</ref> According to [[Robert Zoellick]], a [[United States Department of State|State Department]] official involved in the Two Plus Four negotiating process, this appears to be a misperception, and no formal commitment regarding enlargement was made.<ref>{{cite news |first=Robert B. |last=Zoellick |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-65576869.html |title=The Lessons of German Unification |publisher=[[The National Interest]] |date=22 September 2000}}</ref> |
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===21st century=== |
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As part of post-Cold War restructuring, NATO's military structure was cut back and reorganized, with new forces such as the [[Allied Rapid Reaction Corps|Headquarters Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps]] established. The changes brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union on the military balance in Europe were recognized in the [[Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty]], which was signed in 1999. The policies of French President [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] resulted in a major reform of France's military position, culminating with the return to full membership on 4 April 2009, which also included France rejoining the [[NATO Military Command Structure]], while maintaining an independent nuclear deterrent.<ref name=WP-France/><ref name=guardian-france>{{cite news |title=Sarkozy military plan unveiled |last=Stratton |first=Allegra |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/jun/17/france.military |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=17 June 2008 }}</ref> |
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[[File:Family photo from 2023 NATO Vilnius summit (53038388599).jpg|thumb|left|Family photo of the [[2023 Vilnius summit]].]] |
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[[s:North Atlantic Treaty#Article 5|Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty]], requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the [[September 11 attacks]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Invocation of Article 5 confirmed |url=http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2001/1001/e1002a.htm |date=3 October 2001 |publisher=North Atlantic Treaty Organization |access-date=29 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230143558/http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2001/1001/e1002a.htm |archive-date=30 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> after which troops were deployed to [[Afghanistan]] under the NATO-led [[International Security Assistance Force|ISAF]]. The organization has operated a range of additional roles since then, including sending [[NATO Training Mission – Iraq|trainers to Iraq]], assisting in [[Operation Ocean Shield|counter-piracy operations]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Counter-piracy operations |url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_48815.htm |work=North Atlantic Treaty Organization |access-date=27 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526115212/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_48815.htm |archive-date=26 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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=== Enlargement and reform === |
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{{Further|Enlargement of NATO}} |
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[[File:Svecanost podizanja NATOve zastave Zagreb.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Flag of NATO|NATO flag]] being raised in a ceremony marking [[Croatia]]'s joining of the alliance in 2009.|alt=A pale yellow building with square columns with three flags hanging in front and soldiers and dignitaries saluting them.]] |
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Between 1994 and 1997, wider forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbors were set up, like the [[Partnership for Peace]], the [[Mediterranean Dialogue]] initiative and the [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council]]. In 1998, the [[NATO–Russia relations|NATO-Russia Permanent Joint Council]] was established. On 8 July 1997, three former communist countries, [[Hungary]], the [[Czech Republic]], and [[Poland]], were invited to join NATO, which each did in 1999. Membership went on expanding with the accession of seven more [[Central and Eastern Europe]]an countries to NATO: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania. They were first invited to start talks of membership during the 2002 Prague summit, and joined NATO on 29 March 2004, shortly before the [[2004 Istanbul summit]]. In Istanbul, NATO launched the [[Istanbul Cooperation Initiative]] with four [[Persian Gulf]] nations.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/history/index.html |title= History |publisher= NATO |date= 15 December 2011 |accessdate=13 April 2012}}</ref> |
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The election of French president [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] in 2007 led to a major reform of France's military position, culminating with the return to full membership on 4 April 2009, which also included France rejoining the [[NATO Military Command Structure]], while maintaining an independent nuclear deterrent.<ref name=WP-France/><ref name="guardian-france">{{cite news |title=Sarkozy military plan unveiled |last=Stratton |first=Allegra |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jun/17/france.military |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=17 June 2008 |access-date=17 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307184804/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jun/17/france.military |archive-date=7 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="DPC">{{cite web | url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49201.htm | title=Defence Planning Committee (DPC) (Archived) | publisher=NATO | date=11 November 2014 | access-date=13 August 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222165648/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49201.htm | archive-date=22 December 2015 | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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New NATO structures were also formed while old ones were abolished. In 1997, NATO reached agreement on a significant downsizing of its command structure from 65 headquarters to just 20.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/docu/speech/1997/s971216aa.htm |title= Statement by Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright During the North Atlantic Council Ministerial Meeting |work= NATO |date= 16 December 1997 |accessdate= 4 September 2013 |first= Madeleine |last= Albright |authorlink= Madeleine Albright}}</ref> The [[NATO Response Force]] (NRF) was launched at the [[2002 Prague summit]] on 21 November, the first summit in a former [[Comecon]] country. On 19 June 2003, a further restructuring of the NATO military commands began as the Headquarters of the Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic were abolished and a new command, [[Allied Command Transformation]] (ACT), was established in [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]], Virginia, United States, and the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) became the Headquarters of [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|Allied Command Operations]] (ACO). ACT is responsible for driving transformation (future capabilities) in NATO, whilst ACO is responsible for current operations.<ref name=aco>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_52091.htm |title= Allied Command Operations (ACO) |work= NATO |date= 10 May 2013 |accessdate= 4 September 2013}}</ref> In March 2004, NATO's [[Baltic Air Policing]] began, which supported the sovereignty of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia by providing fighters to react to any unwanted aerial intrusions. Four fighters are based in Lithuania, provided in rotation by virtually all the NATO states.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2012/03/29/nato_member_nations_should_share_military_systems/ |title= NATO: Member nations should share military systems |work=The Boston Globe |first= Don |last= Melvin |agency= [[Associated Press]] |date= 29 March 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> |
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[[File:Msc 2007-Saturday, 11.00 - 13.00 Uhr-Wildgrube056 Scheffer Juschtschenko.jpg|thumb|left|Meetings between the government of [[Viktor Yushchenko]] and NATO leaders lead to the Intensified Dialogue programme.]] |
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The 2014 [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|Russia's annexation of Crimea]] led to strong condemnation by all NATO members,<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/news_107716.htm |title= Statement by the North Atlantic Council following meeting under article 4 of the Washington Treaty |work= NATO Newsroom |date= 4 March 2014 |access-date= 2 April 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140310182356/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/news_107716.htm |archive-date= 10 March 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and was one of the seven times that [[North Atlantic Treaty#Article 4|Article 4]], which calls for consultation among NATO members, has been invoked. Prior times included during the [[Iraq War]] and [[Syrian Civil War]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49187.htm |title= The consultation process and Article 4 |website= NATO |date= 24 February 2022 |access-date= 3 April 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220402192427/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49187.htm |archive-date= 2 April 2022 |url-status=live }}</ref> At the [[2014 Wales summit]], the leaders of NATO's member states formally committed for the first time to spend the equivalent of at least two percent of their [[gross domestic product]]s on defence by 2024, which had previously been only an informal guideline.<ref>{{cite web | last1=Techau | first1=Jan | title=The Politics of 2 Percent: NATO and the Security Vacuum in Europe | url=http://carnegieeurope.eu/2015/09/02/politics-of-2-percent-nato-and-security-vacuum-in-europe-pub-61139 | date=2 September 2015 | publisher=[[Carnegie Europe]] | quote=A month before [the alliance's summit in Riga in 2006], Victoria Nuland, then the U.S. ambassador to NATO, called the 2 percent metric the "unofficial floor" on defence spending in NATO. But never had all governments of NATO's 28 nations officially embraced it at the highest possible political level – a summit declaration. | access-date=11 July 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712221337/https://carnegieeurope.eu/2015/09/02/politics-of-2-percent-nato-and-security-vacuum-in-europe-pub-61139 | archive-date=12 July 2018 | url-status=dead }}</ref> At the [[2016 Warsaw summit]], NATO countries agreed on the creation of [[NATO Enhanced Forward Presence]], which deployed four multinational battalion-sized battlegroups in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland.<ref name="EFP">{{cite web |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_136388.htm |title=NATO's military presence in the east of the Alliance |website=NATO |date=28 March 2022 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331223713/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_136388.htm |archive-date=31 March 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Before and during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], several NATO countries sent ground troops, warships and fighter aircraft to reinforce the alliance's eastern flank, and multiple countries again invoked Article 4.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2022/02/11/us-sending-3000-more-troops-to-poland-00008357 |title=U.S. sending 3,000 more troops to Poland amid fresh Ukraine invasion warnings |last1=McLeary |first1=Paul |last2=Toosi |first2=Nahal |website=Politico |date=11 February 2022 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=22 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222062321/https://www.politico.com/news/2022/02/11/us-sending-3000-more-troops-to-poland-00008357 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/spain-sends-warships-black-sea-considers-sending-warplanes-2022-01-20/ |title=Spain sends warships to Black Sea, considers sending warplanes |website=Reuters |date=21 January 2022 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=22 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122113343/https://www.reuters.com/world/spain-sends-warships-black-sea-considers-sending-warplanes-2022-01-20/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/spain-will-send-four-fighter-jets-130-troops-bulgaria-2022-02-09/ |title=Spain will send four fighter jets and 130 troops to Bulgaria |website=Reuters |date=9 February 2022 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=14 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214180335/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/spain-will-send-four-fighter-jets-130-troops-bulgaria-2022-02-09/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2022, NATO leaders met at Brussels for an [[2022 Brussels summit|extraordinary summit]] which also involved [[Group of Seven]] and European Union leaders.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dw.com/en/nato-g7-eu-leaders-display-unity-avoid-confrontation-with-russia/a-61259981 |title=NATO, G7, EU leaders display unity, avoid confrontation with Russia |website=Deutsche Welle |date=25 March 2022 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403082458/https://www.dw.com/en/nato-g7-eu-leaders-display-unity-avoid-confrontation-with-russia/a-61259981 |url-status=live }}</ref> NATO member states agreed to establish four additional battlegroups in Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia,<ref name="EFP"/> and elements of the [[NATO Response Force]] were activated for the first time in NATO's history.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.axios.com/nato-kremlin-russian-invasion-ukraine-0872be5e-b5e0-486b-b356-2985370e5148.html |title=NATO Response Force deploys for first time |last=Gonzalez |first=Oriana |website=Axios |date=26 February 2022 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=20 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320114915/https://www.axios.com/nato-kremlin-russian-invasion-ukraine-0872be5e-b5e0-486b-b356-2985370e5148.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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The [[2006 Riga summit]] was held in [[Riga]], Latvia, and highlighted the issue of energy security. It was the first [[NATO summit]] to be held in a country that had been part of the [[Soviet Union]]. At the [[2008 Bucharest summit|April 2008 summit]] in [[Bucharest]], Romania, NATO agreed to the accession of Croatia and Albania and both countries joined NATO in April 2009. Ukraine and Georgia were also told that they could eventually become members.<ref>{{Wayback |date=20080407062445 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/04/03/nato.members/index.html |title=U.S. wins NATO backing for missile defense shield – CNN.com }}</ref> The issue of Georgian and Ukrainian membership in NATO prompted harsh criticism from Russia, as did NATO plans for a [[NATO missile defence system|missile defence system]]. Studies for this system began in 2002, with negotiations centered on [[anti-ballistic missile]]s being stationed in Poland and the Czech Republic. Though NATO leaders gave assurances that the system was not targeting Russia, both presidents [[Vladimir Putin]] and [[Dmitry Medvedev]] criticized it as a threat.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/medvedev-calls-missile-defense-a-threat-to-russia/2012/03/23/gIQA9Id2VS_story.html |title= Medvedev calls missile defense a threat to Russia |work=The Washington Post |first= Will |last= Englund |date= 23 March 2012 |accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> |
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As of June 2022, NATO had deployed 40,000 troops along its {{convert|2,500|km|mi|adj=mid|-long|-1}} Eastern flank to deter Russian aggression. More than half of this number have been deployed in Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, and Poland, which five countries muster a considerable combined ex-NATO force of 259,000 troops. To supplement Bulgaria's Air Force, Spain sent [[Eurofighter Typhoon]]s, the Netherlands sent eight [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II|F-35]] attack aircraft, and additional French and US attack aircraft would arrive soon as well.<ref name="birn14.6">{{cite news |title=NATO BOOSTS FORCES IN EAST TO DETER RUSSIAN MENACE |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2022/06/14/nato-boosts-forces-in-east-to-deter-russian-menace/ |work=BIRN |agency=Balkan Investigative Reporting Network |publisher=Balkan Insight |date=14 June 2022 |access-date=15 June 2022 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615152556/https://balkaninsight.com/2022/06/14/nato-boosts-forces-in-east-to-deter-russian-menace/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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In 2009, US President [[Barack Obama]] proposed using the ship based [[Aegis Combat System]], though this plan still includes stations being built in Turkey, Spain, Portugal, Romania, and Poland.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/16/world/europe/turkey-radar-station/index.html |title= Part of NATO missile defense system goes live in Turkey |work= [[CNN]] |date= 16 January 2012 |accessdate=16 January 2012}}</ref> NATO will also maintain the "status quo" in its nuclear deterrent in Europe by upgrading the targeting capabilities of the "tactical" [[B61 nuclear bomb]]s stationed there and deploying them on the stealthier [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II]].<ref>Norton-Taylor, Richard. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/may/11/nato-nuclear-weapons-upgrade "Nato plans to upgrade nuclear weapons 'expensive and unnecessary'."] ''guardian.co.uk'', 10 May 2012.</ref><ref>Becker, Markus. [http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/upgrading-us-nuclear-weapons-more-expensive-than-planned-a-833586.html "US Nuclear Weapons Upgrades."] ''Der Spiegel'', 16 May 2012.</ref> Following the [[2014 Crimean crisis]], NATO committed to forming a new "spearhead" force of 5,000 troops at bases in Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-31142276 |title= Ukraine crisis: Nato bolsters Eastern Europe against Russia |work= BBC News |date= 5 February 2015 |accessdate= 4 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.newsweek.com/nato-meets-approve-strengthening-forces-eastern-europe-304566 |title= NATO Meets to Approve Strengthening Forces in Eastern Europe |work= Newsweek |agency= Reuters |date= 5 February 2015 |accessdate= 4 March 2015}}</ref> |
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== Military operations == |
== Military operations == |
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{{Main|List of NATO operations}} |
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=== Early operations === |
=== Early operations === |
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No military operations were conducted by NATO during the Cold War. Following the end of the Cold War, the first operations, ''Anchor Guard'' in 1990 and ''Ace Guard'' in 1991, were prompted by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Airborne |
No military operations were conducted by NATO during the Cold War. Following the end of the Cold War, the first operations, ''Anchor Guard'' in 1990 and ''Ace Guard'' in 1991, were prompted by the [[Iraqi invasion of Kuwait]]. Airborne early warning aircraft were sent to provide coverage of southeastern Turkey, and later a quick-reaction force was deployed to the area.<ref name="NATO Operations">{{cite web | url=http://www.aco.nato.int/resources/21/NATO%20Operations,%201949-Present.pdf | title=NATO's Operations 1949–Present | publisher=NATO | year=2009 | access-date=3 March 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130301231459/http://www.aco.nato.int/resources/21/NATO%20Operations,%201949-Present.pdf | archive-date=1 March 2013 | url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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=== Bosnia and Herzegovina intervention === |
=== Bosnia and Herzegovina intervention === |
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{{Main|NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina}} |
{{Main|NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina}} |
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[[File:F-16 deliberate force.JPG|thumb|upright=1.0|right|A USAF aircraft landing during [[1995 NATO bombing campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Operation Deliberate Force]] after the [[Srebrenica massacre]]|alt=A fighter jet with AV marked on its tail takes off from a mountain runway.]] |
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The [[Bosnian War]] began in 1992, as a result of the [[breakup of Yugoslavia]]. The deteriorating situation led to [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 816]] on 9 October 1992, authorizing its member-states to enforce a previously declared [[no-fly zone]] under the [[United Nations Protection Force]] over central Bosnia and Herzegovina. NATO complied and started enforcing the ban on 12 April 1993 with [[Operation Deny Flight]]. From June 1993 until October 1996, [[Operation Sharp Guard]] added maritime enforcement of the [[arms embargo]] and [[economic sanctions]] against the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. On 28 February 1994, NATO took its first wartime action by [[Banja Luka incident|shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft]] violating the no-fly zone.{{sfn|Zenko|2010|pp=133–134}} |
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[[File:F-16 deliberate force.JPG|thumb|left|NATO planes engaged in aerial bombardments during [[1995 NATO bombing campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Operation ''Deliberate Force'']] after the [[Srebrenica massacre]].|alt=A fighter jet with AV marked on its tail takes off from a mountain runway.]] |
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The [[Bosnian War]] began in 1992, as a result of the [[Breakup of Yugoslavia]]. The deteriorating situation led to [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 816]] on 9 October 1992, ordering a [[no-fly zone]] over central Bosnia and Herzegovina, which NATO began enforcing on 12 April 1993 with [[Operation Deny Flight|Operation ''Deny Flight'']]. From June 1993 until October 1996, [[Operation Sharp Guard|Operation ''Sharp Guard'']] added maritime enforcement of the [[arms embargo]] and [[economic sanctions]] against the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. On 28 February 1994, NATO took its first wartime action by [[Banja Luka incident|shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft]] violating the no-fly zone.{{sfn|Zenko|2010|pp=133–134}} |
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On 10 and 11 April 1994, |
On 10 and 11 April 1994, the United Nations Protection Force called in air strikes to protect the [[Goražde]] safe area, resulting in the bombing of a Bosnian Serb military command outpost near Goražde by two US [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]] jets acting under NATO direction.{{sfn|Zenko|2010|p=134}} In retaliation, Serbs took 150 U.N. personnel hostage on 14 April.<ref>{{citation|title=NATO Handbook: Evolution of the Conflict|publisher=NATO|url=http://www.nato.int/docu/handbook/2001/hb050102.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011107101023/http://www.nato.int/docu/handbook/2001/hb050102.htm|archive-date=7 November 2001 }}</ref><ref>UN Document [https://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=A/54/549 A/54/549], Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, un.org, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912110426/http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=A%2F54%2F549 |date=12 September 2009}}, accessed 25 April 2015.</ref> On 16 April a British [[British Aerospace Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]] was shot down over Goražde by Serb forces.{{sfn|Bethlehem|Weller|1997|p=liiv}} |
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NATO |
In August 1995, a two-week NATO bombing campaign, [[1995 NATO bombing campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Operation Deliberate Force]], began against the [[Army of the Republika Srpska]], after the [[Srebrenica massacre|Srebrenica genocide]].<ref name=zenko137>{{harvnb|Zenko|2010|pp=137–138}}</ref> Further NATO air strikes helped bring the [[Yugoslav Wars]] to an end, resulting in the [[Dayton Agreement]] in November 1995.<ref name=zenko137/> As part of this agreement, NATO deployed a UN-mandated peacekeeping force, under [[Operation Joint Endeavor]], named [[IFOR]]. Almost 60,000 NATO troops were joined by forces from non-NATO countries in this peacekeeping mission. This transitioned into the smaller [[SFOR]], which started with 32,000 troops initially and ran from December 1996 until December 2004, when operations were then passed onto the [[Operation Althea|European Union Force Althea]].{{sfn|Clausson|2006|pp=94–97}} Following the lead of its member states, NATO began to award a service medal, the [[NATO Medal]], for these operations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.armytimes.com/news/2009/02/army_natomedal_022209w/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120907225123/http://www.armytimes.com/news/2009/02/army_natomedal_022209w/ |archive-date=7 September 2012 |url-status=dead |title=Thousands more now eligible for NATO Medal |work=[[Army Times]] |first=Jim |last=Tice |date=22 February 2009 |access-date=11 April 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> |
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=== Kosovo intervention === |
=== Kosovo intervention === |
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{{Main|NATO bombing of Yugoslavia|Kosovo Force|l2=KFOR}} |
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[[File:German KFOR troops patrol southern Kosovo, summer 1999.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|German [[Kosovo Force|KFOR]] soldiers on patrol in southern Kosovo in 1999|alt=Three trucks of soldiers idle on a country road in front of trees and red-roofed houses. The rear truck has KFOR painted on is back.]] |
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[[File:MSU Mitrovica Manbox - Ibar Bridge summer 2019.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|[[Kosovo Force|KFOR]]-[[Multinational Specialized Unit|MSU]] [[Carabinieri]] Patrols in front of the [[New Bridge, Mitrovica|Ibar Bridge]] in [[Mitrovica, Kosovo]], 2019]] |
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In an effort to stop [[Slobodan Milošević]]'s Serbian-led crackdown on [[Kosovo Liberation Army|KLA]] separatists and Albanian civilians in [[Kosovo]], the [[United Nations Security Council]] passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1199|Resolution 1199]] on 23 September 1998 to demand a ceasefire.{{cn|date=April 2024}} |
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{{Main|1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia|Kosovo Force|l2=KFOR}} |
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Negotiations under US Special Envoy [[Richard Holbrooke]] broke down on 23 March 1999, and he handed the matter to NATO,<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/302265.stm |title= Nato to strike Yugoslavia |work= BBC News |date= 24 March 1999 |access-date= 25 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150926010110/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/302265.stm |archive-date= 26 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> which acted on protecting regional security and started a 78-day bombing campaign on 24 March 1999.<ref>{{cite news |title= UN Kosovo mission walks a tightrope |date= 24 March 2004 |work= BBC News |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3565799.stm |first= Nick |last= Thorpe |access-date= 11 April 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120726190617/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3565799.stm |archive-date= 26 July 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Operation Allied Force targeted the military capabilities of what was then the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. During the crisis, NATO also deployed one of its international reaction forces, the [[ACE Mobile Force (Land)]], to Albania as the Albania Force (AFOR), to deliver humanitarian aid to refugees from Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.unhcr.org/africa/sites/afr/files/legacy-pdf/3ba0bbeb4.pdf |title= The Kosovo refugee crisis |website= United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |date= 19 December 2005 |accessdate= 23 July 2023 |archive-date= 23 July 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230723203620/https://www.unhcr.org/africa/sites/afr/files/legacy-pdf/3ba0bbeb4.pdf |url-status= live }}</ref> |
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[[File:KFOR Kosovo2.jpg|thumb|German KFOR soldiers patrol southern Kosovo in 1999|alt=Three trucks of soldiers idle on a country road in front of trees and red roofed houses. The rear truck has KFOR painted on is back.]] |
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The campaign was and has been criticized over [[Civilian casualties during Operation Allied Force|its civilian casualties]], including the bombing of the [[U.S. bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade|Chinese embassy in Belgrade]], and over [[Legitimacy of the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia|whether it had legitimacy]]. |
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In an effort to stop [[Slobodan Milošević]]'s Serbian-led crackdown on [[Kosovo Liberation Army|KLA]] separatists and Albanian civilians in Kosovo, the [[United Nations Security Council]] passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1199|Resolution 1199]] on 23 September 1998 to demand a ceasefire. Negotiations under UN Special Envoy [[Richard Holbrooke]] broke down on 23 March 1999, and he handed the matter to NATO, which started a 78-day bombing campaign on 24 March 1999.<ref>{{cite news |title= UN Kosovo mission walks a tightrope |date= 24 March 2004 |work=BBC News |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3565799.stm |first= Nick |last= Thorpe |accessdate=11 April 2012}}</ref> Operation ''Allied Force'' targeted the military capabilities of what was then the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. During the crisis, NATO also deployed one of its international reaction forces, the [[ACE Mobile Force (Land)]], to Albania as the Albania Force (AFOR), to deliver humanitarian aid to refugees from Kosovo.<ref name=gs>{{cite web |url= http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/sustain_hope.htm |title= Operation ''Shining Hope'' |work= Global Security |date= 5 July 2011 |accessdate=11 April 2012}}</ref> |
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The US, the UK, and most other NATO countries opposed efforts to require the UN Security Council to approve NATO military strikes, such as the action against Serbia in 1999, while France and some others claimed that the alliance needed UN approval.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/europe/9904/24/nato.un/ |title= NATO reaffirms power to take action without UN approval |work= [[CNN]] |date= 24 April 1999 |access-date= 4 September 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150128045422/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/europe/9904/24/nato.un/ |archive-date= 28 January 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> The US/UK side claimed that this would undermine the authority of the alliance, and they noted that Russia and China would have exercised their Security Council vetoes to block the strike on [[Yugoslavia]], and could do the same in future conflicts where NATO intervention was required, thus nullifying the entire potency and purpose of the organization. Recognizing the post-Cold War military environment, NATO adopted the Alliance Strategic Concept during its [[1999 Washington summit|Washington summit]] in April 1999 that emphasized conflict prevention and crisis management.<ref name="nato.int">{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/docu/handbook/2001/hb120704.htm |title= Allied Command Atlantic |access-date=3 September 2008 |work=NATO Handbook |publisher=NATO |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813225955/http://www.nato.int/docu/handbook/2001/hb120704.htm <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archive-date=13 August 2008}}</ref> |
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Milošević finally accepted the terms of an international peace plan on 3 June 1999, ending the [[Kosovo War]]. On 11 June, Milošević further accepted [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244|UN resolution 1244]], under the mandate of which NATO then helped establish the [[Kosovo Force|KFOR]] peacekeeping force. Nearly one million refugees had fled Kosovo, and part of KFOR's mandate was to protect the humanitarian missions, in addition to deterring violence.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/publication-type/media-releases/2000/kosovo-report-card.aspx |title= Kosovo Report Card |date= 28 August 2000 |work= [[International Crisis Group]] |access-date= 11 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120304114736/http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/publication-type/media-releases/2000/kosovo-report-card.aspx |archive-date= 4 March 2012 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> In August–September 2001, the alliance also mounted [[Operation Essential Harvest]], a mission disarming ethnic Albanian militias in the Republic of Macedonia.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/macedonia/1357773/Macedonia-mission-a-success-says-Nato.html |title= Macedonia mission a success, says Nato |work= The Daily Telegraph |first= Toby |last= Helm |date= 27 September 2001 |access-date= 11 April 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120905212636/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/macedonia/1357773/Macedonia-mission-a-success-says-Nato.html |archive-date= 5 September 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> {{as of|2023}}, around 4,500 KFOR soldiers, representing 27 countries, continue to operate in the area.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48818.htm |title= NATO's role in Kosovo |publisher= NATO |date= 10 July 2023 |access-date= 23 July 2023 |archive-date= 26 June 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230626155525/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48818.htm |url-status= live }}</ref> |
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===War in Afghanistan=== |
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The US, the UK, and most other NATO countries opposed efforts to require the U.N. Security Council to approve NATO military strikes, such as the action against Serbia in 1999, while France and some others claimed that the alliance needed UN approval.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/europe/9904/24/nato.un/ |title= NATO reaffirms power to take action without U.N. approval |work= [[CNN]] |date= 24 April 1999 |accessdate= 4 September 2013}}</ref> The US/UK side claimed that this would undermine the authority of the alliance, and they noted that Russia and China would have exercised their Security Council vetoes to block the strike on [[Yugoslavia]], and could do the same in future conflicts where NATO intervention was required, thus nullifying the entire potency and purpose of the organization. Recognizing the post-Cold War military environment, NATO adopted the Alliance Strategic Concept during its [[1999 Washington summit|Washington summit]] in April 1999 that emphasized conflict prevention and crisis management.<ref name="nato.int">{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/docu/handbook/2001/hb120704.htm |title= Allied Command Atlantic |accessdate=3 September 2008 |work=NATO Handbook |publisher=NATO |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813225955/http://www.nato.int/docu/handbook/2001/hb120704.htm <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archivedate=13 August 2008}}</ref> |
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{{Main|International Security Assistance Force|War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|l2=War in Afghanistan}}[[File:UA Flight 175 hits WTC south tower 9-11 edit.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|The [[September 11 attacks]] in the United States caused NATO to invoke its collective defence article for the first time. |alt=A monumental green copper statue of a woman with a torch stands on an island in front of a mainland where a massive plume of grey smoke billows among skyscrapers.]] |
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The [[September 11 attacks]] in the United States caused NATO to invoke [[NATO Article 5|Article 5]] of the NATO Charter for the first time in the organization's history.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1057/s42738-021-00067-0|title=Creating common sense: Getting NATO to Afghanistan|year=2021|last1=Münch|first1=Philipp|journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies|volume=19|issue=2|pages=138–166|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Article states that an attack on any member shall be considered to be an attack on all. The invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001 when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2001/1001/e1002a.htm |title=NATO Update: Invocation of Article 5 confirmed |date=2 October 2001 |publisher=NATO |access-date=22 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825031521/http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2001/1001/e1002a.htm |archive-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the attacks included [[Operation Eagle Assist]] and [[Operation Active Endeavour]], a naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction, and to enhance the security of shipping in general, which began on 4 October 2001.<ref name="NATO Operations"/> |
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=== Afghanistan War === |
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The alliance showed unity: on 16 April 2003, NATO agreed to take command of the [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF), which included troops from 42 countries. The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two countries leading ISAF at the time of the agreement, and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO took place on 11 August, and marked the first time in NATO's history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2003/8/11/nato-takes-historic-step-into-afghanistan |title= NATO takes historic step into Afghanistan |website= Al Jazeera |agency= Reuters |date= 11 August 2003 |accessdate= 23 July 2023 |archive-date= 23 July 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230723205859/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2003/8/11/nato-takes-historic-step-into-afghanistan |url-status= live }}</ref> |
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{{Main|International Security Assistance Force|War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|l2=War in Afghanistan}} |
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[[File:210321-D-BN624-1005 (51058690203).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|General [[Austin S. Miller]] (right) became commander of U.S. and [[Resolute Support Mission|NATO forces]] in Afghanistan in September 2018 and oversaw the [[Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2020–2021)|withdrawal]] until July 2021. [[Lloyd Austin]], the 28th [[United States Secretary of Defense]], is on the left.]] |
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[[File:National Park Service 9-11 Statue of Liberty and WTC.jpg|thumb|left|The [[September 11th attacks]] in the United States caused NATO to invoke its collective defence article for the first time.|alt=A monumental green copper statue of a woman with a torch stands on an island in front of a mainland where a massive plume of gray smoke billows amongst skyscrapers.]] |
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ISAF was initially charged with securing [[Kabul]] and surrounding areas from the [[Taliban]], [[al Qaeda]] and factional warlords, so as to allow for the establishment of the [[Afghan Transitional Administration]] headed by [[Hamid Karzai]]. In October 2003, the UN Security Council authorized the expansion of the ISAF mission throughout Afghanistan,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/isaf/topics/mandate/unscr/resolution_1510.pdf |title=UNSC Resolution 1510, October 13, 2003 |access-date=5 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101009021301/http://www.nato.int/isaf/topics/mandate/unscr/resolution_1510.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> and ISAF subsequently expanded the mission in four main stages over the whole of the country.<ref name="ISAF Chronology">{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/isaf/topics/chronology/index.html |title=ISAF Chronology |publisher=NATO |access-date=5 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113041055/http://www.nato.int/isaf/topics/chronology/index.html |archive-date=13 November 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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The [[September 11th attacks]] in the United States caused NATO to invoke Article 5 of the NATO Charter for the first time in the organization's history. The Article says that an attack on any member shall be considered to be an attack on all. The invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001 when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2001/1001/e1002a.htm |title=NATO Update: Invocation of Article 5 confirmed – 2 October 2001 |publisher=Nato.int |accessdate=22 August 2010}}</ref> The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the attacks included [[Operation Eagle Assist|Operation ''Eagle Assist'']] and [[Operation Active Endeavour|Operation ''Active Endeavour'']], a naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea which is designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction, as well as enhancing the security of shipping in general which began on 4 October 2001.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.aco.nato.int/resources/21/NATO%20Operations,%201949-Present.pdf |title= NATO's Operations 1949-Present |work= NATO |date= 22 January 2010 |accessdate= 4 September 2013 |format= PDF}}</ref> |
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On 31 July 2006, the ISAF additionally took over [[Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2006|military operations in the south of Afghanistan]] from a US-led anti-terrorism coalition.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=a1qU01AKOHT8 |title=NATO Takes Control of East Afghanistan From U.S.-Led Coalition |first=Alex |last=Morales |date=5 October 2006 |access-date=4 September 2013 |work=[[Bloomberg L.P.]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724142511/https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=a1qU01AKOHT8 |archive-date=24 July 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Due to the intensity of the fighting in the south, in 2011 France allowed a squadron of [[Dassault Mirage 2000|Mirage 2000]] fighter/attack aircraft to be moved into the area, to [[Kandahar International Airport|Kandahar]], in order to reinforce the alliance's efforts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=1002456&clef=ARC-TRK-NC_01 |title=La France et l'OTAN |work=Le Monde |language=fr |location=France |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012175557/http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=1002456&clef=ARC-TRK-NC_01 |archive-date=12 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> During its [[2012 Chicago Summit]], NATO endorsed a plan to end the Afghanistan war and to remove the NATO-led ISAF Forces by the end of December 2014.<ref name="Reuters 20120521">{{cite news|title=NATO sets "irreversible" but risky course to end Afghan war|url=http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCABRE84J02C20120521?sp=true|newspaper=Reuters|agency=Reuters|access-date=22 May 2012|date=21 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022162349/http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCABRE84J02C20120521?sp=true|archive-date=22 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> ISAF was disestablished in December 2014 and replaced by the follow-on training [[Resolute Support Mission]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/28/nato-ends-afghanistan-combat-operations-after-13-years|title=Nato ends combat operations in Afghanistan|last=Rasmussen|first=Sune Engel|date=28 December 2014|work=The Guardian|access-date=24 October 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=2 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102134349/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/28/nato-ends-afghanistan-combat-operations-after-13-years|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The alliance showed unity: on 16 April 2003, NATO agreed to take command of the [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF), which includes troops from 42 countries. The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two nations leading ISAF at the time of the agreement, and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO took place on 11 August, and marked the first time in NATO's history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area.<ref>David P. Auerswald, and Stephen M. Saideman, eds. ''NATO in Afghanistan: Fighting Together, Fighting Alone'' (Princeton U.P., 2014)</ref> |
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On 14 April 2021, NATO Secretary General [[Jens Stoltenberg]] said the alliance had agreed to start [[Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2020–2021)|withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan]] by 1 May.<ref>{{cite news |title=NATO to Cut Forces in Afghanistan, Match US Withdrawal |url=https://www.voanews.com/usa/nato-cut-forces-afghanistan-match-us-withdrawal |work=[[VOA News]] |date=14 April 2021 |access-date=17 August 2021 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415000426/https://www.voanews.com/usa/nato-cut-forces-afghanistan-match-us-withdrawal |url-status=live }}</ref> Soon after the withdrawal of NATO troops started, the Taliban launched an [[2021 Taliban offensive|offensive against the Afghan government]], quickly advancing in front of collapsing [[Afghan Armed Forces]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan stunned by scale and speed of security forces' collapse |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/13/afghanistan-stunned-by-scale-and-speed-of-security-forces-collapse |work=The Guardian |date=13 July 2021 |access-date=17 August 2021 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815063215/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/13/afghanistan-stunned-by-scale-and-speed-of-security-forces-collapse |url-status=live }}</ref> By 15 August 2021, Taliban militants controlled the vast majority of Afghanistan and had encircled the capital city of [[Kabul]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Taliban surge in Afghanistan: EU and NATO in state of shock |url=https://www.dw.com/en/taliban-surge-in-afghanistan-eu-and-nato-in-state-of-shock/a-58881129 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=16 August 2021 |access-date=17 August 2021 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817130423/https://www.dw.com/en/taliban-surge-in-afghanistan-eu-and-nato-in-state-of-shock/a-58881129 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some politicians in NATO member states have described the chaotic withdrawal of Western troops from Afghanistan and the [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|collapse of the Afghan government]] as the greatest debacle that NATO has suffered since its founding.<ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan takeover sparks concern from NATO allies |url=https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-takeover-sparks-concern-from-nato-allies/a-58880292 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=16 August 2021 |access-date=19 August 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819073025/https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-takeover-sparks-concern-from-nato-allies/a-58880292 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Migration fears complicate Europe's response to Afghanistan crisis |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/afghanistan-crisis-migration-europe-response/ |work=Politico |date=16 August 2021 |access-date=19 August 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819092700/https://www.politico.eu/article/afghanistan-crisis-migration-europe-response/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[File:Rodriguez at Italian command change in Herat.jpg|thumb|ISAF General [[David M. Rodriguez]] at an Italian change of command in [[Herat]].|alt=A general hands a NATO flag from a soldier on the left to one on the right. ]] |
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ISAF was initially charged with securing [[Kabul]] and surrounding areas from the [[Taliban]], [[al Qaeda]] and factional warlords, so as to allow for the establishment of the [[Afghan Transitional Administration]] headed by [[Hamid Karzai]]. In October 2003, the UN Security Council authorized the expansion of the ISAF mission throughout Afghanistan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/isaf/topics/mandate/unscr/resolution_1510.pdf |title=UNSC Resolution 1510, October 13, 2003 |format=PDF |accessdate=5 July 2010}}</ref> and ISAF subsequently expanded the mission in four main stages over the whole of the country.<ref name="ISAF Chronology">{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/isaf/topics/chronology/index.html |title=ISAF Chronology |publisher=Nato.int |accessdate=5 July 2010}}</ref> |
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On 31 July 2006, the ISAF additionally took over [[Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2006|military operations in the south of Afghanistan]] from a US-led anti-terrorism coalition.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=a1qU01AKOHT8 |title= NATO Takes Control of East Afghanistan From U.S.-Led Coalition |first= Alex |last= Morales |date= 5 October 2006|accessdate= 4 September 2013 |work= [[Bloomberg L.P.]]}}</ref> Due to the intensity of the fighting in the south, in 2011 France allowed a squadron of [[Dassault Mirage 2000|Mirage 2000]] fighter/attack aircraft to be moved into the area, to [[Kandahar International Airport|Kandahar]], in order to reinforce the alliance's efforts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=1002456&clef=ARC-TRK-NC_01 |title=La France et l'OTAN |work=Le Monde |language=French |location=France |accessdate=16 July 2011}}</ref> During its [[2012 Chicago Summit]], NATO endorsed a plan to end the Afghanistan war and to remove the NATO-led ISAF Forces by the end of December 2014.<ref name="Reuters 20120521">{{cite web|title=NATO sets "irreversible" but risky course to end Afghan war|url=http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCABRE84J02C20120521?sp=true|work=Reuters|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=22 May 2012|date=21 May 2012}}</ref> ISAF was disestablished in December 2014 and replaced by the follow-on training [[Resolute Support Mission]]. |
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=== Iraq training mission === |
=== Iraq training mission === |
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{{Main|NATO Training Mission – Iraq}} |
{{Main|NATO Training Mission – Iraq}} |
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[[File:Armentani and Trujillo.jpg|thumb|Italian Major General Giovanni Armentani, Deputy Commanding General for the NATO Training Mission, meets with a U.S. Advise and Assist Brigade.]] |
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In August 2004, during the [[Iraq War]], NATO formed the [[NATO Training Mission – Iraq]], a training mission to assist the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the US |
In August 2004, during the [[Iraq War]], NATO formed the [[NATO Training Mission – Iraq]], a training mission to assist the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the US-led [[Multinational Force – Iraq|MNF-I]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jfcnaples.nato.int/training_mission_iraq.aspx|title=Official Website|website=Jfcnaples.nato.int|access-date=29 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111212165020/http://www.jfcnaples.nato.int/training_mission_iraq.aspx|archive-date=12 December 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> The NATO Training Mission-Iraq (NTM-I) was established at the request of the [[Iraqi Interim Government]] under the provisions of [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546]]. The aim of NTM-I was to assist in the development of Iraqi security forces training structures and institutions so that Iraq can build an effective and sustainable capability that addresses the needs of the country. NTM-I was not a combat mission but is a distinct mission, under the political control of the [[North Atlantic Council]]. Its operational emphasis was on training and mentoring. The activities of the mission were coordinated with Iraqi authorities and the US-led Deputy Commanding General Advising and Training, who was also dual-hatted as the Commander of NTM-I. The mission officially concluded on 17 December 2011.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-withdrawal-nato-idUSTRE7BG0IK20111217 |title= NATO closes up training mission in Iraq |work= Reuters |first= Rania |last= El Gamal |date= 17 December 2011 |access-date= 17 January 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111218070636/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/12/17/us-iraq-withdrawal-nato-idUSTRE7BG0IK20111217 |archive-date= 18 December 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Turkey invoked the first Article 4 meetings in 2003 at the start of the [[Iraq War]]. Turkey also invoked this article twice in 2012 during the [[Syrian Civil War]], after the [[June 2012 interception of Turkish aircraft|downing]] of an unarmed Turkish [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F-4 reconnaissance jet]], and after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria,<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-alliance-idUSBRE8921F220121003 |title= NATO demands halt to Syria aggression against Turkey |work= [[Reuters]] |first= Adrian |last= Croft |date= 3 October 2012 |access-date= 3 October 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121004011242/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/03/us-syria-crisis-alliance-idUSBRE8921F220121003 |archive-date= 4 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> and again in 2015 after threats by [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] to its territorial integrity.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/26/middleeast/turkey-nato-talks/index.html |title=Turkey calls for rare NATO talks after attacks along Syrian border |last1=Ford |first1=Dana |date=26 July 2015 |website=Cnn.com |publisher=CNN |access-date=26 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150727233434/http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/26/middleeast/turkey-nato-talks/index.html |archive-date=27 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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=== Gulf of Aden anti-piracy === |
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=== Gulf of Aden anti-piracy === |
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{{Main|Operation Ocean Shield}} |
{{Main|Operation Ocean Shield}} |
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[[File:Gulf of Aden - disabled pirate boat.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|{{USS|Farragut|DDG-99|6}} destroying a Somali pirate skiff in March 2010|alt=A tall plume of black smoke rises from the blue ocean waters next to a large grey battleship and a small black inflatable boat.]] |
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In 2008 the [[United Nations Secretary-General]] called on member-states to protect the ships of [[Operation Allied Provider]], which was distributing aid as part of the [[World Food Programme]] mission in Somalia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 September 2014 |title=Operation Allied Provider |url=https://shape.nato.int/page13984631 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114050617/https://shape.nato.int/page13984631 |archive-date=14 November 2016 |access-date=4 April 2024 |website= |publisher=[[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe]]}}</ref> |
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[[File:Gulf of Aden - disabled pirate boat.jpg|thumb|[[USS Farragut (DDG-99)|USS ''Farragut'']] destroying a Somali pirate skiff in March 2010|alt=A tall plume of black smoke rises from the blue ocean waters next to a large gray battleship and a small black inflatable boat.]] |
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The [[North Atlantic Council]] and other countries, including Russia, China and South Korea,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.manw.nato.int/page_operation_ocean_shield.aspx |title=Operation Ocean Shield |publisher=NATO |access-date=3 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513125123/http://www.manw.nato.int/page_operation_ocean_shield.aspx |archive-date=13 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.manw.nato.int/page_news_archive_OOS_%202010.aspx |title=2009 Operation Ocean Shield News Articles |publisher=NATO |date=October 2010 |access-date=19 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429152017/http://www.manw.nato.int/page_news_archive_OOS_%202010.aspx |archive-date=29 April 2011 }}</ref> formed [[Operation Ocean Shield]]. The operation sought to dissuade and interrupt pirate attacks, protect vessels, and to increase the general level of security in the region.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48815.htm |title=Operation Ocean Shield purpose |date=12 July 2016 |access-date=27 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913104750/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48815.htm |archive-date=13 September 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Beginning on 17 August 2009, NATO deployed warships in an operation to protect maritime traffic in the [[Gulf of Aden]] and the Indian Ocean from [[Piracy in Somalia|Somali pirates]], and help strengthen the navies and coast guards of regional states. The operation was approved by the [[North Atlantic Council]] and involves warships primarily from the United States though vessels from many other nations are also included. Operation ''Ocean Shield'' focuses on protecting the ships of Operation ''Allied Provider'' which are distributing aid as part of the [[World Food Programme]] mission in [[Somalia]]. [[Russia]], [[China]] and [[South Korea]] have sent warships to participate in the activities as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.manw.nato.int/page_operation_ocean_shield.aspx |title=Operation ''Ocean Shield'' |publisher=NATO |accessdate=3 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.manw.nato.int/page_news_archive_OOS_%202010.aspx |title=2009 Operation ''Ocean Shield'' News Articles |publisher=NATO |date= October 2010 |accessdate=19 May 2011}}</ref> |
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Beginning on 17 August 2009, NATO deployed warships in an operation to protect maritime traffic in the [[Gulf of Aden]] and the Indian Ocean from [[Piracy in Somalia|Somali pirates]], and help strengthen the navies and coast guards of regional states.{{cn|date=April 2024}} |
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=== Libya intervention === |
=== Libya intervention === |
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{{Main|2011 military intervention in Libya}} |
{{Main|2011 military intervention in Libya}} |
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[[File:Palmaria bengasi 1903 0612 b1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|[[Libyan Army (1951–2011)|Libyan Army]] [[Palmaria (artillery)|Palmaria howitzers]] destroyed by the [[French Air and Space Force|French Air Force]] near [[Benghazi]] in March 2011|alt=Pieces of a destroyed tank, notably the gun turret, lie on a sandy landscape.]] |
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During the [[ |
During the [[First Libyan Civil War|Libyan Civil War]], violence between protesters and the Libyan government under Colonel [[Muammar Gaddafi]] escalated, and on 17 March 2011 led to the passage of [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973]], which called for a ceasefire, and authorized military action to protect civilians. A coalition that included several NATO members began enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya shortly afterwards, beginning with [[Opération Harmattan]] by the [[French Air and Space Force|French Air Force]] on 19 March.{{cn|date=April 2024}} |
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On 20 March 2011, NATO states agreed on enforcing an arms embargo against Libya with [[Operation Unified Protector]] using ships from NATO [[Standing NRF Maritime Group 1|Standing Maritime Group 1]] and [[Standing NRF Mine Countermeasures Group 1|Standing Mine Countermeasures Group 1]],<ref name="NATOSecGen1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-E403D555-2A5EEC9A/natolive/news_71689.htm?mode=pressrelease|title=Statement by the NATO Secretary General on Libya arms embargo|publisher=NATO|date=22 March 2011|access-date=25 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428121505/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-E403D555-2A5EEC9A/natolive/news_71689.htm?mode=pressrelease|archive-date=28 April 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> and additional ships and submarines from NATO members.<ref name="NATOPressBriefing1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-83A5384E-C37D94AC/natolive/opinions_71716.htm?selectedLocale=en|title=Press briefing by NATO Spokesperson Oana Lungescu, Brigadier General Pierre St-Amand, Canadian Air Force and General Massimo Panizzi, spokesperson of the Chairman of the Military Committee|publisher=NATO|date=23 March 2011|access-date=25 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428121332/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-83A5384E-C37D94AC/natolive/opinions_71716.htm?selectedLocale=en|archive-date=28 April 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> They would "monitor, report and, if needed, [[interdiction|interdict]] vessels suspected of carrying illegal arms or [[mercenary|mercenaries]]".<ref name="NATOSecGen1"/> |
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[[File:Palmaria bengasi 1903 0612 b1.jpg|thumb|left|Libyan Army [[Palmaria (artillery)|Palmaria howitzers]] destroyed by the [[French Air Force]] near [[Benghazi]] in March 2011|alt=Pieces of a destroyed tank, notably the gun turret, lie on a sandy landscape.]] |
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On 24 |
On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone from the initial coalition, while command of targeting ground units remained with the coalition's forces.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://articles.washingtonpost.com/2011-03-25/world/35208327_1_libya-operation-charles-bouchard-nato|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130217004750/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2011-03-25/world/35208327_1_libya-operation-charles-bouchard-nato|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 February 2013|title=NATO reaches deal to take over Libya operation; allied planes hit ground forces|date=25 March 2011|newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/03/2011324221036894697.html|title=NATO to police Libya no-fly zone|website=English.aljazeera.net|date=24 March 2011|access-date=25 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326033949/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/03/2011324221036894697.html|archive-date=26 March 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> NATO began officially enforcing the UN resolution on 27 March 2011 with assistance from Qatar and the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=214574 |title= UAE and Qatar pack an Arab punch in Libya operation |work= Jerusalem Post |agency= se |first= Arieh |last= O'Sullivan |date= 31 March 2011 |access-date= 29 January 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121106134641/http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=214574 |archive-date= 6 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> By June, reports of divisions within the alliance surfaced as only eight of the 28 member states were participating in combat operations,<ref>[http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2011/6/9/worldupdates/2011-06-09T025953Z_01_NOOTR_RTRMDNC_0_-575860-1&sec=Worldupdates "NATO strikes Tripoli, Gaddafi army close on Misrata"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812030653/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2011%2F6%2F9%2Fworldupdates%2F2011-06-09T025953Z_01_NOOTR_RTRMDNC_0_-575860-1&sec=Worldupdates |date=12 August 2011 }}, Khaled al-Ramahi. ''Malaysia Star''. 9 June 2011. Retrieved 9 June 2011</ref> resulting in a confrontation between US Defense Secretary [[Robert Gates]] and countries such as Poland, Spain, the Netherlands, Turkey, and Germany with Gates calling on the latter to contribute more and the latter believing the organization has overstepped its mandate in the conflict.<ref>Coughlin, Con (9 June 2011). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304259304576375293567474306?mod=googlenews_wsj "Political Gridlock at NATO"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010140850/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304259304576375293567474306?mod=googlenews_wsj |date=10 October 2017 }}, ''Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved 9 June 2011</ref><ref>[https://latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-libya-nato-20110609,0,6023643.story "Gates Calls on NATO Allies to Do More in Libya"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314100915/https://www.latimes.com/world/la-xpm-2011-jun-09-la-fg-libya-nato-20110609-story.html |date=14 March 2022 }}, Jim Garamone. US Department of Defense. 8 June 2011. Retrieved 9 June 2011</ref><ref>Cloud, David S. (9 June 2011). [https://latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-libya-nato-20110609,0,6023643.story "Gates calls for more NATO allies to join Libya air campaign"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314100911/https://www.latimes.com/world/la-xpm-2011-jun-09-la-fg-libya-nato-20110609-story.html |date=14 March 2022 }}, ''Los Angeles Times''. Retrieved 9 June 2011</ref> In his final policy speech in Brussels on 10 June, Gates further criticized allied countries in suggesting their actions could cause the demise of NATO.<ref>Burns, Robert (10 June 2011). [http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/jun/10/gates-blasts-nato-questions-future-alliance/?page=all "Gates blasts NATO, questions future of alliance"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105213305/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/jun/10/gates-blasts-nato-questions-future-alliance/?page=all |date=5 November 2013 }}, ''Washington Times''. Retrieved 29 January 2013</ref> The German foreign ministry pointed to "a considerable [German] contribution to NATO and NATO-led operations" and to the fact that this engagement was highly valued by President Obama.<ref>Birnbaum, Michael (10 June 2011). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/gates-rebukes-european-allies-in-farewell-speech/2011/06/10/AG9tKeOH_story.html "Gates rebukes European allies in farewell speech"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825192654/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/gates-rebukes-european-allies-in-farewell-speech/2011/06/10/AG9tKeOH_story.html |date=25 August 2017 }}, ''Washington Post''. Retrieved 10 June 2011.</ref> |
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While the mission was extended into September, |
While the mission was extended into September, Norway that day (10 June) announced it would begin scaling down contributions and complete withdrawal by 1 August.<ref>Amland, Bjoern H. (10 June 2011). [https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-norway-to-quit-libya-operation-by-august-2011jun10-story.html "Norway to quit Libya operation by August"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411165833/https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-norway-to-quit-libya-operation-by-august-2011jun10-story.html |date=11 April 2020 }}, Associated Press.</ref> Earlier that week it was reported [[Royal Danish Air Force|Danish air fighters]] were running out of bombs.<ref>[http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20110610/world/Danish-planes-running-out-of-bombs.369868 "Danish planes running out of bombs"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612163628/http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20110610/world/Danish-planes-running-out-of-bombs.369868 |date=12 June 2011 }}, ''Times of Malta''. 10 June 2011. Retrieved 11 June 2011</ref><ref>[https://archive.today/20120724041541/http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=6770530&c=EUR&s=AIR "Danish Planes in Libya Running Out of Bombs: Report"], ''Defense News''. 9 June 2011. Retrieved 11 June 2011</ref> The following week, the head of the [[Royal Navy]] said the country's operations in the conflict were not sustainable.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8573849/Navy-chief-Britain-cannot-keep-up-its-role-in-Libya-air-war-due-to-cuts.html "Navy chief: Britain cannot keep up its role in Libya air war due to cuts"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913110403/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8573849/Navy-chief-Britain-cannot-keep-up-its-role-in-Libya-air-war-due-to-cuts.html |date=13 September 2018 }}, James Kirkup. ''The Telegraph''. 13 June 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2013</ref> By the end of the mission in October 2011, after the death of Colonel Gaddafi, NATO planes had flown about 9,500 strike sorties against pro-Gaddafi targets.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2011/10/11/NATO-surprised-by-pro-Gadhafi-resistance/UPI-62851318359224/ |title= NATO: Ongoing resistance by pro-Gadhafi forces in Libya is 'surprising' |newspaper= The Washington Post |agency= [[UPI]] |date= 11 October 2011 |access-date= 29 January 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131016020425/http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2011/10/11/NATO-surprised-by-pro-Gadhafi-resistance/UPI-62851318359224/ |archive-date= 16 October 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2011-10-21/Libya-NATO/50858104/1?csp=34news|title=NATO strategy in Libya may not work elsewhere |access-date=22 October 2011 | work=USA Today |date=21 October 2011}}</ref> A report from the organization [[Human Rights Watch]] in May 2012 identified at least 72 civilians killed in the campaign.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://world.time.com/2012/05/16/how-many-innocent-civilians-did-nato-kill-in-libya/ |title= How Many Innocent Civilians Did NATO Kill in Libya? |first= Ishaan |last= Tharoor |date= 16 May 2012 |access-date= 9 April 2016 |magazine= Time Magazine |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160401032328/http://world.time.com/2012/05/16/how-many-innocent-civilians-did-nato-kill-in-libya/ |archive-date= 1 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Following a [[2013 Libyan coup d'état attempt|coup d'état attempt]] in October 2013, Libyan Prime Minister [[Ali Zeidan]] requested technical advice and trainers from NATO to assist with ongoing security issues.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-nato-idUSBRE99K0GX20131021 |title= NATO to advise Libya on strengthening security forces |work= Reuters |first= Adrian |last= Croft |access-date= 1 July 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150930090823/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/21/us-libya-nato-idUSBRE99K0GX20131021 |archive-date= 30 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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== Participating countries == |
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=== Turkish border === |
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<div style="overflow:auto; overflow-x:auto; overflow-y:hidden;"> |
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{{Main|Operation Active Fence}} |
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{| style="background:white; border:1px solid rgb(153, 153, 153); margin: 1em auto 1em auto;" |
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Use of [[North Atlantic Treaty#Article 5|Article 5]] has been threatened multiple times and four out of seven official [[North Atlantic Treaty (Article 4)|Article 4]] consultations have been called due to [[Spillover of the Syrian civil war#Turkey|spillover]] in Turkey from the [[Syrian civil war]]. In April 2012, Turkish Prime Minister [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] considered invoking Article 5 of the NATO treaty to protect Turkish national security in a dispute over the Syrian Civil War.<ref>[http://www.todayszaman.com/diplomacy_pm-turkey-may-invoke-natos-article-5-over-syrian-border-fire_277185.html todayszaman.com: "PM: Turkey may invoke NATO's Article 5 over Syrian border fire"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626182142/http://www.todayszaman.com/diplomacy_pm-turkey-may-invoke-natos-article-5-over-syrian-border-fire_277185.html |date=26 June 2015 }}, 11 April 2012</ref><ref>[http://www.todayszaman.com/diplomacy_observers-say-natos-fifth-charter-comes-into-play-if-clashes-with-syria-get-worse_277187.html todayszaman.com: "Observers say NATO's fifth charter comes into play if clashes with Syria get worse"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626180355/http://www.todayszaman.com/diplomacy_observers-say-natos-fifth-charter-comes-into-play-if-clashes-with-syria-get-worse_277187.html |date=26 June 2015 }}, 11 April 2012</ref> The alliance responded quickly, and a spokesperson said the alliance was "monitoring the situation very closely and will continue to do so" and "takes it very seriously protecting its members."<ref>[http://www.todayszaman.com/diplomacy_nato-says-monitoring-tension-in-turkey-syria-border_277247.html todayszaman.com: "NATO says monitoring tension in Turkey-Syria border"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626231647/http://www.todayszaman.com/diplomacy_nato-says-monitoring-tension-in-turkey-syria-border_277247.html |date=26 June 2015 }}, 12 April 2012</ref> |
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!Map of NATO affiliations in Europe |
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!Map of NATO partnerships globally |
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After [[2012 Turkish F-4 Phantom shootdown|the shooting down of a Turkish military jet by Syria]] in June 2012 and [[Syrian–Turkish border clashes during the Syrian civil war#The 2 October 2012 incident and afterward|Syrian forces shelling Turkish cities]] in October 2012<ref name=art4>{{cite web|url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49187.htm|title=The consultation process and Article 4|website=NATO |date=24 February 2022|access-date=25 February 2022|archive-date=2 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402192427/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49187.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> resulting in two Article 4 consultations, NATO approved [[Operation Active Fence]]. In the past decade the conflict has only escalated. In response to the [[2015 Suruç bombing]], which Turkey attributed to [[ISIS]], and other security issues along its southern border,<ref name=dt26>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/11764178/Turkey-calls-for-Nato-meeting-to-discuss-Isil-and-PKK.html telegraph.co.uk: "Turkey calls for emergency Nato meeting to discuss Isil and PKK"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016195051/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/11764178/Turkey-calls-for-Nato-meeting-to-discuss-Isil-and-PKK.html |date=16 October 2022 }}, 26 July 2015</ref><ref name="cnn july 2015 article 4">{{cite news | url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/07/26/middleeast/turkey-nato-talks/ | title=Turkey calls for rare NATO talks after attacks along Syrian border | publisher=CNN | date=27 July 2015 | access-date=27 July 2015 | author=Ford, Dana | archive-date=16 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016195052/http://edition.cnn.com/2015/07/26/middleeast/turkey-nato-talks/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=nyt27>{{Cite web |date=27 July 2015 |title=Turkey and U.S. Plan to Create Syria 'Safe Zone' Free of ISIS |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/28/world/middleeast/turkey-and-us-agree-on-plan-to-clear-isis-from-strip-of-northern-syria.html |first1=Anne |last1=Barnard |first2=Michael R. |last2=Gordon |first3=Eric |last3=Schmitt |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016195051/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/28/world/middleeast/turkey-and-us-agree-on-plan-to-clear-isis-from-strip-of-northern-syria.html?_r=0 |archive-date=16 October 2022 |website=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_121926.htm?selectedLocale=en |website=NATO |title=Statement by the North Atlantic Council following meeting under Article 4 of the Washington Treaty|date=28 July 2015|access-date=27 February 2022|archive-date=27 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227190355/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_121926.htm?selectedLocale=en|url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey called for [[2015 NATO emergency meeting|an emergency meeting]]. The latest consultation happened in February 2020, as part of increasing tensions due to the [[Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019–present)|Northwestern Syria offensive]], which involved<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/diplomacy/russia-denies-involvement-in-airstrikes-on-turkish-troops-in-idlib|title=Russia denies involvement in airstrikes on Turkish troops in Idlib|website=[[Daily Sabah]]|date=28 February 2020|access-date=1 March 2022|archive-date=28 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228080529/https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/diplomacy/russia-denies-involvement-in-airstrikes-on-turkish-troops-in-idlib|url-status=live}}</ref> [[2020 Balyun airstrikes|Syrian and suspected Russian airstrikes on Turkish troops]], and risked direct confrontation between Russia and a NATO member.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tert.am/en/news/2020/02/29/idlib/3223514|title=Greece 'vetoes NATO statement' on support for Turkey amid Syria escalation|date=29 February 2020|access-date=1 March 2022|quote=The Russian military later explained that the Syrian army targeted Hayat Tahrir al-Sham terrorists operating in the province, adding that Syrian government forces were not informed about the Turkish presence in the area.|archive-date=3 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303074219/https://www.tert.am/en/news/2020/02/29/idlib/3223514|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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== Membership == |
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{{Main|Member states of NATO}} |
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The 32 NATO members are |
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{{div col|colwidth=20em}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Albania}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Belgium}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Bulgaria}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Canada}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Croatia}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Czech Republic}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Denmark}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Estonia}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Finland}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|France}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Germany}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Greece}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Hungary}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Iceland}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Italy}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Latvia}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Lithuania}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Luxembourg}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Montenegro}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Netherlands}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|North Macedonia}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Norway}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Poland}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Portugal}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Romania}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Slovakia}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Slovenia}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Spain}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Sweden}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|Turkey}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|United Kingdom}} |
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* {{Flagcountry|United States}} |
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{{div col end}} |
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{| class="skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="background:white; color: inherit; border:1px solid rgb(153, 153, 153); margin: 1em auto 1em auto; overflow:auto; overflow-x:auto; overflow-y:hidden;" |
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|- style="text-align:center;" |
|- style="text-align:center;" |
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|[[File:NATO partnerships.svg|1000px|alt=A world map with countries in blue, cyan, orange, yellow, purple, and green, based on their NATO affiliation.]] |
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|[[File:NATO partnerships.svg|625px|alt=A world map with countries in blue, cyan, orange, yellow, purple, and green, based on their NATO affiliation.]] |
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|- style="font-size:85%;" |
|- style="font-size:85%;" |
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| |
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|colspan=2| |
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{|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="background:white; border:1px solid white;" |
{|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="background:white; color:inherit; border:1px solid white;" |
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| style="border:0; width: |
| style="border:0; width:2em;"|{{legend|#004990|outline=black}} |
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| style="border:0;"|'''[[Member states of NATO|NATO members]]''' |
| style="border:0;"|'''[[Member states of NATO|NATO members]]''' |
||
| style="border:0; width:2em;"|{{legend|#2a7fff|outline=black}} |
| style="border:0; width:2em;"|{{legend|#2a7fff|outline=black}} |
||
| style="border:0;"|'''[[Membership Action Plan]]''' |
| style="border:0;"|'''[[Membership Action Plan]]''' |
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| style="border:0; width:2em;"|{{legend|#88b7ff|outline=black}} |
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| style="border:0;"|'''Enhanced Opportunities Partners''' |
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| style="border:0; width:2em;"|{{legend|#ffd900|outline=black}} |
| style="border:0; width:2em;"|{{legend|#ffd900|outline=black}} |
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| style="border:0;"|'''[[Individual Partnership Action Plan]]''' |
| style="border:0;"|'''[[Individual Partnership Action Plan]]''' |
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| style="border:0;"|'''[[Istanbul Cooperation Initiative]]''' |
| style="border:0;"|'''[[Istanbul Cooperation Initiative]]''' |
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| style="border:0; width:2em;"|{{legend|#008000|outline=black}} |
| style="border:0; width:2em;"|{{legend|#008000|outline=black}} |
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| style="border:0;"|'''Global Partners''' |
| style="border:0;"|'''[[NATO global partners|Global Partners]]''' |
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! style="border:0; background:none; width:3.6em;"| |
! style="border:0; background:none; width:3.6em;"| |
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|- valign="top" |
|- valign="top" |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{plainlist| |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{Flag|Albania}}<br>{{Flag|Belgium}}<br>{{Flag|Bulgaria}}<br>{{Flag|Canada}}<br>{{Flag|Croatia}}<br>{{Flag|Czech Republic}}<br>{{Flag|Denmark}}<br>{{Flag|Estonia}}<br>{{Flag|France}}<br>{{Flag|Germany}}<br>{{Flag|Greece}}<br>{{Flag|Hungary}}<br>{{Flag|Iceland}}<br>{{Flag|Italy}}<br>{{Flag|Latvia}}<br>{{Flag|Lithuania}}<br>{{Flag|Luxembourg}}<br>{{Flag|Netherlands}}<br>{{Flag|Norway}}<br>{{Flag|Poland}}<br>{{Flag|Portugal}}<br>{{Flag|Romania}}<br>{{Flag|Slovakia}}<br>{{Flag|Slovenia}}<br>{{Flag|Spain}}<br>{{Flag|Turkey}}<br>{{Flag|United Kingdom}}<br>{{Flag|United States}} |
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* [[Albania]] |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{Flag|Bosnia-Herzegovina}}<br>{{Flag|Macedonia}}<br>{{Flag|Montenegro}} |
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* [[Belgium]] |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{Flag|Armenia}}<br>{{Flag|Azerbaijan}}<br>{{Flag|Bosnia-Herzegovina}}<br>{{Flag|Georgia}}<br>{{flag|Kazakhstan}}<br>{{flag|Moldova}}<br>{{flag|Montenegro}}<br>{{Flag|Ukraine}} |
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* [[Bulgaria]] |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{Flag|Armenia}}<br>{{Flag|Austria}}<br>{{Flag|Azerbaijan}}<br>{{Flag|Belarus}}<br>{{Flag|Bosnia}}<br>{{Flag|Finland}}<br>{{Flag|Georgia}}<br>{{Flag|Ireland}}<br>{{Flag|Kazakhstan}}<br>{{Flag|Kyrgyzstan}}<br>{{Flag|Macedonia}}<br>{{Flag|Malta}}<br>{{Flag|Moldova}}<br>{{Flag|Montenegro}}<br>{{Flag|Russia}}<br>{{Flag|Serbia}}<br>{{Flag|Sweden}}<br>{{Flag|Switzerland}}<br>{{Flag|Tajikistan}}<br>{{Flag|Turkmenistan}}<br>{{Flag|Ukraine}}<br>{{Flag|Uzbekistan}} |
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* [[Canada]] |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{Flag|Algeria}}<br>{{Flag|Egypt}}<br>{{Flag|Israel}}<br>{{Flag|Jordan}}<br>{{Flag|Mauritania}}<br>{{Flag|Morocco}}<br>{{Flag|Tunisia}} |
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* [[Croatia]] |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{Flag|Bahrain}}<br>{{Flag|Kuwait}}<br>{{Flag|Qatar}}<br>{{Flag|United Arab Emirates}} |
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* [[Czech Republic]] |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="3"|{{Flag|Afghanistan}}<br>{{Flag|Australia}}<br>{{Flag|Colombia}}<br>{{Flag|Iraq}}<br>{{Flag|Japan}}<br>{{Flag|Mongolia}}<br>{{Flag|Pakistan}}<br>{{Flag|New Zealand}}<br>{{Flag|South Korea}} |
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* [[Denmark]] |
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* [[Estonia]] |
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* [[Finland]] |
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* [[France]] |
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* [[Germany]] |
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* [[Greece]] |
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* [[Hungary]] |
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* [[Iceland]] |
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* [[Italy]] |
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* [[Latvia]] |
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* [[Lithuania]] |
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* [[Luxembourg]] |
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* [[Montenegro]] |
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* [[Netherlands]] |
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* [[North Macedonia]] |
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* [[Norway]] |
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* [[Poland]] |
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* [[Portugal]] |
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* [[Romania]] |
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* [[Slovakia]] |
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* [[Slovenia]] |
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* [[Spain]] |
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* [[Sweden]] |
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* [[Turkey]] |
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* [[United Kingdom]] |
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* [[United States]]}} |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{plainlist| |
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* [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]}} |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{plainlist| |
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* [[Australia]] |
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* [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] |
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* [[Jordan]] |
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* [[Ukraine]]}} |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{plainlist| |
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* [[Armenia]] |
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* [[Azerbaijan]] |
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* [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] |
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* [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] |
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* [[Kazakhstan]] |
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* [[Moldova]] |
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* [[Serbia]] |
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* [[Ukraine]]}} |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{plainlist| |
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* [[Armenia]] |
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* [[Austria]] |
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* [[Azerbaijan]] |
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* [[Belarus]] |
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* [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] |
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* [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] |
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* [[Ireland]] |
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* [[Kazakhstan]] |
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* [[Kyrgyzstan]] |
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* [[Malta]] |
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* [[Moldova]] |
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* [[Russia]] |
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* [[Serbia]] |
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* [[Switzerland]] |
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* [[Tajikistan]] |
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* [[Turkmenistan]] |
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* [[Ukraine]] |
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* [[Uzbekistan]]}} |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{plainlist| |
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* [[Algeria]] |
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* [[Egypt]] |
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* [[Israel]] |
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* [[Jordan]] |
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* [[Mauritania]] |
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* [[Morocco]] |
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* [[Tunisia]]}} |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="2"|{{plainlist| |
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* [[Bahrain]] |
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* [[Kuwait]] |
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* [[Qatar]] |
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* [[United Arab Emirates]]}} |
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| style="border:0;" colspan="3"|{{plainlist| |
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* [[Australia]] |
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* [[Colombia]] |
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* [[Iraq]] |
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* [[Japan]] |
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* [[Mongolia]] |
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* [[New Zealand]] |
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* [[Pakistan]] |
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* [[South Korea]]}} |
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|} |
|} |
||
|} |
|} |
||
</div> |
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[[File:World map with tropic of cancer.svg|thumb|Member states of NATO are not obligated to come to the defence of territory south of the [[Tropic of Cancer]].]] |
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=== Members === |
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NATO has thirty-two members, mostly in Europe with two in North America. Some of these countries also have territory on other continents, which is covered by the security agreements only as far south as the [[Tropic of Cancer]], which together with the Atlantic Ocean defines NATO's "area of responsibility" under Article 6 of the [[North Atlantic Treaty]]. During the original treaty negotiations, the United States insisted that colonies such as the [[Belgian Congo]] be excluded from the treaty.{{sfn|Collins|2011|pp=122–123}}<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/ebookshop/video/declassified/#/en/encyclopedia/the_birth_of_nato/the_key_issues_of_contention/the_area_of_responsibility/ |title= The area of responsibility |work= NATO Declassified |publisher= NATO |date= 23 February 2013 |access-date= 28 September 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130601131134/http://www.nato.int/ebookshop/video/declassified/#/en/encyclopedia/the_birth_of_nato/the_key_issues_of_contention/the_area_of_responsibility/ |archive-date= 1 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[French Algeria]] was, however, covered until [[1962 Algerian independence referendum|its independence]] on 3 July 1962.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-C6AD72DE-2E05A89E/natolive/topics_67656.htm?selectedLocale=en |title= Washington Treaty |publisher= NATO |date= 11 April 2011 |access-date= 28 September 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131016081817/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-C6AD72DE-2E05A89E/natolive/topics_67656.htm?selectedLocale=en |archive-date= 16 October 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Twelve of these thirty-two are original members who joined in 1949, while the other twenty joined in one of ten enlargement rounds.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/12/how-does-a-country-join-nato-2 |title= How does a country join NATO? |website= Al Jazeera |date= 12 July 2023 |accessdate= 23 July 2023 |archive-date= 22 July 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230722162248/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/12/how-does-a-country-join-nato-2 |url-status= live }}</ref> |
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{{Main|Member states of NATO}} |
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=== Special arrangements === |
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[[File:NATO and US EU Summits in Lisbon (2).jpg|thumb|NATO organizes regular summits for leaders of their members states and partnerships.|alt=Twelve men in black suits stand talking in small groups under a backdrop with the words Lisbonne and Lisboa.]] |
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The three Nordic countries which joined NATO as founding members, Denmark, Iceland, and Norway, chose to limit their participation in three areas: there would be no permanent peacetime bases, no nuclear warheads and no Allied military activity (unless invited) permitted on their territory. However, Denmark allows the [[U.S. Space Force]] to maintain [[Pituffik Space Base]], in Greenland.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/declassified_162357.htm |title=Denmark and NATO – 1949 |access-date=13 April 2022 |archive-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413192145/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/declassified_162357.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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From the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, France pursued a military strategy of independence from NATO under a policy dubbed "Gaullo-Mitterrandism".<ref>{{cite web |title=Why the concept of Gaullo-Mitterrandism is still relevant |url=https://www.iris-france.org/136272-why-the-concept-of-gaullo-mitterrandism-is-still-relevant/ |website=IRIS |access-date=7 March 2022 |date=29 April 2019 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307043522/https://www.iris-france.org/136272-why-the-concept-of-gaullo-mitterrandism-is-still-relevant/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] negotiated the return of France to the integrated military command and the Defence Planning Committee in 2009, the latter being disbanded the following year. France remains the only NATO member outside the Nuclear Planning Group and, unlike the United States and the United Kingdom, will not commit its nuclear-armed submarines to the alliance.<ref name="WP-France"/><ref name="guardian-france"/> |
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NATO has twenty-eight members, mainly in Europe and North America. Some of these countries also have territory on multiple continents, which can be covered only as far south as the [[Tropic of Cancer]] in the Atlantic Ocean, which defines NATO's "area of responsibility" under Article 6 of the [[North Atlantic Treaty]]. During the original treaty negotiations, the United States insisted that colonies like the [[Belgian Congo]] be excluded from the treaty.{{sfn|Collins|2011|pp=122–123}}<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/ebookshop/video/declassified/#/en/encyclopedia/the_birth_of_nato/the_key_issues_of_contention/the_area_of_responsibility/ |title= The area of responsibility |work= NATO Declassified |publisher= NATO |date= 23 February 2013 |accessdate= 28 September 2013}}</ref> [[French Algeria]] was however covered until [[Algerian independence referendum, 1962|their independence]] on 3 July 1962.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-C6AD72DE-2E05A89E/natolive/topics_67656.htm?selectedLocale=en |title= Washington Treaty |work= NATO |date= 11 April 2011 |accessdate= 28 September 2013}}</ref> Twelve of these twenty-eight are original members who joined in 1949, while the other sixteen joined in one of seven enlargement rounds. Few members spend more than two percent of their gross domestic product on defense,<ref>{{cite news |title=Some EU states may no longer afford air forces-general |author=Adrian Croft |url=http://mobile.reuters.com/article/idUSL5E8KJJSL20120919?irpc=932 |agency=Reuters |date=19 September 2013 |accessdate=31 March 2013}}</ref> with the United States accounting for three quarters of NATO defense spending.<ref>{{cite news |title=NATO allies grapple with shrinking defense budgets |author=Craig Whitlock |url=http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2012-01-29/world/35437915_1_nato-allies-defense-budgets-european-members |newspaper=Washington Post |date=29 January 2012 |accessdate=29 March 2013}}</ref> |
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From the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, [[France]] pursued a military strategy of independence from NATO under a policy dubbed "Gaullo-Mitterrandism".{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}} [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] negotiated the return of France to the integrated military command and the Defence Planning Committee in 2009, the latter being disbanded the following year. France remains the only NATO member outside the Nuclear Planning Group and unlike the United States and the United Kingdom, will not commit its nuclear-armed submarines to the alliance.<ref name=WP-France/><ref name=guardian-france/> |
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=== Enlargement === |
=== Enlargement === |
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{{Main|Enlargement of NATO}} |
{{Main|Enlargement of NATO}} |
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[[File:History of NATO enlargement.svg|thumb|NATO has added |
{{stack|[[File:History of NATO enlargement.svg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|NATO has added 16 new members since [[German reunification]] and the end of the [[Cold War]].|alt=A map of Europe with countries labelled in shades of blue, green, and yellow based on when they joined NATO.]]}} |
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NATO was established on 4 April 1949 by the signing of the [[North Atlantic Treaty]] (Washington Treaty). The 12 founding members of the alliance were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.<ref>{{Cite web |last=NATO |title=Member countries |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_52044.htm |access-date=29 June 2022 |website=NATO |language=en |archive-date=29 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329231751/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_52044.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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New membership in the alliance has been largely from [[Central and Eastern Europe]], including former members of the [[Warsaw Pact]]. Accession to the alliance is governed with individual [[Membership Action Plan]]s, and requires approval by each current member. NATO currently has three candidate countries that are in the process of joining the alliance: [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Montenegro]], and the [[Republic of Macedonia]].<ref>In NATO official statements, the country is always referred to as the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, with a footnote stating that "Turkey recognizes the Republic of Macedonia under its constitutional name"; see [[Macedonia naming dispute]]</ref> Though Macedonia completed its requirements for membership at the same time as [[Croatia]] and [[Albania]], NATO's most recent members, its accession was blocked by Greece pending a resolution of the [[Macedonia naming dispute]].<ref>{{cite news |url= http://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/14/business/macedonia-prime-minister-greece/ |title= Macedonian PM: Greece is avoiding talks over name dispute |first= Oliver |last= Joy |work= CNN |date= 16 January 2014 |accessdate= 18 April 2014}}</ref> In order to support each other in the process, new and potential members in the region formed the [[Adriatic Charter]] in 2003.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/2008/12/09/feature-02 |title= Montenegro, BiH join Adriatic Charter |date=12 September 2008 |first= Jusuf |last= Ramadanovic |author2=Nedjeljko Rudovic |work=[[Southeast European Times]] |accessdate=24 March 2009}}</ref> [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] was also named as an aspiring member, and was promised "future membership" during the 2008 summit in Bucharest,<ref>{{cite journal |author=George J, Teigen JM |year=2008 |url=http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a907490331~db=all?jumptype=alert |title=NATO Enlargement and Institution Building: Military Personnel Policy Challenges in the Post-Soviet Context |journal=European Security |volume=17 |issue=2 |page=346 |doi=10.1080/09662830802642512}}</ref> though in 2014, US President Barack Obama said the country was not "currently on a path" to membership.<ref name = "Obama says no">{{Cite news |last = Cathcourt |first = Will |date = 27 March 2014 |title = Obama Tells Georgia to Forget About NATO After Encouraging It to Join |url = http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/03/27/obama-tells-georgia-to-forget-about-nato-after-encouraging-it-to-join.html |work = [[The Daily Beast]] |accessdate = 15 April 2014 }}</ref> |
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Four new members joined during the Cold War: Greece (1952), Turkey (1952), [[West Germany]] (1955) and Spain (1982). Following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], many former [[Warsaw Pact]] and [[post-Soviet states]] sought membership. In 1990, the territory of the former [[East Germany]] was added with the [[German reunification|reunification of Germany]]. At the [[1999 Washington summit]], Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic officially joined, and NATO issued new guidelines for membership, with individualized "[[Membership Action Plan]]s". These plans governed the addition of new members: Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia in 2004, Albania and Croatia in 2009, Montenegro in 2017, and North Macedonia in 2020.<ref>{{cite web|last=NATO|title=Relations with the Republic of North Macedonia (Archived)|url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48830.htm|access-date=16 February 2022 |website=NATO |language=en|archive-date=10 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310022112/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48830.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Finland and Sweden are the newest members, joining on 4 April 2023 and 7 March 2024 respectively, spurred on by [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russia's invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-65173043 |title=NATO's border with Russia doubles as Finland joins |work=BBC News |date=4 April 2023 |access-date=4 April 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404150315/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-65173043 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="swe-membership-final"/> |
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Russia continues to oppose further expansion, seeing it as inconsistent with understandings between Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and European and American negotiators that allowed for a peaceful German reunification.<ref name="Spiegel review"/> NATO's expansion efforts are often seen by Moscow leaders as a continuation of a Cold War attempt to surround and isolate Russia,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7312045.stm |work=BBC News | title=Medvedev warns on Nato expansion | date=25 March 2008 | accessdate=20 May 2010}}</ref> though they have also been criticised in the West.<ref name = "Art1998 383 to 384">{{Harvnb|Art|1998|pp=383–4}}: "The United States and its NATO allies have gotten themselves into a real pickle […] [w]ith their decision to enlarge NATO by taking in Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic […] How large can a NATO-without-Russia become before the West more or less permanently alienates Russia? […] Taking in Ukraine without also inducting Russia is the quickest way to alienate Russia […] and would justifiably give rise within Russia to fears of encirclement by, and exclusion from, the West."</ref> [[Ukraine]]'s [[Ukraine–NATO relations|relationship with NATO]] and Europe has been politically divisive, and contributed to "[[Euromaidan]]" protests that saw the ousting of pro-Russian President [[Viktor Yanukovych]] in 2014. In March 2014, Prime Minister [[Arseniy Yatsenyuk]] reiterated the government's stance that Ukraine is not seeking NATO membership.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/18/uk-ukraine-crisis-nato-idUKBREA2H0DO20140318 |title= PM tells Ukrainians: No NATO membership, armed groups to disarm |first= Pavel |last= Polityuk |date= 18 March 2014 |work= Reuters |accessdate= 27 March 2014}}</ref> Ukraine's president subsequently signed a bill dropping his nation's nonaligned status in order to pursue NATO membership, but signaled that it would hold a referendum before seeking to join.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.rferl.org/content/ukraine-poroshenko-signs-law-allowing-nato-bid/26767916.html |title= Ukrainian President Signs Law Allowing NATO Membership Bid |work= Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date= 29 December 2014 |accessdate= 7 August 2015}}</ref> Ukraine is one of eight countries in Eastern Europe with an [[Individual Partnership Action Plan]]. IPAPs began in 2002, and are open to countries that have the political will and ability to deepen their relationship with NATO.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49290.htm |title=NATO Topics: Individual Partnership Action Plans |publisher=Nato.int |accessdate=January 29, 2013}}</ref> |
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[[Ukraine–NATO relations|Ukraine's relationship with NATO]] began with the NATO–Ukraine Action Plan in 2002.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49290.htm |title=NATO Topics: Individual Partnership Action Plans |publisher=NATO |access-date=29 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310015635/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49290.htm |archive-date=10 March 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2010, under President [[Viktor Yanukovych]], Ukraine re-affirmed its non-aligned status and renounced aspirations of joining NATO.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/ukraine-politics/yanukovych-signs-law-declaring-ukraines-non-aligne-73680.html |title=Yanukovych signs law declaring Ukraine's non-aligned status |work=[[Kyiv Post]] |date=15 July 2010 |access-date=25 February 2022 |archive-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202025840/https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/ukraine-politics/yanukovych-signs-law-declaring-ukraines-non-aligne-73680.html |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[2014 Ukrainian Revolution]], Russia [[Russian occupation of Crimea|occupied Crimea]] and supported [[Russian separatist forces in Ukraine|armed separatists in eastern Ukraine]]. As a result, in December 2014 Ukraine's parliament voted to end its non-aligned status,<ref>{{cite news |title=Ukraine drops non-aligned status in swipe at Moscow |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20141223-ukraine-parliament-votes-scrap-non-aligned-status-russia-nato |work=[[France 24]] |date=23 December 2014 |access-date=8 March 2024 |archive-date=8 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308140645/https://www.france24.com/en/20141223-ukraine-parliament-votes-scrap-non-aligned-status-russia-nato |url-status=live }}</ref> and in 2019 it enshrined the goal of NATO membership in the [[Constitution of Ukraine|Constitution]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ukraine's parliament backs changes to Constitution confirming Ukraine's path toward EU, NATO |url=https://www.unian.info/politics/10437570-ukraine-s-parliament-backs-changes-to-constitution-confirming-ukraine-s-path-toward-eu-nato.html |work=[[Ukrainian Independent Information Agency]] |date=7 February 2019 |access-date=7 March 2024 |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215054226/https://www.unian.info/politics/10437570-ukraine-s-parliament-backs-changes-to-constitution-confirming-ukraine-s-path-toward-eu-nato.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The law amending the Constitution on the course of accession to the EU and NATO has entered into force {{!}} European integration portal|url=https://eu-ua.org/novyny/zakon-pro-zminy-do-konstytuciyi-shchodo-kursu-na-vstup-v-yes-i-nato-nabuv-chynnosti|website=eu-ua.org|access-date=23 March 2021|language=uk|archive-date=28 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928024828/https://eu-ua.org/novyny/zakon-pro-zminy-do-konstytuciyi-shchodo-kursu-na-vstup-v-yes-i-nato-nabuv-chynnosti|url-status=live}}</ref> At the June [[2021 Brussels summit|2021 Brussels Summit]], NATO leaders affirmed that Ukraine would eventually join the Alliance, and supported Ukraine's right to self-determination without interference.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_185000.htm|title=Brussels Summit Communiqué issued by the Heads of State and Government participating in the meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Brussels 14 June 2021|website=NATO|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=21 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221172546/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_185000.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In late 2021, there was another massive Russian military buildup near Ukraine's borders. On 30 November, Russian president Putin said Ukraine joining NATO, and the deployment of [[United States national missile defense|missile defense systems]] or [[Ballistic missile|long-range missiles]] in Ukraine, would be [[Red line (phrase)|crossing a red line]]. However, there were no such plans to deploy missiles in Ukraine.<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia will act if Nato countries cross Ukraine 'red lines', Putin says |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/30/russia-will-act-if-nato-countries-cross-ukraine-red-lines-putin-says |work=The Guardian |date=30 November 2021 |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217112550/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/30/russia-will-act-if-nato-countries-cross-ukraine-red-lines-putin-says |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=NATO Pushes Back Against Russian President Putin's 'Red Lines' Over Ukraine |url=https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/43334/nato-pushes-back-against-russian-president-putins-red-lines-over-ukraine |work=The Drive |date=1 December 2021 |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214164345/https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/43334/nato-pushes-back-against-russian-president-putins-red-lines-over-ukraine |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Putin warns Russia will act if NATO crosses its red lines in Ukraine |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/stocks/putin-warns-russia-will-act-if-nato-crosses-its-red-lines-ukraine-2021-11-30/ |work=Reuters |date=30 November 2021 |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119022224/https://www.reuters.com/markets/stocks/putin-warns-russia-will-act-if-nato-crosses-its-red-lines-ukraine-2021-11-30/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Russian Foreign Ministry drafted a treaty that would forbid Ukraine or any [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet state]] from ever joining NATO.<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia demands NATO roll back from East Europe and stay out of Ukraine |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-unveils-security-guarantees-says-western-response-not-encouraging-2021-12-17/ |work=[[Reuters]] |date=17 December 2021 |access-date=7 March 2024 |archive-date=22 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222081106/https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-unveils-security-guarantees-says-western-response-not-encouraging-2021-12-17/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Secretary-General Stoltenberg replied that the decision is up to Ukraine and NATO members, adding "Russia has no veto, Russia has no say, and Russia has no right to establish a [[sphere of influence]] to try to control their neighbors".<ref>{{cite news |title=NATO chief: "Russia has no right to establish a sphere of influence" |url=https://www.axios.com/nato-russia-ukraine-invasion-18619fd7-be80-4d37-86f8-fcebcb1fbe8a.html |work=Axios |date=1 December 2021 |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=14 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214172403/https://www.axios.com/nato-russia-ukraine-invasion-18619fd7-be80-4d37-86f8-fcebcb1fbe8a.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Is Russia preparing to invade Ukraine? And other questions |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56720589 |work=BBC News |date=10 December 2021 |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=19 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219125518/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56720589 |url-status=live }}</ref> NATO offered to improve communications with Russia and discuss missile placements and military exercises, as long as Russia withdrew troops from Ukraine's borders.<ref>{{cite news |title=US offers no concessions in response to Russia on Ukraine |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-europe-russia-united-states-moscow-72856781c3b92640d03c5e954488ba90 |work=[[Associated Press]] |date=26 January 2022 |access-date=7 March 2024 |archive-date=1 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001143405/https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-europe-russia-united-states-moscow-72856781c3b92640d03c5e954488ba90 |url-status=live }}</ref> Instead, [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russia invaded Ukraine]] in February 2022. Ukraine applied for NATO membership in September 2022 after Russia proclaimed it had [[Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts|annexed the country's southeast]].<ref>{{cite news |date=30 September 2022 |title=Ukraine applies for Nato membership after Russia annexes territory |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/30/ukraine-applies-for-nato-membership-after-russia-annexes-territory |url-status=live |access-date=30 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001000623/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/30/ukraine-applies-for-nato-membership-after-russia-annexes-territory |archive-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> |
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=== Partnerships === |
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{{Further|Foreign relations of NATO}} |
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[[File:Cooperative Archer 2007.jpg|thumb|Partnership for Peace conducts multinational military exercises like Cooperative Archer, which took place in Tblisi in July 2007 with 500 servicemen from four NATO members, eight PfP members, and Jordan, a Mediterranean Dialogue participant.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://en.ria.ru/world/20070709/68610511.html |title= Cooperative Archer military exercise begins in Georgia |date= 9 July 2007 |work= [[RIA Novosti]] |accessdate= 3 December 2013}}</ref>|alt=Hundreds of soldiers in military uniforms stand behind a line on a tarmac with 14 flags held by individuals at the front.]] |
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The [[Partnership for Peace]] (PfP) programme was established in 1994 and is based on individual bilateral relations between each partner country and NATO: each country may choose the extent of its participation.<ref name=pfp>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/issues/pfp/index.html |title=Partnership for Peace |publisher=Nato.int |accessdate=3 March 2011}}</ref> Members include all current and former members of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ru.forsecurity.org/nato-and-belarus-partnership-past-tensions-and-future-possibilities |title=Nato and Belarus – partnership, past tensions and future possibilities |publisher=Foreign Policy and Security Research Center |accessdate=25 November 2010}}</ref> The [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council]] (EAPC) was first established on 29 May 1997, and is a forum for regular coordination, consultation and dialogue between all fifty participants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49276.htm |title=NATO Topics: The Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council |publisher=Nato.int |accessdate=22 August 2010}}</ref> The PfP programme is considered the operational wing of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership.<ref name=pfp/> Other third countries also have been contacted for participation in some activities of the PfP framework such as Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/docu/basictxt/b060906e.htm |title=Declaration by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan |publisher=Nato.int |accessdate=22 August 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100908042229/http://www.nato.int/docu/basictxt/b060906e.htm <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archivedate=8 September 2010}}</ref> |
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Georgia was promised "future membership" during the 2008 summit in Bucharest,<ref>{{cite journal |author=George J, Teigen JM |year=2008 |title=NATO Enlargement and Institution Building: Military Personnel Policy Challenges in the Post-Soviet Context |journal=European Security |volume=17 |issue=2 |page=346 |doi=10.1080/09662830802642512|s2cid=153420615 }}</ref> but US president [[Barack Obama]] said in 2014 that the country was not "currently on a path" to membership.<ref name = "Obama says no">{{Cite news |last = Cathcourt |first = Will |date = 27 March 2014 |title = Obama Tells Georgia to Forget About NATO After Encouraging It to Join |url = http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/03/27/obama-tells-georgia-to-forget-about-nato-after-encouraging-it-to-join.html |work = [[The Daily Beast]] |access-date = 15 April 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140416193123/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/03/27/obama-tells-georgia-to-forget-about-nato-after-encouraging-it-to-join.html |archive-date = 16 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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The [[European Union]] (EU) signed a comprehensive package of arrangements with NATO under the [[Berlin Plus agreement]] on 16 December 2002. With this agreement the EU was given the possibility to use NATO assets in case it wanted to act independently in an international crisis, on the condition that NATO itself did not want to act—the so-called "[[right of first refusal]]."<ref>Bram Boxhoorn, ''Broad Support for NATO in the Netherlands'', 21 September 2005, {{Wayback |date=20070218090444 |url=http://www.ataedu.org/article_new.php?id=107 |title=ATAedu.org }}</ref> It provides a "double framework" for the EU countries that are also linked with the PfP programme. Additionally, NATO cooperates and discusses their activities with numerous other non-NATO members. The [[Mediterranean Dialogue]] was established in 1994 to coordinate in a similar way with [[Foreign relations of Israel|Israel]] and countries in North Africa. The [[Istanbul Cooperation Initiative]] was announced in 2004 as a dialog forum for the Middle East along the same lines as the Mediterranean Dialogue. The four participants are also linked through the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-4CA2943D-E00ED2BF/natolive/51288.htm |title=NATO Partner countries |publisher=Nato.int |date=6 March 2009 |accessdate=15 June 2011}}</ref> |
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[[File:We Stand with Ukraine 2022 Helsinki - Finland (51905505001).jpg|thumb|Protestors at a February 2022 rally against [[Russo-Ukrainian War|Russia's invasion of Ukraine]] march past the statue of Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] in [[Senate Square, Helsinki|Senate Square]] in [[Helsinki]], Finland|alt=A crowd of people in winter coats march past a white domed church above a set of snowy stairs, some carrying signs and blue and yellow Ukrainian flags.]] |
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Political dialogue with Japan began in 1990, and since then, the Alliance has gradually increased its contact with countries that do not form part of any of these cooperation initiatives.<ref>NATO, [http://www.nato.int/summit2009/topics_en/12-contact_countries.html Relations with Contact Countries]. Retrieved January 29, 2013.</ref> In 1998, NATO established a set of general guidelines that do not allow for a formal institutionalization of relations, but reflect the Allies' desire to increase cooperation. Following extensive debate, the term "Contact Countries" was agreed by the Allies in 2000. By 2012, the Alliance had broadened this group, which meets to discuss issues such as counter-piracy and technology exchange, under the names "partners across the globe" or "global partners."<ref name=gao>{{cite news|url=http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d101015.pdf|title=NATO PARTNERSHIPS: DOD Needs to Assess U.S. Assistance in Response to Changes to the Partnership for Peace Program|work=United States Government Accountability Office|date=September 2010|first=|last=|accessdate=27 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/51288.htm |title= Partners |publisher= NATO |date= 2 April 2012 |accessdate= 12 October 2012}}</ref> [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], both contact countries, are also members of the [[AUSCANNZUKUS]] strategic alliance, and similar regional or bilateral agreements between contact countries and NATO members also aid cooperation. In June 2013, [[Colombia]] and NATO signed an Agreement on the Security of Information to explore future cooperation and consultation in areas of common interest; Colombia became the first and only [[Latin American]] country to cooperate with NATO.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-5BD27A88-B376D2C3/natolive/news_101634.htm |title=NATO and Colombia open channel for future cooperation |publisher=Nato.int |date=25 June 2013 |accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> |
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Russia continued to politically oppose further expansion, seeing it as inconsistent with informal understandings between Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and European and US negotiators that allowed for a peaceful German reunification.<ref name = "Spiegel review">{{Cite news |last1= Klussmann |first1= Uwe |last2= Schepp |first2= Matthias |last3= Wiegrefe |first3= Klaus |date= 26 November 2009 |title= NATO's Eastward Expansion: Did the West Break Its Promise to Moscow? |url= http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/nato-s-eastward-expansion-did-the-west-break-its-promise-to-moscow-a-663315.html |work= [[Spiegel Online]] |access-date= 7 April 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140405190301/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/nato-s-eastward-expansion-did-the-west-break-its-promise-to-moscow-a-663315.html |archive-date= 5 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> A June 2016 [[Levada Center]] poll found that 68 percent of Russians think that deploying NATO troops in the [[Baltic states]] and Poland – former Eastern bloc countries bordering Russia – is a threat to Russia.<ref>[http://www.levada.ru/en/2016/11/04/levada-center_chicago_council/ Levada-Center and Chicago Council on Global Affairs about Russian-American relations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819190307/http://www.levada.ru/en/2016/11/04/levada-center_chicago_council/ |date=19 August 2017 }}. Levada-Center. 4 November 2016.</ref> In contrast, 65 percent of Poles surveyed in a 2017 Pew Research Center report identified Russia as a "major threat", with an average of 31 percent saying so across all NATO countries,<ref>{{cite news |title=Pew survey: Russia disliked around world; most in Poland, Turkey see Kremlin as major threat |url=https://www.kyivpost.com/russia/pew-survey-russia-disliked-around-world-poland-turkey-see-kremlin-major-threat.html |newspaper=Kyiv Post |access-date=4 September 2018 |date=16 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323093746/https://www.kyivpost.com/russia/pew-survey-russia-disliked-around-world-poland-turkey-see-kremlin-major-threat.html |archive-date=23 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> and 67 percent of Poles surveyed in 2018 favour US forces being based in Poland.<ref>{{cite web |title=NATO summit: Poland pins its hopes on the USA |url=https://www.dw.com/en/nato-summit-poland-pins-its-hopes-on-the-usa/a-44606598 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=4 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904121243/https://www.dw.com/en/nato-summit-poland-pins-its-hopes-on-the-usa/a-44606598 |archive-date=4 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Of non-[[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]] Eastern European countries surveyed by Gallup in 2016, all but [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]] were more likely than not to view NATO as a protective alliance rather than a threat.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Michael |title=Most NATO Members in Eastern Europe See It as Protection |date=10 February 2017 |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/203819/nato-members-eastern-europe-protection.aspx |publisher=Gallup |access-date=4 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904153827/https://news.gallup.com/poll/203819/nato-members-eastern-europe-protection.aspx |archive-date=4 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2006 study in the journal ''[[Security Studies (journal)|Security Studies]]'' argued that NATO enlargement contributed to [[democratic consolidation]] in Central and Eastern Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Epstein|first=Rachel|date=2006|title=Nato Enlargement and the Spread of Democracy: Evidence and Expectations|journal=Security Studies|volume=14|page=63|doi=10.1080/09636410591002509|s2cid=143878355}}</ref> [[China]] also opposes further expansion.<ref>{{cite news|title=China joins Russia in opposing Nato expansion|work=BBC News|date=4 February 2022|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-60257080|access-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217171200/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-60257080|archive-date=17 February 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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== Structures == |
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{{main|Structure of NATO}} |
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[[File:JensandNato.jpg|thumb|[[Secretary General of NATO]] [[Jens Stoltenberg]] (right) and his predecessor, [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] (left), talk with members of the Norwegian army's [[Telemark Battalion]] in Oslo.|alt=Two gray haired older men talk with a soldier wearing camouflage and a green beret who is facing away.]] |
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=== NATO defense expenditure === |
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The main headquarters of NATO is located on Boulevard Léopold III/Leopold III-laan, B-1110 Brussels, which is in [[Haren, Belgium|Haren]], part of the [[Brussels (municipality)|City of Brussels]] municipality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/|title=NATO homepage|accessdate=12 March 2006}}</ref> A new €750 million headquarters building is, {{as of|2014|lc=on}}, under construction across from the current complex, and is due for completion by 2016.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://bigstory.ap.org/article/nato-shows-its-new-hq-be |title= NATO shows off its new HQ-to-be |first= Virginia |last= Mayo |work= Associated Press |date= 13 November 2014 |accessdate= 11 December 2014}}</ref> Problems in the current building stem from its hurried construction in 1967, when NATO was forced to moved its headquarters from [[Porte Dauphine]] in Paris, France following the French withdrawal.{{sfn|Collins|2011|p=26}}<ref name=bigmove/> |
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==== Direct contributions ==== |
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Member states pay for NATO's three common funds (the civil and military budgets and the security investment program) based on a cost-sharing formula that includes per capita gross national income and other factors.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL30150.html |title=NATO Common Funds Burdensharing: Background and Current Issues |work=[[Congressional Research Service]] |date=15 February 2012 |access-date=14 February 2024 |archive-date=14 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214122605/https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL30150.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="rfek">{{cite news |last1=Farley |first1=Robert |last2=Kiely |first2=Eugene |url=https://rollcall.com/2024/02/13/fact-checking-trump-comments-on-delinquent-nato-countries/ |title=Fact-checking Trump comments on 'delinquent' NATO countries |work=[[Roll Call]] |date=13 February 2024 |access-date=14 February 2024 |archive-date=14 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214034901/https://rollcall.com/2024/02/13/fact-checking-trump-comments-on-delinquent-nato-countries/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2023–2024, the United States and Germany were the biggest contributors with 16.2% each.<ref name="rfek"/><ref name="funding">{{cite web |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_67655.htm |title=Funding NATO |work=[[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] |date=14 February 2024 |access-date=14 February 2024 |archive-date=13 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213182554/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_67655.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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==== Indirect contributions ==== |
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The staff at the Headquarters is composed of national delegations of member countries and includes civilian and military liaison offices and officers or diplomatic missions and diplomats of partner countries, as well as the International Staff and International Military Staff filled from serving members of the armed forces of member states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49284.htm |title=NATO Headquarters |publisher=Nato.int |date=10 August 2010 |accessdate=22 August 2010}}</ref> Non-governmental citizens' groups have also grown up in support of NATO, broadly under the banner of the [[Atlantic Council]]/[[Atlantic Treaty Association]] movement. |
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Member states pay for and maintain their own troops and equipment.<ref name="rfek"/><ref name="funding"/> They contribute to NATO operations and missions by committing troops and equipment on a voluntary basis.<ref name="funding"/> Since 2006, the goal has been for each country to spend at least 2 percent of its gross domestic product on its own defense; in 2014, a NATO declaration said that countries not meeting the goal would "aim to move towards the 2 percent guideline within a decade".<ref name="rfek"/><ref name="agss">{{cite news |last1=Gray |first1=Andrew |last2=Siebold |first2=Sabine |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/what-did-trump-say-about-nato-funding-what-is-article-5-2024-02-12/ |title=What did Trump say about NATO funding and what is Article 5? |work=[[Reuters]] |date=13 February 2024 |access-date=14 February 2024}}</ref> In July 2022, NATO estimated that 11 members would meet the target in 2023.<ref name="agss"/> On 14 February 2024, NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg said that 18 member states would meet the 2% target in 2024.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sabbagh |first=Dan |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/14/nato-chief-rebukes-donald-trump-and-announces-record-defence-spending |title=Nato chief rebukes Donald Trump and announces record defence spending |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=14 February 2024 |access-date=14 February 2024 |archive-date=14 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214163731/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/14/nato-chief-rebukes-donald-trump-and-announces-record-defence-spending |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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=== NATO Council === |
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== Partnerships with third countries == |
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Like any alliance, NATO is ultimately governed by its 28-member states. However, the [[North Atlantic Treaty]] and other agreements outline how decisions are to be made within NATO. Each of the 28 members sends a delegation or mission to NATO's headquarters in Brussels, Belgium.<ref>{{cite web | title = National delegations to NATO What is their role? | publisher=NATO | date = 18 June 2007 | url = http://www.nato.int/issues/national_delegations/tasks.html | accessdate =15 July 2007 | archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20070714120337/http://www.nato.int/issues/national_delegations/tasks.html <!--Added by H3llBot--> | archivedate =14 July 2007 }}</ref> The senior permanent member of each delegation is known as the Permanent Representative and is generally a senior civil servant or an experienced ambassador (and holding that diplomatic rank). Several countries have diplomatic missions to NATO [[List of diplomatic missions to NATO|through embassies in Belgium]]. |
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{{Main|Foreign relations of NATO}} |
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[[File:Cooperative Archer 2007.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|Partnership for Peace conducts multinational military exercises such as Cooperative Archer, which took place in Tbilisi in July 2007 with 500 servicemen from four NATO members, eight PfP members, and Jordan, a Mediterranean Dialogue participant.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://en.ria.ru/world/20070709/68610511.html|title=Cooperative Archer military exercise begins in Georgia|date=9 July 2007|agency=RIA Novosti|access-date=3 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107122519/http://en.ria.ru/world/20070709/68610511.html|archive-date=7 January 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>|alt=Hundreds of soldiers in military uniforms stand behind a line on a tarmac with 14 flags held by individuals at the front.]] |
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The [[Partnership for Peace]] (PfP) programme was established in 1994 and is based on individual bilateral relations between each partner country and NATO: each country may choose the extent of its participation.<ref name=pfp>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/issues/pfp/index.html |title=Partnership for Peace |publisher=NATO |access-date=3 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301054735/http://www.nato.int/issues/pfp/index.html |archive-date=1 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Members include all current and former members of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ru.forsecurity.org/nato-and-belarus-partnership-past-tensions-and-future-possibilities |title=Nato and Belarus – partnership, past tensions and future possibilities |publisher=[[Foreign Policy and Security Research Center]] |access-date=25 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020091957/http://ru.forsecurity.org/nato-and-belarus-partnership-past-tensions-and-future-possibilities |archive-date=20 October 2013 }}</ref> The [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council]] (EAPC) was first established on 29 May 1997, and is a forum for regular coordination, consultation and dialogue between all fifty participants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49276.htm |title=NATO Topics: The Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council |publisher=NATO |access-date=22 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101024110254/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49276.htm |archive-date=24 October 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> The PfP programme is considered the operational wing of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership.<ref name=pfp/> Other third countries have also been contacted for participation in some activities of the PfP framework, such as Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/docu/basictxt/b060906e.htm |title=Declaration by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan |publisher=NATO |access-date=22 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100908042229/http://www.nato.int/docu/basictxt/b060906e.htm <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archive-date=8 September 2010}}</ref> |
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Together, the Permanent Members form the [[North Atlantic Council]] (NAC), a body which meets together at least once a week and has effective governance authority and powers of decision in NATO. From time to time the Council also meets at higher level meetings involving [[foreign minister]]s, [[Defense Minister|defence minister]]s or heads of state or government (HOSG) and it is at these meetings that major decisions regarding NATO's policies are generally taken. However, it is worth noting that the Council has the same authority and powers of decision-making, and its decisions have the same status and validity, at whatever level it meets. France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom and the United States are together referred to as the [[NATO Quint|Quint]], which is an informal discussion group within NATO. [[NATO summit]]s also form a further venue for decisions on complex issues, such as enlargement.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/7cfc8ac6-ab17-11e4-91d2-00144feab7de.html |title= Battle for Ukraine: How a diplomatic success unravelled |work= The Financial Times |date= 3 February 2015 |accessdate= 4 August 2015}}</ref> |
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The European Union (EU) signed a comprehensive package of arrangements with NATO under the [[Berlin Plus agreement]] on 16 December 2002. With this agreement, the EU was given the possibility of using NATO assets if it wanted to act independently in an international crisis, on the condition that NATO itself did not want to act – the so-called "[[right of first refusal]]".<ref>{{cite web|first=Bram|last=Boxhoorn|date=21 September 2005|publisher=ATA Education |url=http://www.ataedu.org/article_new.php?id=107 |title=Broad Support for NATO in the Netherlands |access-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218090444/http://www.ataedu.org/article_new.php?id=107 |archive-date=18 February 2007}}</ref> For example, Article 42(7) of the 1982 [[Treaty of Lisbon]] specifies that "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power". The treaty applies globally to specified territories, whereas NATO is restricted under its Article 6 to operations north of the [[Tropic of Cancer]]. It provides a "double framework" for the EU countries that are also linked with the PfP programme.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Howorth|first=Jolyon|title=Strategic Autonomy and EU-NATO Cooperation: A Win-Win Approach|url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-l-europe-en-formation-2019-2-page-85.htm?ref=doi|website=Cairn Info|access-date=14 April 2023|archive-date=28 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228130506/https://www.cairn.info/revue-l-europe-en-formation-2019-2-page-85.htm?ref=doi|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=7 June 2016|title=Official Journal of the European Union|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12016M042|website=EUR-Lex|access-date=14 April 2023|archive-date=21 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321174341/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12016M042|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The meetings of the North Atlantic Council are chaired by the [[Secretary General of NATO]] and, when decisions have to be made, action is agreed upon on the basis of unanimity and common accord. There is no voting or decision by majority. Each nation represented at the Council table or on any of its subordinate committees retains complete sovereignty and responsibility for its own decisions. |
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Additionally, NATO cooperates and discusses its activities with numerous other non-NATO members. The [[Mediterranean Dialogue]] was established in 1994 to coordinate in a similar way with [[Foreign relations of Israel|Israel]] and countries in North Africa. The [[Istanbul Cooperation Initiative]] was announced in 2004 as a dialogue forum for the Middle East along the same lines as the Mediterranean Dialogue. The four participants are also linked through the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-4CA2943D-E00ED2BF/natolive/51288.htm |title=NATO Partner countries |publisher=NATO |date=6 March 2009 |access-date=15 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805170235/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-4CA2943D-E00ED2BF/natolive/51288.htm |archive-date=5 August 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2018, Qatar expressed a wish to join NATO,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thepeninsulaqatar.com/article/05/06/2018/Qatar-eyes-full-NATO-membership-Defense-minister|title=Qatar eyes full NATO membership: Defense minister|date=5 June 2018|publisher=The Peninsula|access-date=11 September 2019|archive-date=2 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002235442/https://thepeninsulaqatar.com/article/05/06/2018/Qatar-eyes-full-NATO-membership-Defense-minister |url-status=live}}</ref> who ruled it out, saying that only additional European countries could join according to [[North Atlantic Treaty#Article 10|Article 10 of NATO's founding treaty]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/world/2018/06/06/qatar-says-it-wants-to-join-nato |title=Nato rejects Qatar membership ambition|publisher=Dhaka Tribune|date=6 June 2018|access-date=11 September 2019|archive-date=2 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202221638/https://www.dhakatribune.com/world/2018/06/06/qatar-says-it-wants-to-join-nato |url-status=live}}</ref> Qatar and NATO had earlier signed a joint security agreement, in January 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_150794.htm|title=Qatar signs security agreement with NATO|publisher=NATO|date=16 January 2018|access-date=11 September 2019|archive-date=1 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001140343/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_150794.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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{|style="background=transparent;" |
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|- valign="top" |
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| |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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!colspan=4|List of Secretaries General<ref name="secgen">{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/cv/secgen.htm |title=NATO Who's who? – Secretaries General of NATO |publisher=Nato.int |accessdate=22 August 2010}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! # |
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! Name |
|||
! Country |
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! Duration |
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|- |
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| 1 |
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| [[Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay|Lord Ismay]] |
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| {{Flag|United Kingdom}} |
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| 4 April 1952 – 16 May 1957 |
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|- |
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| 2 |
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| [[Paul-Henri Spaak]] |
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| {{Flag|Belgium}} |
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| 16 May 1957 – 21 April 1961 |
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|- |
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| 3 |
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| [[Dirk Stikker]] |
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| {{Flag|Netherlands}} |
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| 21 April 1961 – 1 August 1964 |
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|- |
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| 4 |
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| [[Manlio Brosio]] |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 1 August 1964 – 1 October 1971 |
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|- |
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| 5 |
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| [[Joseph Luns]] |
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| {{Flag|Netherlands}} |
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| 1 October 1971 – 25 June 1984 |
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|- |
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| 6 |
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| [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]] |
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| {{Flag|United Kingdom}} |
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| 25 June 1984 – 1 July 1988 |
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|- |
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| 7 |
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| [[Manfred Wörner]] |
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| {{Flag|Germany}} |
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| 1 July 1988 – 13 August 1994 |
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|- |
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| – |
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| [[Sergio Balanzino]]<sup>†</sup> |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 13 August 1994 – 17 October 1994'' |
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|- |
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| 8 |
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| [[Willy Claes]] |
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| {{Flag|Belgium}} |
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| 17 October 1994 – 20 October 1995 |
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|- |
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| – |
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| [[Sergio Balanzino]]<sup>†</sup> |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 20 October 1995 – 5 December 1995'' |
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|- |
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| 9 |
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| [[Javier Solana]] |
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| {{Flag|Spain}} |
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| 5 December 1995 – 6 October 1999 |
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|- |
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| 10 |
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| [[George Robertson, Baron Robertson of Port Ellen|Lord Robertson]] |
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| {{Flag|United Kingdom}} |
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| 14 October 1999 – 17 December 2003 |
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|- |
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| – |
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| [[Alessandro Minuto-Rizzo]]<sup>†</sup> |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 17 December 2003 – 1 January 2004 |
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|- |
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| 11 |
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| [[Jaap de Hoop Scheffer]] |
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| {{Flag|Netherlands}} |
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| 1 January 2004 – 1 August 2009 |
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|- |
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| 12 |
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| [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] |
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| {{Flag|Denmark}} |
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| 1 August 2009 – 30 September 2014 |
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|- |
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| 13 |
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| '''[[Jens Stoltenberg]]''' |
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| {{Flag|Norway}} |
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| 1 October 2014 — |
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|} |
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| |
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| |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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!colspan=4|List of Deputy Secretaries General<ref name="Deputy Secretaries General of NATO">{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/who_is_who_62218.htm |title=NATO Who's who? – Deputy Secretaries General of NATO |publisher=NATO |accessdate=20 July 2012}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! # |
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! Name |
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! Country |
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! Duration |
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|- |
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| 1 |
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| Jonkheer van Vredenburch |
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| {{Flag|Netherlands}} |
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| 1952–1956 |
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|- |
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| 2 |
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| Baron Adolph Bentinck |
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| {{Flag|Netherlands}} |
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| 1956–1958 |
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|- |
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| 3 |
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| Alberico Casardi |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 1958–1962 |
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|- |
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| 4 |
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| [[Guido Colonna di Paliano]] |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 1962–1964 |
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|- |
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| 5 |
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| James A. Roberts |
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| {{Flag|Canada}} |
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| 1964–1968 |
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|- |
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| 6 |
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| Osman Olcay |
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| {{Flag|Turkey}} |
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| 1969–1971 |
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|- |
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| 7 |
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| Paolo Pansa Cedronio |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 1971–1978 |
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|- |
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| 8 |
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| Rinaldo Petrignani |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 1978–1981 |
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|- |
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| 9 |
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| Eric da Rin |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 1981–1985 |
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|- |
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| 10 |
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| Marcello Guidi |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 1985–1989 |
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|- |
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| 11 |
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| Amedeo de Franchis |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 1989–1994 |
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|- |
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| 12 |
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| [[Sergio Balanzino]] |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 1994–2001 |
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|- |
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| 13 |
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| [[Alessandro Minuto Rizzo]] |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 2001–2007 |
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|- |
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| 14 |
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| [[Claudio Bisogniero]] |
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| {{Flag|Italy}} |
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| 2007–2012 |
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|- |
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| 15 |
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| '''[[Alexander Vershbow]]''' |
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| {{Flag|United States}} |
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| 2012– |
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|} |
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|- |
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|<sup>†</sup> Acting Secretary General |
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|} |
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Political dialogue with Japan began in 1990, and since then, the Alliance has gradually increased its contact with countries that do not form part of any of these cooperation initiatives.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nato.int/summit2009/topics_en/12-contact_countries.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910234056/http://www.nato.int/summit2009/topics_en/12-contact_countries.html|url-status=dead|title=NATO Topics:NATO's relations with Contact Countries|archivedate=10 September 2013|website=NATO }}</ref> In 1998, NATO established a set of general guidelines that do not allow for a formal institutionalization of relations, but reflect the Allies' desire to increase cooperation. Following extensive debate, the term "Contact Countries" was agreed by the Allies in 2000. By 2012, the Alliance had broadened this group, which meets to discuss issues such as counter-piracy and technology exchange, under the names "[[NATO global partners|global partners]]" or "partners across the globe".<ref name=gao>{{cite news |url=http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d101015.pdf |title=NATO PARTNERSHIPS: DOD Needs to Assess U.S. Assistance in Response to Changes to the Partnership for Peace Program |publisher=[[United States Government Accountability Office]] |date=September 2010 |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618101741/http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d101015.pdf |archive-date=18 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/51288.htm |title= Partners |publisher= NATO |date= 2 April 2012 |access-date= 12 October 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121007061711/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/51288.htm |archive-date= 7 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia and New Zealand, both contact countries, are also members of the [[AUSCANNZUKUS]] strategic alliance, and similar regional or bilateral agreements between contact countries and NATO members also aid cooperation. NATO Secretary General [[Jens Stoltenberg]] stated that NATO needs to "address the [[Chinese Century|rise of China]]", by closely cooperating with Australia, New Zealand, Japan and South Korea.<ref>{{cite news |title=NATO needs to address China's rise, says Stoltenberg |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-nato/nato-needs-to-address-chinas-rise-says-stoltenberg-idUSKCN1UX0YX |work=Reuters |date=7 August 2019 |access-date=11 September 2019 |archive-date=14 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814225018/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-australia-nato/nato-needs-to-address-chinas-rise-says-stoltenberg-idUSKCN1UX0YX |url-status=live }}</ref> Colombia is NATO's latest partner and has access to the full range of cooperative activities offered; it is the first and only [[Latin American]] country to cooperate with NATO.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_143936.htm?selectedLocale=en |title= Relations with Colombia |publisher= nato.int |date= 19 May 2017 |access-date= 20 May 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170521075718/http://nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_143936.htm?selectedLocale=en |archive-date= 21 May 2017 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=26 May 2018|title=Colombia to be NATO's first Latin American global partner|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-colombia-nato-idUSKCN1IR0E8|website=Reuters|access-date=14 April 2023|archive-date=18 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818152139/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-colombia-nato-idUSKCN1IR0E8|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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=== NATO Parliamentary Assembly === |
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{{Main|NATO Parliamentary Assembly}} |
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[[File:NATO Parliamentary Assembly London 2014.jpg|thumb|The [[NATO Parliamentary Assembly]], an intergovernmental organization of NATO and associate countries' elected representatives, meets in London prior to the start of the [[2014 Newport summit]].|alt=A large baroque yellow and gold room with a stage on the left and long tables filled with men and women in suits on the right.]] |
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== Structure == |
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The body that sets broad strategic goals for NATO is the [[NATO Parliamentary Assembly]] (NATO-PA) which meets at the Annual Session, and one other during the year, and is the organ that directly interacts with the parliamentary structures of the national governments of the member states which appoint Permanent Members, or ambassadors to NATO. The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic Alliance as well as thirteen associate members. [[Karl A. Lamers]], German Deputy Chairman of the Defence Committee of the [[Bundestag]] and a member of the [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]], became president of the assembly in 2010.<ref>[http://www.nato-pa.int/default.asp?SHORTCUT=2294 ''Press Statement: German MP Karl A. Lamers elected President of NATO PA'']. [[NATO Parliamentary Assembly]], 16 November 2010</ref> It is however officially a different structure from NATO, and has as aim to join together deputies of NATO countries in order to discuss security policies on the NATO Council. |
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{{Main|Structure of NATO}} |
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[[File:NATO Ministers of Defense and of Foreign Affairs meet at NATO headquarters in Brussels 2010.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|The North Atlantic Council convening in 2010 with a defence/foreign minister configuration]] |
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All agencies and organizations of NATO are integrated into either the civilian administrative or military executive roles. For the most part, they perform roles and functions that directly or indirectly support the security role of the alliance as a whole.{{cn|date=April 2024}} |
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The Assembly is the political integration body of NATO that generates political policy [[Political agenda|agenda setting]] for the NATO Council via reports of its five committees: |
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* Committee on the Civil Dimension of Security |
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* Defence and Security Committee |
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* Economics and Security Committee |
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* Political Committee |
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* Science and Technology Committee |
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The civilian structure includes: |
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These reports provide impetus and direction as agreed upon by the national governments of the member states through their own [[Political system|national political processes]] and influencers to the NATO administrative and executive organizational entities. |
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* The [[North Atlantic Council]] (NAC) is the body which has effective governance authority and powers of decision in NATO, consisting of member states' permanent representatives or representatives at higher level (ministers of foreign affairs or defence, or heads of state or government). The NAC convenes at least once a week and takes major decisions regarding NATO's policies. The meetings of the North Atlantic Council are chaired by the [[Secretary General of NATO|secretary general]] and, when decisions have to be made, action is agreed upon by consensus.<ref>{{cite web | title=Topic: Consensus decision-making at NATO | website=NATO | date=5 July 2016 | url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49178.htm | ref={{sfnref | NATO | 2016}} | access-date=25 February 2022 | archive-date=25 February 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225212946/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49178.htm | url-status=live }}</ref> There is no voting or decision by majority. Each state represented at the Council table or on any of its subordinate committees retains complete sovereignty and responsibility for its own decisions.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CX1ZDwAAQBAJ |title= Encyclopedia of Military Science |first= G. Kurt |last= Piehler |publisher= SAGE Publications |date= 24 July 2013 |isbn= 978-1-5063-1081-7 |pages= 991–995 |access-date= 23 July 2023 |archive-date= 23 July 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230723205346/https://books.google.com/books?id=CX1ZDwAAQBAJ |url-status= live }}</ref> |
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=== Military structures === |
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* The [[NATO Parliamentary Assembly]] (NATO PA) is a body that sets broad strategic goals for NATO, which meets at two session per year. NATO PA interacts directly with the parliamentary structures of the national governments of the member states which appoint Permanent Members, or ambassadors to NATO. The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic Alliance as well as thirteen associate members. It is however officially a structure different from NATO, and has as aim to join deputies of NATO countries in order to discuss security policies on the NATO Council.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8951/ |title= NATO Parliamentary Assembly in brief |website= The House of Commons |date= 30 June 2023 |accessdate= 23 July 2023 |archive-date= 23 July 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230723205347/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8951/ |url-status= live }}</ref> |
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[[File:Opening ceremony for Ex STEADFAST JAZZ (10643667894).jpg|thumb|NATO flag raising at a military exercise at [[Drawsko Pomorskie]] in Poland.|alt=Three soldiers in camouflage stand in salute while a forth raises a blue and white flag on a red and white stripped flagpole.]] |
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* [[NATO headquarters]], located on Boulevard Léopold III/Leopold III-laan, B-1110 Brussels, which is in the [[Brussels (municipality)|City of Brussels]] municipality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/|title=NATO homepage|access-date=12 March 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326073647/http://www.nato.int/|archive-date=26 March 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> The staff at the Headquarters is composed of national delegations of member countries and includes civilian and military liaison offices and officers or diplomatic missions and diplomats of partner countries, as well as the International Staff and International Military Staff filled from serving members of the armed forces of member states.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49284.htm|title=NATO Headquarters|publisher=NATO|date=10 August 2010|access-date=22 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913014616/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49284.htm|archive-date=13 September 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> Non-governmental groups have also grown up in support of NATO, broadly under the banner of the [[Atlantic Council]]/[[Atlantic Treaty Association]] movement.<ref name="Paper">{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/acad/fellow/96-98/small.pdf|title=The Atlantic Council—The Early Years|last=Small|first=Melvin|date=1 June 1998|publisher=NATO|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303170512/http://www.nato.int/acad/fellow/96-98/small.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_69053.htm |title=Atlantic Treaty Association and Youth Atlantic Treaty Association |date=7 April 2016 |publisher=NATO |access-date=11 March 2022 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030102644/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_69053.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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{{NATO commands}} |
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The military structure includes: |
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NATO's military operations are directed by the [[Chairman of the NATO Military Committee]], and split into two Strategic Commands commanded by a senior US officer and a senior French officer<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.act.nato.int/organization/hq-sact/whos-who/300-supreme-allied-commander-transformation |title=General Stéphane Abrial, French Air Force, assumed duties as Supreme Allied Commander Transformation in summer 2009 |publisher=Act.nato.int |date=29 July 2009 |accessdate=5 May 2012}}</ref> assisted by a staff drawn from across NATO. The Strategic Commanders are responsible to the [[Chairman of the NATO Military Committee|Military Committee]] for the overall direction and conduct of all Alliance military matters within their areas of command.<ref name=aco/> |
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* The [[NATO Military Committee|Military Committee]] (MC) is the body of NATO that is composed of [[Member states of NATO|member states]]' [[Chief of Defence|Chiefs of Defence]] (CHOD) and advises the [[North Atlantic Council]] (NAC) on military policy and strategy. The national CHODs are regularly represented in the MC by their permanent Military Representatives (MilRep), who often are two- or three-star flag officers. Like the council, from time to time the Military Committee also meets at a higher level, namely at the level of Chiefs of Defence, the most senior military officer in each country's armed forces. The MC is led by [[Chairman of the NATO Military Committee|its chairman]], who directs NATO's military operations.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49152.htm |title= Chair of the Military Committee |website= NATO |date= 31 March 2023 |accessdate= 23 July 2023 |archive-date= 26 June 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230626161908/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49152.htm |url-status= live }}</ref> Until 2008 the Military Committee excluded France, due to that country's 1966 decision to remove itself from the [[NATO Military Command Structure]], which it rejoined in 1995. Until France rejoined NATO, it was not represented on the Defence Planning Committee, and this led to conflicts between it and NATO members.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/06/17/france.nato/|title=France to rejoin NATO command|publisher=CNN|date=17 June 2008 |access-date=4 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205111043/http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/06/17/france.nato/|archive-date=5 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Such was the case in the lead up to [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]].<ref>{{cite web|first=Thomas|last=Fuller|title=Reaching accord, EU warns Saddam of his 'last chance'|newspaper=International Herald Tribune|date=18 February 2003|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/02/18/eu_ed3__1.php|access-date=15 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012115843/http://iht.com/articles/2003/02/18/eu_ed3__1.php|archive-date=12 October 2007}}</ref> |
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Each country's delegation includes a Military Representative, a senior officer from each country's armed forces, supported by the International Military Staff. Together the Military Representatives form the Military Committee, a body responsible for recommending to NATO's political authorities those measures considered necessary for the common defence of the NATO area. Its principal role is to provide direction and advice on military policy and strategy. It provides guidance on military matters to the NATO Strategic Commanders, whose representatives attend its meetings, and is responsible for the overall conduct of the military affairs of the Alliance under the authority of the Council.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49633.htm |title= Topic: The Military Committee |work= NATO |date= 5 March 2012 |accessdate= 5 September 2013}}</ref> The [[Chairman of the NATO Military Committee]] is [[Petr Pavel]] of the [[Czech Republic]], since 2015. |
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* [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|Allied Command Operations]] (ACO) is the NATO command responsible for NATO operations worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |title=About us |url=https://shape.nato.int/about |publisher=[[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe]] |access-date=6 March 2022 |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308080129/https://shape.nato.int/about |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Like the Council, from time to time the Military Committee also meets at a higher level, namely at the level of Chiefs of Defence, the most senior military officer in each nation's armed forces. Until 2008 the Military Committee excluded France, due to that country's 1966 decision to remove itself from NATO's integrated military structure, which it rejoined in 1995. Until France rejoined NATO, it was not represented on the Defence Planning Committee, and this led to conflicts between it and NATO members.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/06/17/france.nato/ |title= France to rejoin NATO command |work= [[CNN]] |date= 17 June 2008 |accessdate= 4 September 2013}}</ref> Such was the case in the lead up to [[Iraq War|Operation ''Iraqi Freedom'']].<ref>{{cite web | first = Thomas | last = Fuller | title = Reaching accord, EU warns Saddam of his 'last chance' | work=International Herald Tribune | date = 18 February 2003 | url = http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/02/18/eu_ed3__1.php | accessdate =15 July 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071012115843/http://iht.com/articles/2003/02/18/eu_ed3__1.php <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 12 October 2007}}</ref> The operational work of the Committee is supported by the International Military Staff. |
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* The Rapid Deployable Corps include [[Eurocorps]], [[I. German/Dutch Corps]], [[Multinational Corps Northeast]], and [[NATO Rapid Deployable Italian Corps]] among others, as well as naval High Readiness Forces (HRFs), which all report to Allied Command Operations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_50088.htm|title=The Rapid Deployable Corps|publisher=NATO|date=26 November 2012 |access-date=4 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910135843/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_50088.htm|archive-date=10 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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* [[Allied Command Transformation]] (ACT), responsible for transformation and training of NATO forces.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who We Are |url=https://www.act.nato.int/who-we-are |publisher=[[Allied Command Transformation]] |access-date=6 March 2022 |archive-date=6 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306193652/https://www.act.nato.int/who-we-are |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===Legal authority of NATO commanders=== |
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The [[NATO Command Structure]] evolved throughout the [[Cold War]] and its aftermath. An integrated military structure for NATO was first established in 1950 as it became clear that NATO would need to enhance its defenses for the longer term against a potential Soviet attack. In April 1951, [[Allied Command Europe]] and its headquarters ([[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|SHAPE]]) were established; later, four subordinate headquarters were added in Northern and Central Europe, the Southern Region, and the Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.aco.nato.int/page14612223.aspx |title= 1949-1952: Creating a Command Structure for NATO |work= NATO |accessdate= 4 September 2013 |year= 2013}}</ref> |
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NATO is an alliance of 32 sovereign states and their individual sovereignty is unaffected by participation in the alliance. NATO has no parliaments, no laws, no enforcement, and no power to punish individual citizens. As a consequence of this lack of sovereignty the power and authority of a NATO commander are limited. NATO commanders cannot punish offences such as failure to obey a lawful order; dereliction of duty; or disrespect to a senior officer.<ref name="terla">{{cite journal |last1=Randall |first1=Thomas E. |title=Legal Authority of NATO Commanders |journal=NATO Legal Gazette |date=July 2014 |issue=34 |pages=39–45 |url=https://www.act.nato.int/application/files/1016/0999/3864/legal_gazette_34.pdf |access-date=29 August 2021 |archive-date=29 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829212244/https://www.act.nato.int/application/files/1016/0999/3864/legal_gazette_34.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> NATO commanders expect obeisance but sometimes need to subordinate their desires or plans to the operators who are themselves subject to sovereign codes of conduct like the [[UCMJ]]. A case in point was the clash between General [[Mike Jackson (British Army officer)|Sir Mike Jackson]] and General [[Wesley Clark]] over [[Incident at Pristina airport|KFOR actions at Pristina Airport]].<ref name="gsmjdt">{{cite news |last1=Jackson |first1=General Sir Mike |title=Gen Sir Mike Jackson: My clash with Nato chief |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1562161/Gen-Sir-Mike-Jackson-My-clash-with-Nato-chief.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1562161/Gen-Sir-Mike-Jackson-My-clash-with-Nato-chief.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |publisher=Telegraph Media Group Limited |date=4 September 2007}}{{cbignore}}</ref> |
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NATO commanders can issue orders to their subordinate commanders in the form of operational plans (OPLANs), operational orders (OPORDERs), tactical direction, or fragmental orders (FRAGOs) and others. The joint rules of engagement must be followed, and the [[Law of Armed Conflict]] must be obeyed at all times. Operational resources "remain under national command but have been transferred temporarily to NATO. Although these national units, through the formal process of transfer of authority, have been placed under the operational command and control of a NATO commander, they never lose their national character." Senior national representatives, like [[Chief of the Defence Staff (disambiguation)|CDS]], "are designated as so-called red-cardholders". Caveats are restrictions listed "nation by nation... that NATO Commanders... must take into account".<ref name="terla"/> |
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From the 1950s to 2003, the Strategic Commanders were the [[Supreme Allied Commander Europe]] (SACEUR) and the [[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic]] (SACLANT). The current arrangement is to separate responsibility between [[Allied Command Transformation]] (ACT), responsible for transformation and training of NATO forces, and [[Allied Command Operations]] (ACO), responsible for NATO operations worldwide.<ref>{{cite web | first = Eide | last = Espen Barth |author2=Frédéric Bozo | title = Should NATO play a more political role? | work=Nato Review| publisher=NATO | date = Spring 2005 | url = http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2005/issue1/english/debate.html | accessdate =15 July 2007}}</ref> Starting in late 2003 NATO has restructured how it commands and deploys its troops by creating several NATO Rapid Deployable Corps, including [[Eurocorps]], [[I. German/Dutch Corps]], [[Multinational Corps Northeast]], and [[NATO Rapid Deployable Italian Corps]] among others, as well as naval High Readiness Forces (HRFs), which all report to Allied Command Operations.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_50088.htm |title= The Rapid Deployable Corps |work= NATO |date= 26 November 2012 |accessdate= 4 September 2013}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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In early 2015, in the wake of the [[War in Donbass]], meetings of NATO ministers decided that Multinational Corps Northeast would be augmented so as to develop greater capabilities, to, if thought necessary, prepare to defend the Baltic States, and that a new Multi-National Division Southeast would be established in Romania. Six [[NATO Force Integration Units]] would also be established to coordinate preparations for defence of new Eastern members of NATO.<ref>BBC, [http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-31137760 NATO Readjusts as UKraine Crisis Looms], 5 February 2015.</ref> |
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* [[Atlanticism]] |
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* [[Common Security and Defence Policy]] of the [[European Union]] |
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** [[History of the Common Security and Defence Policy]] |
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* [[Ranks and insignia of NATO]] |
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* [[Major non-NATO ally]] |
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* [[List of military alliances]] |
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* [[List of military equipment of NATO]] |
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* [[List of countries in Europe by military expenditures]] |
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===Similar organizations=== |
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* [[AUKUS]] (Australia, United Kingdom, United States) |
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* [[ANZUS]] (Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty) |
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* [[Collective Security Treaty Organization]] (CSTO) — Russia and some former Soviet republics |
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* [[Five Eyes]] (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States intelligence services) |
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* [[Five Power Defence Arrangements]] (FPDA) |
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* [[Free World Military Assistance Forces]] (FWMAF) |
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* [[Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance]] |
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* [[Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition]] (IMCTC) |
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* [[Baghdad Pact|Middle East Treaty Organization]] (METO) |
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* [[Northeast Asia Treaty Organization]] (NEATO) |
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* [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]] (SCO) |
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* [[South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone]] |
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* [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] (SEATO) |
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* [[United Nations Command]] (UNC) |
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* [[Balkan Pact (1953)|Balkan Pact]] ([[SFR Yugoslavia]] with NATO members [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]]) |
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== References == |
== References == |
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{{ |
{{reflist|30em}} |
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== |
=== Works cited === |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
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* {{Cite journal | last = Art | first = Robert J. | author-link = Robert J. Art | year = 1998 | title = Creating a Disaster: NATO's Open Door Policy | journal = Political Science Quarterly | volume = 113 | number = 3 | pages = 383–403 | jstor = 2658073 | doi = 10.2307/2658073 }} |
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* {{cite book |last1= Bethlehem |first1= Daniel L. |last2= Weller |first2= Marc |title= The 'Yugoslav' Crisis in International Law |year= 1997 |series= Cambridge International Documents Series |volume= 5 |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-521-46304-1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7SczBzxA6-IC&pg=PR55 |access-date= 27 June 2015 |archive-date= 3 April 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160403080406/https://books.google.com/books?id=7SczBzxA6-IC&pg=PR55 |url-status= live }} |
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* {{cite book |last= Clausson |first= M.I. |title= NATO: Status, Relations, and Decision-Making |publisher= Nova Publishers |year= 2006 |isbn= 978-1-60021-098-3 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ei38uQH5M5kC&pg=PA94 |access-date= 27 June 2015 |archive-date= 5 April 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160405181655/https://books.google.com/books?id=ei38uQH5M5kC&pg=PA94 |url-status= live }} |
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* {{cite book |last= Collins |first= Brian J. |title= NATO: A Guide to the Issues |publisher= ABC-CLIO |year= 2011 |isbn= 978-0-313-35491-5 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KyBPuKcUXowC |access-date= 27 June 2015 |archive-date= 15 April 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160415183835/https://books.google.com/books?id=KyBPuKcUXowC |url-status= live }} |
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* {{cite book |last= van der Eyden |first= Ton |title= Public management of society: rediscovering French institutional engineering in the European context |volume= 1 |publisher= IOS Press |year= 2003 |isbn= 978-1-58603-291-3 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QJyHlwgWnGQC&pg=PA104 |access-date= 27 June 2015 |archive-date= 18 April 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160418225810/https://books.google.com/books?id=QJyHlwgWnGQC&pg=PA104 |url-status= live }} |
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* {{cite book |last= Zenko |first= Micah |author-link= Micah Zenko |title= Between Threats and War: U.S. Discrete Military Operations in the Post-Cold War World |publisher= [[Stanford University Press]] |year= 2010 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rJHU9VZRhjwC&pg=PA133 |isbn= 978-0-8047-7191-7 |access-date= 27 June 2015 |archive-date= 11 April 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160411152001/https://books.google.com/books?id=rJHU9VZRhjwC&pg=PA133 |url-status= live }} |
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{{refend}} |
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==Further reading== |
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{{Library resources box}} |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
{{refbegin|30em}} |
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* {{cite web| last = Atlantic Council of the United States| title = Transforming the NATO Military Command Structure: A New Framework for Managing the Alliance's Future| url = http://www.acus.org/files/publication_pdfs/65/2003-08-Transforming_the_NATO_Military_Command_Structure.pdf| date = August 2003| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121003015226/http://www.acus.org/files/publication_pdfs/65/2003-08-Transforming_the_NATO_Military_Command_Structure.pdf| archive-date = 3 October 2012}} |
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*{{Cite journal | last = Art | first = Robert J. | authorlink = Robert J. Art | year = 1998 | title = Creating a Disaster: NATO's Open Door Policy | journal = Political Science Quarterly | volume = 113 | number = 3 | pages = 383–403 | jstor = 2658073 | ref = harv }} |
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* Axelrod, Robert, and Silvia Borzutzky. "NATO and the war on terror: The organizational challenges of the post 9/11 world." ''Review of International Organizations'' 1.3 (2006): 293–307. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Silvia_Borzutzky/publication/227307146_NATO_and_the_war_on_terror_The_organizational_challenges_of_the_post_911_world/links/54f78d520cf2ccffe9db4481.pdf online] |
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* Auerswald, David P., and Stephen M. Saideman, eds. ''NATO in Afghanistan: Fighting Together, Fighting Alone'' (Princeton U.P., 2014) |
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* Borawski, John, and Thomas-Durell Young. ''NATO after 2000: the future of the Euro-Atlantic Alliance'' (Greenwood, 2001). |
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*{{cite book |last1= Bethlehem |first1= Daniel L. |last2= Weller |first2= Marc |title=The 'Yugoslav' Crisis in International Law |year= 1997|series= Cambridge International Documents Series |volume= 5 |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-521-46304-1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7SczBzxA6-IC&pg=PR55 |ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite web |url=http://archives.nato.int/nato-first-5-years-1949-1954-by-lord-ismay-secretary-general-of-north-atlantic-treaty-organization;isad |title=NATO: The First Five Years |first=Hastings |last=Ismay |date=1954 |publisher=NATO |location=Paris |access-date=4 April 2017 |author1-link=Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay |archive-date=15 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315234941/http://archives.nato.int/nato-first-5-years-1949-1954-by-lord-ismay-secretary-general-of-north-atlantic-treaty-organization%3Bisad |url-status=live }} |
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*{{cite book |last= Clausson |first= M. I. |title= NATO: Status, Relations, and Decision-Making |publisher= Nova Publishers |year= 2006 |isbn= 1-60021-098-8 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ei38uQH5M5kC&pg=PA94 |ref=harv}} |
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* Hendrickson, Ryan C. "NATO's next secretary general: Rasmussen's leadership legacy for Jens Stoltenberg." ''Journal of Transatlantic Studies'' (2016) 15#3 pp 237–251. |
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*{{cite book |last= Collins |first= Brian J. |title= NATO: A Guide to the Issues |publisher= ABC-CLIO |year= 2011 |isbn= 0-3133-5491-X |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KyBPuKcUXowC |ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite web |url=http://www.aco.nato.int/resources/21/Evolution%20of%20NATO%20Cmd%20Structure%201951-2009.pdf |title=Evolution of NATO's Command Structure 1951–2009 |last1=Pedlow |first1=Gregory W. |website=aco.nato.int |publisher=NATO ACO |location=Brussels(?) |access-date=18 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721043422/http://www.aco.nato.int/resources/21/Evolution%20of%20NATO%20Cmd%20Structure%201951-2009.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=dead }} |
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*{{cite book |last= Garthoff |first= Raymond L. |title= Détente and confrontation: American-Soviet relations from Nixon to Reagan |publisher= [[Brookings Institution Press]] |year= 1994 |isbn= 0-8157-3041-1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mGG-x_tuNUcC&pg=PA660 |ref=harv}} |
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* Sayle, Timothy Andrews. ''Enduring Alliance: A History of NATO and the Postwar Global Order'' (Cornell University Press, 2019) [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.php?id=54342 online review] |
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*{{Cite book |last = Gorbachev |first = Mikhail |authorlink = Mikhail Gorbachev |year = 1996 |title = Memoirs |location = London |publisher = Doubleday |isbn = 978-0-385-40668-0 |ref = harv }} |
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* "NATO at 70: Balancing Collective Defense and Collective Security", Special issue of ''Journal of Transatlantic Studies'' 17#2 (June 2019) pp: 135–267. |
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*{{cite book |last1= Isby |first1= David C. |last2= Kamps Jr. |first2= Charles |title= Armies of NATO's Central Front |publisher= [[Jane's Information Group]] |year=1985 |isbn=0-7106-0341-X |ref=harv}} |
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* NATO Office of Information and Press, NATO Handbook : Fiftieth Anniversary Edition, NATO, Brussels, 1998–99, Second Reprint, {{ISBN|92-845-0134-2}} |
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* Kaplan, Lawrence S. (2013). ''NATO before the Korean War: April 1949-June 1950.'' Kent, OH: Kent State University Press. |
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*{{cite book |last= Kaplan |first= Lawrence S. |title= NATO Divided, NATO United: The Evolution of an Alliance |publisher= Greenwood Publishing Group |year= 2004 |isbn= 0-2759-8006-5 |ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite book |author= [[National Defense University]] |title= Allied command structures in the new NATO |publisher= DIANE Publishing |year= 1997 |isbn= 1-57906-033-1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=q3jLV75wFM4C&pg=PA50 |ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite book |last= Njølstad |first= Olav |title= The last decade of the Cold War: from conflict escalation to conflict transformation |volume= 5 |publisher= [[Psychology Press]] |year= 2004 |isbn= 0-7146-8539-9 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=w0w31Yq5BYsC |ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite book |last= Osgood |first= Robert E. |title= NATO: The Entangling Alliance |publisher= [[University of Chicago Press]] |year= 1962 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0V-OAAAAMAAJ |ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite book |last= Park |first= William |title= Defending the West: a history of NATO |publisher= [[Westview Press]] |year= 1986 |isbn= 0-8133-0408-3 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1bkwAAAAMAAJ |ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite book |last= Reynolds |first= David |title= The Origins of the Cold War in Europe: International Perspectives |publisher= [[Yale University Press]] |year= 1994 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yvZNbkjCzwoC |isbn= 0-300-10562-2 |ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Schoenbaum |first=Thomas J. |title=Waging Peace and War: Dean Rusk in the Truman, Kennedy, and Johnson Years |year=1988 |publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]] |location=[[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] |isbn=0-671-60351-5 |ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite book |last= van der Eyden |first= Ton |title= Public management of society: rediscovering French institutional engineering in the European context |volume= 1 |publisher= IOS Press |year= 2003 |isbn= 1-58603-291-7 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QJyHlwgWnGQC&pg=PA104 |ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite book |last1= Wenger |first1= Andreas |last2= Nuenlist |first2= Christian |last3= Locher |first3= Anna |title= Transforming NATO in the Cold War: Challenges beyond deterrence in the 1960s |publisher= [[Taylor & Francis]] |year= 2007 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=w3qeMymxoBYC&pg=PA67 |isbn= 0-415-39737-5 |ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite book |last= Willbanks |first= James H. |title= Machine Guns: An Illustrated History of Their Impact |publisher= ABC-CLIO |year= 2004 |isbn= 1-8510-9480-6 |ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite book |last= Zenko |first= Micah |title= Between Threats and War: U.S. Discrete Military Operations in the Post-Cold War World |publisher= [[Stanford University Press]] |year= 2010 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rJHU9VZRhjwC&pg=PA133 |isbn= 0-8047-7191-X |ref=harv}} |
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{{refend}} |
{{refend}} |
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== |
==External links== |
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{{Sister project links|d=Q7184|s=Portal:NATO|b=no|v=no}} |
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* [[Ronald Asmus|Asmus, Ronald]]. ''A Little War that Shook the World : Georgia, Russia, and the Future of the West''. NYU (2010). ISBN 978-0-230-61773-5 |
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== External links == |
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{{Sister project links |commons=Category:North Atlantic Treaty Organization|n=Category:NATO|wikt=NATO|d=Q7184|q=no|b=no|s=no|v=no}} |
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{{portal|NATO}} |
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;Official |
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*{{Official website}} |
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*[http://nato.int/docu/basics.htm Basic NATO Documents] |
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;Collected news |
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*{{Aljazeeratopic|organisation/north-atlantic-treaty-organization}} |
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*{{Dawntopic|nato}} |
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*{{Guardiantopic|world/nato}} |
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*{{NYTtopic|organizations/n/north_atlantic_treaty_organization}} |
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*{{WSJtopic|organization/N/NATO/4922}} |
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;Historic films |
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* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.2569670|name=Big Picture: Why NATO?}} |
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* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.2569561|name=Big Picture: NATO Maneuvers}} |
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* {{Official website}} |
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* [https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_212668.htm Secretary General’s Annual Reports 2011–present] |
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Revision as of 02:03, 10 May 2024
Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord | |
Abbreviation | NATO, OTAN |
---|---|
Formation | 4 April 1949 |
Type | Military alliance |
Headquarters | Brussels, Belgium |
Membership | |
Official languages | |
Jens Stoltenberg | |
Rob Bauer | |
Christopher G. Cavoli | |
Philippe Lavigne | |
Expenses (2023) | Total: US$1.264 trillion Excluding the US: US$404 billion[3] |
Website | nato.int |
Anthem: "The NATO Hymn" Motto: "Animus in consulendo liber" |
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO /ˈneɪtoʊ/ NAY-toh; French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance of 32 member states—30 European and 2 North American. Established in the aftermath of World War II, the organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty, signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949.[4][5] NATO is a collective security system: its independent member states agree to defend each other against attacks by third parties. During the Cold War, NATO operated as a check on the threat posed by the Soviet Union. The alliance remained in place after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact, and has been involved in military operations in the Balkans, the Middle East, South Asia and Africa. The organization's motto is animus in consulendo liber (Latin for 'a mind unfettered in deliberation').[6] The organization's strategic concepts include deterrence.[7]
NATO's main headquarters are located in Brussels, Belgium, while NATO's military headquarters are near Mons, Belgium. The alliance has increased its NATO Response Force deployments in Eastern Europe,[8] and the combined militaries of all NATO members include around 3.5 million soldiers and personnel.[9] All member states together cover an area of 25.07 million km² and about 966.88 million people.[10] Their combined military spending as of 2022 constituted around 55 percent of the global nominal total.[11] Moreover, members have agreed to reach or maintain the target defence spending of at least two percent of their GDP by 2024.[12][13]
NATO formed with twelve founding members and has added new members ten times, most recently when Sweden joined the alliance on 7 March 2024.[14] In addition, NATO currently recognizes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, and Ukraine as aspiring members.[4] Enlargement has led to tensions with non-member Russia, one of the 18 additional countries participating in NATO's Partnership for Peace programme. Another nineteen countries are involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes with NATO.
History
20th century
The Treaty of Dunkirk was signed by France and the United Kingdom on 4 March 1947, during the aftermath of World War II and the start of the Cold War, as a Treaty of Alliance and Mutual Assistance in the event of possible attacks by Germany or the Soviet Union. In March 1948, this alliance was expanded in the Treaty of Brussels to include the Benelux countries, forming the Brussels Treaty Organization, commonly known as the Western Union.[15] Talks for a wider military alliance, which could include North America, also began that month in the United States, where their foreign policy under the Truman Doctrine promoted international solidarity against actions they saw as communist aggression, such as the February 1948 coup d'état in Czechoslovakia. These talks resulted in the signature of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949 by the member states of the Western Union plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland.[16] Canadian diplomat Lester B. Pearson was a key author and drafter of the treaty.[17][18][19]
The North Atlantic Treaty was largely dormant until the Korean War initiated the establishment of NATO to implement it with an integrated military structure. This included the formation of Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) in 1951, which adopted many of the Western Union's military structures and plans,[20] including their agreements on standardizing equipment and agreements on stationing foreign military forces in European countries. In 1952, the post of Secretary General of NATO was established as the organization's chief civilian. That year also saw the first major NATO maritime exercises, Exercise Mainbrace and the accession of Greece and Turkey to the organization.[21][22] Following the London and Paris Conferences, West Germany was permitted to rearm militarily, as they joined NATO in May 1955, which was, in turn, a major factor in the creation of the Soviet-dominated Warsaw Pact, delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War.[23]
The building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 marked a height in Cold War tensions, when 400,000 US troops were stationed in Europe.[24] Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion – doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of France from NATO's military structure in 1966.[25][26] In 1982, the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance.[27]
The Revolutions of 1989 in Europe led to a strategic re-evaluation of NATO's purpose, nature, tasks, and focus on the continent. In October 1990, East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance, and in November 1990, the alliance signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) in Paris with the Soviet Union. It mandated specific military reductions across the continent, which continued after the collapse of the Warsaw Pact in February 1991 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union that December, which removed the de facto main adversaries of NATO.[28] This began a drawdown of military spending and equipment in Europe. The CFE treaty allowed signatories to remove 52,000 pieces of conventional armaments in the following sixteen years,[29] and allowed military spending by NATO's European members to decline by 28 percent from 1990 to 2015.[30] In 1990, several Western leaders gave assurances to Mikhail Gorbachev that NATO would not expand further east, as revealed by memoranda of private conversations.[31][32][33][34]
In the 1990s, the organization extended its activities into political and humanitarian situations that had not formerly been NATO concerns.[35] During the breakup of Yugoslavia, the organization conducted its first military interventions in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 and later Yugoslavia in 1999.[36]
Politically, the organization sought better relations with the newly autonomous Central and Eastern European states, and diplomatic forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbours were set up during this post-Cold War period, including the Partnership for Peace and the Mediterranean Dialogue initiative in 1994, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council in 1997, and the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council in 1998. At the 1999 Washington summit, Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic officially joined NATO, and the organization also issued new guidelines for membership with individualized "Membership Action Plans". These plans governed the subsequent addition of new alliance members.[37]
21st century
Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty, requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the September 11 attacks,[38] after which troops were deployed to Afghanistan under the NATO-led ISAF. The organization has operated a range of additional roles since then, including sending trainers to Iraq, assisting in counter-piracy operations.[39]
The election of French president Nicolas Sarkozy in 2007 led to a major reform of France's military position, culminating with the return to full membership on 4 April 2009, which also included France rejoining the NATO Military Command Structure, while maintaining an independent nuclear deterrent.[26][40][41]
The 2014 Russia's annexation of Crimea led to strong condemnation by all NATO members,[42] and was one of the seven times that Article 4, which calls for consultation among NATO members, has been invoked. Prior times included during the Iraq War and Syrian Civil War.[43] At the 2014 Wales summit, the leaders of NATO's member states formally committed for the first time to spend the equivalent of at least two percent of their gross domestic products on defence by 2024, which had previously been only an informal guideline.[44] At the 2016 Warsaw summit, NATO countries agreed on the creation of NATO Enhanced Forward Presence, which deployed four multinational battalion-sized battlegroups in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland.[45] Before and during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, several NATO countries sent ground troops, warships and fighter aircraft to reinforce the alliance's eastern flank, and multiple countries again invoked Article 4.[46][47][48] In March 2022, NATO leaders met at Brussels for an extraordinary summit which also involved Group of Seven and European Union leaders.[49] NATO member states agreed to establish four additional battlegroups in Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia,[45] and elements of the NATO Response Force were activated for the first time in NATO's history.[50]
As of June 2022, NATO had deployed 40,000 troops along its 2,500-kilometre-long (1,550 mi) Eastern flank to deter Russian aggression. More than half of this number have been deployed in Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, and Poland, which five countries muster a considerable combined ex-NATO force of 259,000 troops. To supplement Bulgaria's Air Force, Spain sent Eurofighter Typhoons, the Netherlands sent eight F-35 attack aircraft, and additional French and US attack aircraft would arrive soon as well.[51]
Military operations
Early operations
No military operations were conducted by NATO during the Cold War. Following the end of the Cold War, the first operations, Anchor Guard in 1990 and Ace Guard in 1991, were prompted by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Airborne early warning aircraft were sent to provide coverage of southeastern Turkey, and later a quick-reaction force was deployed to the area.[52]
Bosnia and Herzegovina intervention
The Bosnian War began in 1992, as a result of the breakup of Yugoslavia. The deteriorating situation led to United Nations Security Council Resolution 816 on 9 October 1992, authorizing its member-states to enforce a previously declared no-fly zone under the United Nations Protection Force over central Bosnia and Herzegovina. NATO complied and started enforcing the ban on 12 April 1993 with Operation Deny Flight. From June 1993 until October 1996, Operation Sharp Guard added maritime enforcement of the arms embargo and economic sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 28 February 1994, NATO took its first wartime action by shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft violating the no-fly zone.[53]
On 10 and 11 April 1994, the United Nations Protection Force called in air strikes to protect the Goražde safe area, resulting in the bombing of a Bosnian Serb military command outpost near Goražde by two US F-16 jets acting under NATO direction.[54] In retaliation, Serbs took 150 U.N. personnel hostage on 14 April.[55][56] On 16 April a British Sea Harrier was shot down over Goražde by Serb forces.[57]
In August 1995, a two-week NATO bombing campaign, Operation Deliberate Force, began against the Army of the Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica genocide.[58] Further NATO air strikes helped bring the Yugoslav Wars to an end, resulting in the Dayton Agreement in November 1995.[58] As part of this agreement, NATO deployed a UN-mandated peacekeeping force, under Operation Joint Endeavor, named IFOR. Almost 60,000 NATO troops were joined by forces from non-NATO countries in this peacekeeping mission. This transitioned into the smaller SFOR, which started with 32,000 troops initially and ran from December 1996 until December 2004, when operations were then passed onto the European Union Force Althea.[59] Following the lead of its member states, NATO began to award a service medal, the NATO Medal, for these operations.[60]
Kosovo intervention
In an effort to stop Slobodan Milošević's Serbian-led crackdown on KLA separatists and Albanian civilians in Kosovo, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1199 on 23 September 1998 to demand a ceasefire.[citation needed]
Negotiations under US Special Envoy Richard Holbrooke broke down on 23 March 1999, and he handed the matter to NATO,[61] which acted on protecting regional security and started a 78-day bombing campaign on 24 March 1999.[62] Operation Allied Force targeted the military capabilities of what was then the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. During the crisis, NATO also deployed one of its international reaction forces, the ACE Mobile Force (Land), to Albania as the Albania Force (AFOR), to deliver humanitarian aid to refugees from Kosovo.[63]
The campaign was and has been criticized over its civilian casualties, including the bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, and over whether it had legitimacy. The US, the UK, and most other NATO countries opposed efforts to require the UN Security Council to approve NATO military strikes, such as the action against Serbia in 1999, while France and some others claimed that the alliance needed UN approval.[64] The US/UK side claimed that this would undermine the authority of the alliance, and they noted that Russia and China would have exercised their Security Council vetoes to block the strike on Yugoslavia, and could do the same in future conflicts where NATO intervention was required, thus nullifying the entire potency and purpose of the organization. Recognizing the post-Cold War military environment, NATO adopted the Alliance Strategic Concept during its Washington summit in April 1999 that emphasized conflict prevention and crisis management.[65]
Milošević finally accepted the terms of an international peace plan on 3 June 1999, ending the Kosovo War. On 11 June, Milošević further accepted UN resolution 1244, under the mandate of which NATO then helped establish the KFOR peacekeeping force. Nearly one million refugees had fled Kosovo, and part of KFOR's mandate was to protect the humanitarian missions, in addition to deterring violence.[66] In August–September 2001, the alliance also mounted Operation Essential Harvest, a mission disarming ethnic Albanian militias in the Republic of Macedonia.[67] As of 2023, around 4,500 KFOR soldiers, representing 27 countries, continue to operate in the area.[68]
War in Afghanistan
The September 11 attacks in the United States caused NATO to invoke Article 5 of the NATO Charter for the first time in the organization's history.[69] The Article states that an attack on any member shall be considered to be an attack on all. The invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001 when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty.[70] The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the attacks included Operation Eagle Assist and Operation Active Endeavour, a naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction, and to enhance the security of shipping in general, which began on 4 October 2001.[52]
The alliance showed unity: on 16 April 2003, NATO agreed to take command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which included troops from 42 countries. The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two countries leading ISAF at the time of the agreement, and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO took place on 11 August, and marked the first time in NATO's history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area.[71]
ISAF was initially charged with securing Kabul and surrounding areas from the Taliban, al Qaeda and factional warlords, so as to allow for the establishment of the Afghan Transitional Administration headed by Hamid Karzai. In October 2003, the UN Security Council authorized the expansion of the ISAF mission throughout Afghanistan,[72] and ISAF subsequently expanded the mission in four main stages over the whole of the country.[73]
On 31 July 2006, the ISAF additionally took over military operations in the south of Afghanistan from a US-led anti-terrorism coalition.[74] Due to the intensity of the fighting in the south, in 2011 France allowed a squadron of Mirage 2000 fighter/attack aircraft to be moved into the area, to Kandahar, in order to reinforce the alliance's efforts.[75] During its 2012 Chicago Summit, NATO endorsed a plan to end the Afghanistan war and to remove the NATO-led ISAF Forces by the end of December 2014.[76] ISAF was disestablished in December 2014 and replaced by the follow-on training Resolute Support Mission.[77]
On 14 April 2021, NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg said the alliance had agreed to start withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan by 1 May.[78] Soon after the withdrawal of NATO troops started, the Taliban launched an offensive against the Afghan government, quickly advancing in front of collapsing Afghan Armed Forces.[79] By 15 August 2021, Taliban militants controlled the vast majority of Afghanistan and had encircled the capital city of Kabul.[80] Some politicians in NATO member states have described the chaotic withdrawal of Western troops from Afghanistan and the collapse of the Afghan government as the greatest debacle that NATO has suffered since its founding.[81][82]
Iraq training mission
In August 2004, during the Iraq War, NATO formed the NATO Training Mission – Iraq, a training mission to assist the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the US-led MNF-I.[83] The NATO Training Mission-Iraq (NTM-I) was established at the request of the Iraqi Interim Government under the provisions of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546. The aim of NTM-I was to assist in the development of Iraqi security forces training structures and institutions so that Iraq can build an effective and sustainable capability that addresses the needs of the country. NTM-I was not a combat mission but is a distinct mission, under the political control of the North Atlantic Council. Its operational emphasis was on training and mentoring. The activities of the mission were coordinated with Iraqi authorities and the US-led Deputy Commanding General Advising and Training, who was also dual-hatted as the Commander of NTM-I. The mission officially concluded on 17 December 2011.[84]
Turkey invoked the first Article 4 meetings in 2003 at the start of the Iraq War. Turkey also invoked this article twice in 2012 during the Syrian Civil War, after the downing of an unarmed Turkish F-4 reconnaissance jet, and after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria,[85] and again in 2015 after threats by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant to its territorial integrity.[86]
Gulf of Aden anti-piracy
In 2008 the United Nations Secretary-General called on member-states to protect the ships of Operation Allied Provider, which was distributing aid as part of the World Food Programme mission in Somalia.[87]
The North Atlantic Council and other countries, including Russia, China and South Korea,[88][89] formed Operation Ocean Shield. The operation sought to dissuade and interrupt pirate attacks, protect vessels, and to increase the general level of security in the region.[90] Beginning on 17 August 2009, NATO deployed warships in an operation to protect maritime traffic in the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean from Somali pirates, and help strengthen the navies and coast guards of regional states.[citation needed]
Libya intervention
During the Libyan Civil War, violence between protesters and the Libyan government under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi escalated, and on 17 March 2011 led to the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which called for a ceasefire, and authorized military action to protect civilians. A coalition that included several NATO members began enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya shortly afterwards, beginning with Opération Harmattan by the French Air Force on 19 March.[citation needed]
On 20 March 2011, NATO states agreed on enforcing an arms embargo against Libya with Operation Unified Protector using ships from NATO Standing Maritime Group 1 and Standing Mine Countermeasures Group 1,[91] and additional ships and submarines from NATO members.[92] They would "monitor, report and, if needed, interdict vessels suspected of carrying illegal arms or mercenaries".[91]
On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone from the initial coalition, while command of targeting ground units remained with the coalition's forces.[93][94] NATO began officially enforcing the UN resolution on 27 March 2011 with assistance from Qatar and the United Arab Emirates.[95] By June, reports of divisions within the alliance surfaced as only eight of the 28 member states were participating in combat operations,[96] resulting in a confrontation between US Defense Secretary Robert Gates and countries such as Poland, Spain, the Netherlands, Turkey, and Germany with Gates calling on the latter to contribute more and the latter believing the organization has overstepped its mandate in the conflict.[97][98][99] In his final policy speech in Brussels on 10 June, Gates further criticized allied countries in suggesting their actions could cause the demise of NATO.[100] The German foreign ministry pointed to "a considerable [German] contribution to NATO and NATO-led operations" and to the fact that this engagement was highly valued by President Obama.[101]
While the mission was extended into September, Norway that day (10 June) announced it would begin scaling down contributions and complete withdrawal by 1 August.[102] Earlier that week it was reported Danish air fighters were running out of bombs.[103][104] The following week, the head of the Royal Navy said the country's operations in the conflict were not sustainable.[105] By the end of the mission in October 2011, after the death of Colonel Gaddafi, NATO planes had flown about 9,500 strike sorties against pro-Gaddafi targets.[106][107] A report from the organization Human Rights Watch in May 2012 identified at least 72 civilians killed in the campaign.[108]
Following a coup d'état attempt in October 2013, Libyan Prime Minister Ali Zeidan requested technical advice and trainers from NATO to assist with ongoing security issues.[109]
Turkish border
Use of Article 5 has been threatened multiple times and four out of seven official Article 4 consultations have been called due to spillover in Turkey from the Syrian civil war. In April 2012, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan considered invoking Article 5 of the NATO treaty to protect Turkish national security in a dispute over the Syrian Civil War.[110][111] The alliance responded quickly, and a spokesperson said the alliance was "monitoring the situation very closely and will continue to do so" and "takes it very seriously protecting its members."[112]
After the shooting down of a Turkish military jet by Syria in June 2012 and Syrian forces shelling Turkish cities in October 2012[113] resulting in two Article 4 consultations, NATO approved Operation Active Fence. In the past decade the conflict has only escalated. In response to the 2015 Suruç bombing, which Turkey attributed to ISIS, and other security issues along its southern border,[114][115][116][117] Turkey called for an emergency meeting. The latest consultation happened in February 2020, as part of increasing tensions due to the Northwestern Syria offensive, which involved[118] Syrian and suspected Russian airstrikes on Turkish troops, and risked direct confrontation between Russia and a NATO member.[119]
Membership
The 32 NATO members are
NATO has thirty-two members, mostly in Europe with two in North America. Some of these countries also have territory on other continents, which is covered by the security agreements only as far south as the Tropic of Cancer, which together with the Atlantic Ocean defines NATO's "area of responsibility" under Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty. During the original treaty negotiations, the United States insisted that colonies such as the Belgian Congo be excluded from the treaty.[120][121] French Algeria was, however, covered until its independence on 3 July 1962.[122] Twelve of these thirty-two are original members who joined in 1949, while the other twenty joined in one of ten enlargement rounds.[123]
Special arrangements
The three Nordic countries which joined NATO as founding members, Denmark, Iceland, and Norway, chose to limit their participation in three areas: there would be no permanent peacetime bases, no nuclear warheads and no Allied military activity (unless invited) permitted on their territory. However, Denmark allows the U.S. Space Force to maintain Pituffik Space Base, in Greenland.[124]
From the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, France pursued a military strategy of independence from NATO under a policy dubbed "Gaullo-Mitterrandism".[125] Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated the return of France to the integrated military command and the Defence Planning Committee in 2009, the latter being disbanded the following year. France remains the only NATO member outside the Nuclear Planning Group and, unlike the United States and the United Kingdom, will not commit its nuclear-armed submarines to the alliance.[26][40]
Enlargement
NATO was established on 4 April 1949 by the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty (Washington Treaty). The 12 founding members of the alliance were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[126]
Four new members joined during the Cold War: Greece (1952), Turkey (1952), West Germany (1955) and Spain (1982). Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, many former Warsaw Pact and post-Soviet states sought membership. In 1990, the territory of the former East Germany was added with the reunification of Germany. At the 1999 Washington summit, Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic officially joined, and NATO issued new guidelines for membership, with individualized "Membership Action Plans". These plans governed the addition of new members: Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia in 2004, Albania and Croatia in 2009, Montenegro in 2017, and North Macedonia in 2020.[127] Finland and Sweden are the newest members, joining on 4 April 2023 and 7 March 2024 respectively, spurred on by Russia's invasion of Ukraine.[128][14]
Ukraine's relationship with NATO began with the NATO–Ukraine Action Plan in 2002.[129] In 2010, under President Viktor Yanukovych, Ukraine re-affirmed its non-aligned status and renounced aspirations of joining NATO.[130] During the 2014 Ukrainian Revolution, Russia occupied Crimea and supported armed separatists in eastern Ukraine. As a result, in December 2014 Ukraine's parliament voted to end its non-aligned status,[131] and in 2019 it enshrined the goal of NATO membership in the Constitution.[132][133] At the June 2021 Brussels Summit, NATO leaders affirmed that Ukraine would eventually join the Alliance, and supported Ukraine's right to self-determination without interference.[134] In late 2021, there was another massive Russian military buildup near Ukraine's borders. On 30 November, Russian president Putin said Ukraine joining NATO, and the deployment of missile defense systems or long-range missiles in Ukraine, would be crossing a red line. However, there were no such plans to deploy missiles in Ukraine.[135][136][137] The Russian Foreign Ministry drafted a treaty that would forbid Ukraine or any former Soviet state from ever joining NATO.[138] Secretary-General Stoltenberg replied that the decision is up to Ukraine and NATO members, adding "Russia has no veto, Russia has no say, and Russia has no right to establish a sphere of influence to try to control their neighbors".[139][140] NATO offered to improve communications with Russia and discuss missile placements and military exercises, as long as Russia withdrew troops from Ukraine's borders.[141] Instead, Russia invaded Ukraine in February 2022. Ukraine applied for NATO membership in September 2022 after Russia proclaimed it had annexed the country's southeast.[142]
Georgia was promised "future membership" during the 2008 summit in Bucharest,[143] but US president Barack Obama said in 2014 that the country was not "currently on a path" to membership.[144]
Russia continued to politically oppose further expansion, seeing it as inconsistent with informal understandings between Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and European and US negotiators that allowed for a peaceful German reunification.[145] A June 2016 Levada Center poll found that 68 percent of Russians think that deploying NATO troops in the Baltic states and Poland – former Eastern bloc countries bordering Russia – is a threat to Russia.[146] In contrast, 65 percent of Poles surveyed in a 2017 Pew Research Center report identified Russia as a "major threat", with an average of 31 percent saying so across all NATO countries,[147] and 67 percent of Poles surveyed in 2018 favour US forces being based in Poland.[148] Of non-CIS Eastern European countries surveyed by Gallup in 2016, all but Serbia and Montenegro were more likely than not to view NATO as a protective alliance rather than a threat.[149] A 2006 study in the journal Security Studies argued that NATO enlargement contributed to democratic consolidation in Central and Eastern Europe.[150] China also opposes further expansion.[151]
NATO defense expenditure
Direct contributions
Member states pay for NATO's three common funds (the civil and military budgets and the security investment program) based on a cost-sharing formula that includes per capita gross national income and other factors.[152][153] In 2023–2024, the United States and Germany were the biggest contributors with 16.2% each.[153][154]
Indirect contributions
Member states pay for and maintain their own troops and equipment.[153][154] They contribute to NATO operations and missions by committing troops and equipment on a voluntary basis.[154] Since 2006, the goal has been for each country to spend at least 2 percent of its gross domestic product on its own defense; in 2014, a NATO declaration said that countries not meeting the goal would "aim to move towards the 2 percent guideline within a decade".[153][155] In July 2022, NATO estimated that 11 members would meet the target in 2023.[155] On 14 February 2024, NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg said that 18 member states would meet the 2% target in 2024.[156]
Partnerships with third countries
The Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme was established in 1994 and is based on individual bilateral relations between each partner country and NATO: each country may choose the extent of its participation.[158] Members include all current and former members of the Commonwealth of Independent States.[159] The Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) was first established on 29 May 1997, and is a forum for regular coordination, consultation and dialogue between all fifty participants.[160] The PfP programme is considered the operational wing of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership.[158] Other third countries have also been contacted for participation in some activities of the PfP framework, such as Afghanistan.[161]
The European Union (EU) signed a comprehensive package of arrangements with NATO under the Berlin Plus agreement on 16 December 2002. With this agreement, the EU was given the possibility of using NATO assets if it wanted to act independently in an international crisis, on the condition that NATO itself did not want to act – the so-called "right of first refusal".[162] For example, Article 42(7) of the 1982 Treaty of Lisbon specifies that "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power". The treaty applies globally to specified territories, whereas NATO is restricted under its Article 6 to operations north of the Tropic of Cancer. It provides a "double framework" for the EU countries that are also linked with the PfP programme.[163][164]
Additionally, NATO cooperates and discusses its activities with numerous other non-NATO members. The Mediterranean Dialogue was established in 1994 to coordinate in a similar way with Israel and countries in North Africa. The Istanbul Cooperation Initiative was announced in 2004 as a dialogue forum for the Middle East along the same lines as the Mediterranean Dialogue. The four participants are also linked through the Gulf Cooperation Council.[165] In June 2018, Qatar expressed a wish to join NATO,[166] who ruled it out, saying that only additional European countries could join according to Article 10 of NATO's founding treaty.[167] Qatar and NATO had earlier signed a joint security agreement, in January 2018.[168]
Political dialogue with Japan began in 1990, and since then, the Alliance has gradually increased its contact with countries that do not form part of any of these cooperation initiatives.[169] In 1998, NATO established a set of general guidelines that do not allow for a formal institutionalization of relations, but reflect the Allies' desire to increase cooperation. Following extensive debate, the term "Contact Countries" was agreed by the Allies in 2000. By 2012, the Alliance had broadened this group, which meets to discuss issues such as counter-piracy and technology exchange, under the names "global partners" or "partners across the globe".[170][171] Australia and New Zealand, both contact countries, are also members of the AUSCANNZUKUS strategic alliance, and similar regional or bilateral agreements between contact countries and NATO members also aid cooperation. NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg stated that NATO needs to "address the rise of China", by closely cooperating with Australia, New Zealand, Japan and South Korea.[172] Colombia is NATO's latest partner and has access to the full range of cooperative activities offered; it is the first and only Latin American country to cooperate with NATO.[173][174]
Structure
All agencies and organizations of NATO are integrated into either the civilian administrative or military executive roles. For the most part, they perform roles and functions that directly or indirectly support the security role of the alliance as a whole.[citation needed]
The civilian structure includes:
- The North Atlantic Council (NAC) is the body which has effective governance authority and powers of decision in NATO, consisting of member states' permanent representatives or representatives at higher level (ministers of foreign affairs or defence, or heads of state or government). The NAC convenes at least once a week and takes major decisions regarding NATO's policies. The meetings of the North Atlantic Council are chaired by the secretary general and, when decisions have to be made, action is agreed upon by consensus.[175] There is no voting or decision by majority. Each state represented at the Council table or on any of its subordinate committees retains complete sovereignty and responsibility for its own decisions.[176]
- The NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO PA) is a body that sets broad strategic goals for NATO, which meets at two session per year. NATO PA interacts directly with the parliamentary structures of the national governments of the member states which appoint Permanent Members, or ambassadors to NATO. The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic Alliance as well as thirteen associate members. It is however officially a structure different from NATO, and has as aim to join deputies of NATO countries in order to discuss security policies on the NATO Council.[177]
- NATO headquarters, located on Boulevard Léopold III/Leopold III-laan, B-1110 Brussels, which is in the City of Brussels municipality.[178] The staff at the Headquarters is composed of national delegations of member countries and includes civilian and military liaison offices and officers or diplomatic missions and diplomats of partner countries, as well as the International Staff and International Military Staff filled from serving members of the armed forces of member states.[179] Non-governmental groups have also grown up in support of NATO, broadly under the banner of the Atlantic Council/Atlantic Treaty Association movement.[180][181]
The military structure includes:
- The Military Committee (MC) is the body of NATO that is composed of member states' Chiefs of Defence (CHOD) and advises the North Atlantic Council (NAC) on military policy and strategy. The national CHODs are regularly represented in the MC by their permanent Military Representatives (MilRep), who often are two- or three-star flag officers. Like the council, from time to time the Military Committee also meets at a higher level, namely at the level of Chiefs of Defence, the most senior military officer in each country's armed forces. The MC is led by its chairman, who directs NATO's military operations.[182] Until 2008 the Military Committee excluded France, due to that country's 1966 decision to remove itself from the NATO Military Command Structure, which it rejoined in 1995. Until France rejoined NATO, it was not represented on the Defence Planning Committee, and this led to conflicts between it and NATO members.[183] Such was the case in the lead up to Operation Iraqi Freedom.[184]
- Allied Command Operations (ACO) is the NATO command responsible for NATO operations worldwide.[185]
- The Rapid Deployable Corps include Eurocorps, I. German/Dutch Corps, Multinational Corps Northeast, and NATO Rapid Deployable Italian Corps among others, as well as naval High Readiness Forces (HRFs), which all report to Allied Command Operations.[186]
- Allied Command Transformation (ACT), responsible for transformation and training of NATO forces.[187]
Legal authority of NATO commanders
NATO is an alliance of 32 sovereign states and their individual sovereignty is unaffected by participation in the alliance. NATO has no parliaments, no laws, no enforcement, and no power to punish individual citizens. As a consequence of this lack of sovereignty the power and authority of a NATO commander are limited. NATO commanders cannot punish offences such as failure to obey a lawful order; dereliction of duty; or disrespect to a senior officer.[188] NATO commanders expect obeisance but sometimes need to subordinate their desires or plans to the operators who are themselves subject to sovereign codes of conduct like the UCMJ. A case in point was the clash between General Sir Mike Jackson and General Wesley Clark over KFOR actions at Pristina Airport.[189]
NATO commanders can issue orders to their subordinate commanders in the form of operational plans (OPLANs), operational orders (OPORDERs), tactical direction, or fragmental orders (FRAGOs) and others. The joint rules of engagement must be followed, and the Law of Armed Conflict must be obeyed at all times. Operational resources "remain under national command but have been transferred temporarily to NATO. Although these national units, through the formal process of transfer of authority, have been placed under the operational command and control of a NATO commander, they never lose their national character." Senior national representatives, like CDS, "are designated as so-called red-cardholders". Caveats are restrictions listed "nation by nation... that NATO Commanders... must take into account".[188]
See also
- Atlanticism
- Common Security and Defence Policy of the European Union
- Ranks and insignia of NATO
- Major non-NATO ally
- List of military alliances
- List of military equipment of NATO
- List of countries in Europe by military expenditures
Similar organizations
- AUKUS (Australia, United Kingdom, United States)
- ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty)
- Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) — Russia and some former Soviet republics
- Five Eyes (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States intelligence services)
- Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA)
- Free World Military Assistance Forces (FWMAF)
- Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance
- Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition (IMCTC)
- Middle East Treaty Organization (METO)
- Northeast Asia Treaty Organization (NEATO)
- Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)
- South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone
- Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)
- United Nations Command (UNC)
- Balkan Pact (SFR Yugoslavia with NATO members Greece and Turkey)
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Further reading
- Atlantic Council of the United States (August 2003). "Transforming the NATO Military Command Structure: A New Framework for Managing the Alliance's Future" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 October 2012.
- Axelrod, Robert, and Silvia Borzutzky. "NATO and the war on terror: The organizational challenges of the post 9/11 world." Review of International Organizations 1.3 (2006): 293–307. online
- Borawski, John, and Thomas-Durell Young. NATO after 2000: the future of the Euro-Atlantic Alliance (Greenwood, 2001).
- Ismay, Hastings (1954). "NATO: The First Five Years". Paris: NATO. Archived from the original on 15 March 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
- Hendrickson, Ryan C. "NATO's next secretary general: Rasmussen's leadership legacy for Jens Stoltenberg." Journal of Transatlantic Studies (2016) 15#3 pp 237–251.
- Pedlow, Gregory W. "Evolution of NATO's Command Structure 1951–2009" (PDF). aco.nato.int. Brussels(?): NATO ACO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- Sayle, Timothy Andrews. Enduring Alliance: A History of NATO and the Postwar Global Order (Cornell University Press, 2019) online review
- "NATO at 70: Balancing Collective Defense and Collective Security", Special issue of Journal of Transatlantic Studies 17#2 (June 2019) pp: 135–267.
- NATO Office of Information and Press, NATO Handbook : Fiftieth Anniversary Edition, NATO, Brussels, 1998–99, Second Reprint, ISBN 92-845-0134-2
External links
- Official website
- Secretary General’s Annual Reports 2011–present
- NATO collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English
- NATO collected news and commentary at Dawn
- NATO collected news and commentary at The Guardian
- NATO collected news and commentary at The New York Times