Fences and windows (talk | contribs) |
76.16.176.166 (talk) 1 verbatim qoute. fixing misqouted source; 2 the secound 'source' links to a spam of $32 fee subscription, not to the source - removed Tag: references removed |
||
Line 7: | Line 7: | ||
A competing theory of the [[recent African origin of modern humans]] (also known as "Out of Africa") has emerged as the near consensus view since the 1990s,<ref>Hua Liu, et al. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/505436 A Geographically Explicit Genetic Model of Worldwide Human-Settlement History]. ''American Journal of Human Genetics'', volume 79 (2006), pages 230–237, quote: ''Currently available genetic and archaeological evidence is generally interpreted as supportive of a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa. However, this is where '''the near consensus''' on human settlement history ends, and considerable uncertainty clouds any more detailed aspect of human colonization history.''</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Weaver|first=Timothy D|coauthors=Charles C. Roseman|date=2008|title=New developments in the genetic evidence for modern human origins|journal=Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews|publisher=Wiley-Liss|volume=17|issue=1|pages=69-80|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117921411/abstract}}</ref> proposing that modern humans arose in Africa around 100-200,000 years ago, moving out of Africa around 50-60,000 years ago to replace existing human species such as ''Homo erectus'' and the [[Neanderthals]].<ref name=statistical>{{cite journal|last=Fagundes|first=NJ|coauthors=Ray N, Beaumont M, Neuenschwander S, Salzano FM, Bonatto SL, Excoffier L.|date=2007|title=Statistical evaluation of alternative models of human evolution|journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A|volume=104|issue=45|pages=17614-9|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/104/45/17614.long}}</ref> |
A competing theory of the [[recent African origin of modern humans]] (also known as "Out of Africa") has emerged as the near consensus view since the 1990s,<ref>Hua Liu, et al. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/505436 A Geographically Explicit Genetic Model of Worldwide Human-Settlement History]. ''American Journal of Human Genetics'', volume 79 (2006), pages 230–237, quote: ''Currently available genetic and archaeological evidence is generally interpreted as supportive of a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa. However, this is where '''the near consensus''' on human settlement history ends, and considerable uncertainty clouds any more detailed aspect of human colonization history.''</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Weaver|first=Timothy D|coauthors=Charles C. Roseman|date=2008|title=New developments in the genetic evidence for modern human origins|journal=Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews|publisher=Wiley-Liss|volume=17|issue=1|pages=69-80|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117921411/abstract}}</ref> proposing that modern humans arose in Africa around 100-200,000 years ago, moving out of Africa around 50-60,000 years ago to replace existing human species such as ''Homo erectus'' and the [[Neanderthals]].<ref name=statistical>{{cite journal|last=Fagundes|first=NJ|coauthors=Ray N, Beaumont M, Neuenschwander S, Salzano FM, Bonatto SL, Excoffier L.|date=2007|title=Statistical evaluation of alternative models of human evolution|journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A|volume=104|issue=45|pages=17614-9|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/104/45/17614.long}}</ref> |
||
Advocates of the multiregional hypothesis point to some recent genetic data[[Multiregional origin of modern humans#Genetic evidence|^]]<ref name=admixture>{{cite journal|last=Cox|first=MP|coauthors=Mendez FL, Karafet TM, Pilkington MM, Kingan SB, Destro-Bisol G, Strassmann BI, Hammer MF|date=2008|title=Testing for archaic hominin admixture on the X chromosome: model likelihoods for the modern human RRM2P4 region from summaries of genealogical topology under the structured coalescent|journal=Genetics|volume=178|issue=1|pages=427-37|url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/178/1/427}}</ref> as support for their hypothesis, and some interbreeding (or "[[Admixture (genetics)|admixture]]") between modern humans and previous human species has not been ruled out,<ref name=heredity>{{cite journal|last=Relethford |first=JH|date=2008|title=Genetic evidence and the modern human origins debate|journal=Heredity|publisher=Macmillan|volume=100|issue=6|pages=555-63}}</ref><ref name="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VS0-4M21SWT-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=43bc2fdddd454c715ebfe27b4ad6a48a">{{cite journal|last=Wall|first=JD|coauthors=Hammer MF|date=2006|title=Archaic admixture in the human genome|journal=Curr Opin Genet Dev|volume=16|issue=6|pages=606-10}}</ref> |
Advocates of the multiregional hypothesis point to some recent genetic data[[Multiregional origin of modern humans#Genetic evidence|^]]<ref name=admixture>{{cite journal|last=Cox|first=MP|coauthors=Mendez FL, Karafet TM, Pilkington MM, Kingan SB, Destro-Bisol G, Strassmann BI, Hammer MF|date=2008|title=Testing for archaic hominin admixture on the X chromosome: model likelihoods for the modern human RRM2P4 region from summaries of genealogical topology under the structured coalescent|journal=Genetics|volume=178|issue=1|pages=427-37|url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/178/1/427}}</ref> as support for their hypothesis, and some interbreeding (or "[[Admixture (genetics)|admixture]]") between modern humans and previous human species has not been ruled out,<ref name=heredity>{{cite journal|last=Relethford |first=JH|date=2008|title=Genetic evidence and the modern human origins debate|journal=Heredity|publisher=Macmillan|volume=100|issue=6|pages=555-63}}</ref><ref name="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VS0-4M21SWT-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=43bc2fdddd454c715ebfe27b4ad6a48a">{{cite journal|last=Wall|first=JD|coauthors=Hammer MF|date=2006|title=Archaic admixture in the human genome|journal=Curr Opin Genet Dev|volume=16|issue=6|pages=606-10}}</ref>, it ''is worth considering the possibility that'' (from Neanderthal) ''adaptive introgression has occurred''<ref name=noneanderthal>{{cite journal|last=Hodgson|first=JA|coauthors=Disotell TR|date=2008|title=No evidence of a Neanderthal contribution to modern human diversity.|journal=Genome Biology|publisher=BioMed Central|volume=9|issue=2|pages=206|url=http://genomebiology.com/2008/9/2/206}}</ref> To differentiate the current theory from earlier unscientific theories some researchers prefer the term '''multiregional evolution'''. |
||
==History== |
==History== |
Revision as of 22:18, 2 June 2009
The multiregional hypothesis is a theory of the origin of anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens. The multiregional hypothesis holds that the evolution of humanity from the beginning of the Pleistocene 1.8 million years BP to the present day has been within a single, continuous human species, evolving worldwide from Homo erectus to modern Homo sapiens.[1]
A competing theory of the recent African origin of modern humans (also known as "Out of Africa") has emerged as the near consensus view since the 1990s,[2][3] proposing that modern humans arose in Africa around 100-200,000 years ago, moving out of Africa around 50-60,000 years ago to replace existing human species such as Homo erectus and the Neanderthals.[4]
Advocates of the multiregional hypothesis point to some recent genetic data^[5] as support for their hypothesis, and some interbreeding (or "admixture") between modern humans and previous human species has not been ruled out,[6][7], it is worth considering the possibility that (from Neanderthal) adaptive introgression has occurred[8] To differentiate the current theory from earlier unscientific theories some researchers prefer the term multiregional evolution.
History
Polygenism
An older theory is polygenic evolution, a multiple origins theory in which the different human populations or races had independent origins and evolved in isolation from each other. It was held by many scholars of the 19th century such as Haeckel and Klaatsch. Polygenism is sometimes mistaken for multiregional evolution, because they are both hypotheses of evolution within a single species. However, polygenic evolution depends on isolation of populations while multiregional evolution requires population interactions and interbreeding so that genetic changes can spread throughout the human range, especially when they are promoted by natural selection. According to the multiregional hypothesis, geographic differences between human populations are the results of climatic variation, isolation by distance, sexual selection, and historical accidents (genetic drift).
Weidenreich-Coon
The multiregional hypothesis has its origin in the work of Franz Weidenreich in the 1930s, based on his examination of Peking Man. Weidenreich was an anatomist and observed numerous anatomical characteristics that he thought Peking Man had in common with modern Asians. The Weidenreich Theory stated that human races have evolved independently in the Old World from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens sapiens, while at the same time there was gene flow between the various populations. According to the theory proposed by Weidenreich, genes that were generally adaptive (such as those for intelligence) flowed relatively rapidly from one part of the world to the other, while those that were locally adaptive, would not.[citation needed] A vocal proponent of the Weidenreich theory was Carleton Coon.
Hybrid-origin theory
The hybrid-origin theory argues that some or all of the genetic variation between contemporary human races is attributable to inheritance from at least two widely divergent hominid species, or subspecies, that were dispersed throughout Africa, Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent, such as Neanderthals and Peking Man. According to this theory the resulting hybrid, Homo sapiens sapiens, was superior to both its ancestors due to "hybrid vigour". This theory was first introduced in 1971 by the British psychologist Stan Gooch.[9]
Regional continuity
The term "multiregional hypothesis" was first coined in the early 1980s by Milford H. Wolpoff and colleagues as an explanation for the apparent similarities seen in Homo erectus and Homo sapiens fossils from the same region, what they called regional continuity.[10]
Wolpoff rejected the earlier proposal by Coon of parallel evolution,[10] and proposed a theory based on clinal variation that would allow for the necessary balance between local selection and a global species. He proposed that Homo erectus, Neanderthals, Homo sapiens and other humans were a single species. This species arose in Africa two million years ago as H. erectus and then spread out over the world, developing adaptations to regional conditions. It was proposed that for periods of time some populations became isolated, developing in a different direction, but through continuous interbreeding, replacement, genetic drift and selection, adaptations that were an advantage anywhere on earth would spread, keeping the development of the species in the same overall direction, while maintaining adaptations to regional factors. Eventually, the more unusual local varieties of the species would have disappeared in favor of modern humans, retaining some regional adaptations, but with many common features.[1]
Fossil evidence
Some supporters of the multiregional hypothesis, including Wolpoff, argue that fossil evidence is more reliable than estimates based on genetic evidence and molecular clocks, which they contend are subject to genetic drift, bottlenecks and other complicating factors.
Neanderthals
Multiregionalists claimed that the discovery of a possible hybrid Homo sapiens X neanderthalensis fossil child at the Abrigo do Lagar Velho rock-shelter site in Portugal in 1999 further supports the multiregional hypothesis, by reflecting the admixture of diverse human populations[11]. Two other archaeologists dispute this: "the analysis by Duarte et al. of the Lagar Velho child's skeleton is a brave and imaginative interpretation, of which it is unlikely that a majority of paleoanthropologists will consider proven."[12]
In an article appearing in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences[13] in 2007, Erik Trinkaus has brought together the available data, which shows that early modern humans did exhibit evidence of Neandertal traits. "When you look at all of the well dated and diagnostic early modern European fossils, there is a persistent presence of anatomical features that were present among the Neandertals but absent from the earlier African modern humans," Trinkaus said. "Early modern Europeans reflect both their predominant African early modern human ancestry and a substantial degree of admixture between those early modern humans and the indigenous Neandertals."[14]
Early modern humans
Wolpoff and colleagues published an analysis in 2001 of character traits of the skulls of early modern human fossils, which failed to reject a theory of dual ancestry from Javan Homo erectus for Australian early modern humans and Neanderthals for Central European modern humans, and which they said ruled out a replacement model.[15] A subsequent analysis comparing Neanderthal skulls to those of modern humans using 3D morphometric techniques showed a large difference between the two populations, such that the authors concluded that "we interpret the evidence presented here as supporting the view that Neanderthals represent an extinct human species and therefore refute the regional continuity model for Europe."[16]
Genetic evidence
By analysing haplotype data, Alan Templeton found support for three waves of human migration out of Africa, the first 1.9 million years ago, and concluded that it was impossible that existing Eurasian populations had not interbred with African migrants.[17]
Studies on past population bottlenecks that can be inferred from molecular data have led multiregionalists to conclude that the recent single-origin hypothesis is untenable because there are no population size bottlenecks affecting all genes that are more recent than 2 million years ago.
- Microcephalin.[18][19][20]
- RRM2P4 region on X chromosome.[21]
- PDHA1 locus on X chromosome.[22]
Researchers
The most prominent current proponents of the multiregional hypothesis are Milford H. Wolpoff, Wu Xinzhi, Alan G. Thorne, James Calcagno[23], John Hawks[24], Alan Templeton, and Erik Trinkaus.
Criticism of the multiregional hypothesis
Multiregional evolution contrasts with the "Recent African Origin" (RAO) theory. According to the latter theory, human evolution was a consequence of many cases of species replacement, as newer species replaced older ones across the human range. Modern human origins, according to the RAO, is the most recent example of species replacement.
Aspects of multiregionalism have been criticized as not being based on objective scientific observation. Some critics even argue that multiregionalism may be motivated by ethnocentrism and is meant to instill beliefs of purity of lineage.
Multiregionalists have long claimed that modern Europeans are descended from the Neanderthals. In 1997, testing performed on mitochondrial DNA extracted from a Neanderthal skeleton showed modern humans and Neanderthals last shared a common ancestor between 500,000 and 800,000 years ago, and furthermore that all modern humans, from the ethnic Siberians to the !Kung people of Africa, are more closely related to each other than to the Neanderthals—further evidence supporting the Out-of-Africa theory[citation needed]. But ancient lineages, dating to over 1 Mya, in nuclear DNA has been detected (see genetic evidence above).[clarification needed]
Peking man (also known as "Beijing man"), a Homo erectus fossil skull (possibly dated to 500,000 years ago) found in China, provides putative evidence supporting the Multiregional Theory. Some paleoanthropologists in China have asserted that the modern Chinese are descendants of earlier forms of humans such as Peking Man. However criticism is based on genetic evidence from mtDNA. Microsatellite analysis on the Chinese populations in 1998 showed genetic similarities with Africans, yielding the first evidence the Chinese population is matrilineal from Africa.[25] A recent study undertaken by Jin Li showed no inter-breeding between modern human immigrants to East Asia and Homo erectus, contradicting the Peking Man-origin hypothesis and affirming that the Chinese descended from Africans.[26][27] In 2001, Chinese geneticists analyzed Y chromosomes in Chinese people and concluded that all Chinese samples contained a mutated gene M168G which is a marker believed to have appeared in the last 79,000 years in an African population.[25]
Political implications
Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Jackson have suggested that any new support for a biological concept of race will likely come from another source, namely, the study of human evolution. They therefore ask what, if any, implications current models of human evolution may have for any biological conception of race.[28]
The major implication for race in the multiregional evolution continuity model involves the time depth of a million or more years in which race differentiation might evolve in diverse ecological regions [...]. This must be balanced against the degree of gene flow and the transregional operation of natural selection on encephalization due to development of tools and, more broadly, culture.[29]
See also
- Polygenism
- Recent single-origin hypothesis
- Punctuated equilibrium
- Interbreeding of Cro-Magnon and Neanderthals
- Mitochondrial Eve
- Y-chromosomal Adam
- Hybrid-origin
References
- ^ a b Wolpoff, MH (2000). "Multiregional, not multiple origins". Am J Phys Anthropol. 112 (1): 129–36.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Hua Liu, et al. A Geographically Explicit Genetic Model of Worldwide Human-Settlement History. American Journal of Human Genetics, volume 79 (2006), pages 230–237, quote: Currently available genetic and archaeological evidence is generally interpreted as supportive of a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa. However, this is where the near consensus on human settlement history ends, and considerable uncertainty clouds any more detailed aspect of human colonization history.
- ^ Weaver, Timothy D (2008). "New developments in the genetic evidence for modern human origins". Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 17 (1). Wiley-Liss: 69–80.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Fagundes, NJ (2007). "Statistical evaluation of alternative models of human evolution". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 104 (45): 17614–9.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Cox, MP (2008). "Testing for archaic hominin admixture on the X chromosome: model likelihoods for the modern human RRM2P4 region from summaries of genealogical topology under the structured coalescent". Genetics. 178 (1): 427–37.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Relethford, JH (2008). "Genetic evidence and the modern human origins debate". Heredity. 100 (6). Macmillan: 555–63.
- ^ Wall, JD (2006). "Archaic admixture in the human genome". Curr Opin Genet Dev. 16 (6): 606–10.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Hodgson, JA (2008). "No evidence of a Neanderthal contribution to modern human diversity". Genome Biology. 9 (2). BioMed Central: 206.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Gooch, Guardians of the Ancient Wisdom 1979
- ^ a b Wolpoff, MH (1988). "Modern Human Origins". Science. 241 (4867): 772–4.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ The early Upper Paleolithic human skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho (Portugal) and modern human emergence in Iberia ;Duarte C, 2. Maurício J, Pettitt P, Souto P, Trinkaus E, van der Plicht H, Zilhão J (1999) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:7604–7609,[1]
- ^ Chunky Gravettian child; Ian Tattersall and Jeffrey H. Schwartz .[2]
- ^ http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/104/18/7367 European early modern humans and the fate of the Neandertals
- ^ http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070423185434.htm The Emerging Fate Of The Neandertals
- ^ Wolpoff, Milford H (2001). "Modern Human Ancestry at the Peripheries: A Test of the Replacement Theory". Science. 291. AAAS: 293–297.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Harvati, Katerina (2004). "Neanderthal taxonomy reconsidered: Implications of 3D primate models of intra- and interspecific differences". PNAS. 101 (5): 1147–1152.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Williams, Robyn (2004). "Are We Neanderthals?". The Science Show. ABC Radio. Retrieved 2009-05-30.
- ^ Evidence that the adaptive allele of the brain size gene microcephalin introgressed into Homo sapiens from an archaic Homo lineage; PNAS | November 28, 2006 | vol. 103 | no. 48 | 18178-18183 ; quote: "... As such, microcephalin shows by far the most compelling evidence of admixture among the human loci examined thus far. Speculation about the identity of the archaic Homo population from which the microcephalin D allele introgressed into the modern human gene pool points to the Neanderthal lineage as a potential (although by no means only) candidate. Anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals shared a long period of coexistence, from as early as 130,000 years ago in the Middle East (39) to as late as 35,000 years ago in Europe (40), consistent with the estimated introgression time of the microcephalin D allele at or sometime before {approx}37,000 years ago. Furthermore, the worldwide frequency distribution of the D allele, exceptionally high outside of Africa but low in sub-Saharan Africa (29), suggests, but does not necessitate, admixture with an archaic Eurasian population. Finally, our estimate of the separation time between D and non-D alleles (i.e., {approx}1,100,000 years with a lower-bound confidence interval of {approx}530,000 years) is largely consistent with the divergence time between modern humans and Neanderthals based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence difference (320,000–740,000 years; refs. 41 and 42) and with the earliest appearance of Neanderthals in the fossil record {approx}500,000 years ago (43). It would be of great interest to sequence the microcephalin locus in Neanderthals or other archaic Homo lineages, should it become technically feasible to retrieve and analyze nuclear DNA from ancient hominid remains. Our results not only provide genetic evidence in support of the possibility of admixture between modern humans and an archaic Homo lineage but also support the notion that the biological evolution of modern humans might have benefited from the contribution of adaptive alleles from our archaic relatives. In the case of microcephalin, it is all the more intriguing given the fact that the adaptive allele is associated with an important brain development gene. ..." URL:http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/103/48/18178
- ^ http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/104/18/7367
- ^ Microcephalin, a Gene Regulating Brain Size, Continues to Evolve Adaptively in Humans; Science 9 September 2005: Vol. 309. no. 5741, pp. 1717 - 1720 DOI: 10.1126/science.1113722; Patrick D. Evans & all; URL:http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/309/5741/1717
- ^ Testing for Archaic Hominin Admixture on the X Chromosome: Model Likelihoods for the Modern Human RRM2P4 Region From Summaries of Genealogical Topology Under the Structured Coalescent. Murray P. Cox Genetics, Vol. 178, 427-437, January 2008, doi:10.1534/genetics.107.080432 URL: http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/178/1/427
- ^ More on the X files. Rosalind M. Harding. PNAS Vol. 96, Issue 6, 2582-2584, March 16, 1999 http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/96/6/2582; quote:the pattern of diversity at the PDHA1 locus unexpected is that this extreme structure is observed in a polymorphism with an estimated total coalescent-time depth of 1.86 million years
- ^ Calcagno homepage link
- ^ John Hawks homepage link
- ^ a b 中国人可能起源于非洲又有新证据 (New Evidence Proves that Chinese People Possibly Came from Africa), 大地 2001 No.20, available at People's Daily Online.
- ^ multiregional or single origin.
- ^ mapping human history p130-131
- ^ Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda C. Jackson (1995) "Race and Three Models of Human Origin" in American Anthropologist Vol. 97, No. 2, pp. 232-234
- ^ Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda C. Jackson (1995) "Race and Three Models of Human Origin" in American Anthropologist Vol. 97, No. 2, pp. 237
Reviews
- Templeton, AR (2002). "Out of Africa again and again". Nature. 416: 45–51.
- Pearson, Osbjorn M (2004). "Has the Combination of Genetic and Fossil Evidence Solved the Riddle of Modern Human Origins?". Evolutionary Anthropology. 13: 145–159.
- Adams, J (2008). "Human Evolutionary Tree". Nature Education. 1 (1). Macmillian.
- Johanson, Donald C (May 2001). [Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of Africa? Donald Johanson "Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of Africa?"]. ActionBioscience. Retrieved 2009-05-30.
{{cite web}}
: Check|url=
value (help)
External links
- [3] - 'Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans' (pdf) Vinayak Eswaran, Henry Harpending, Alan R. Rogers, Journal of Human Evolution (2005)
- [4] - 'Templeton tree'
- [5] - 'The Hybrid Child from Portugal'
- Biochem. Soc. Trans (2005) 33, 582-585 - J. Hardy and others - Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration (Evidence suggesting that Homo neanderthalensis contributed the H2 MAPT haplotype to Homo sapiens)
- Kent Holsinger's web site - 'Drift and migration' (only 1 migrant per generation between populations of reasonable big sizes can prevent divergence in allelic frequencies)
- Genetics - 'Deep Haplotype Divergence and Long-Range Linkage Disequilibrium at Xp21.1 Provide Evidence That Humans Descend From a Structured Ancestral Population' (first genetic evidence that statistically rejects the null hypothesis that our species descends from a single, historically panmictic population), Daniel Garrigan, Zahra Mobasher, Sarah B. Kingan, Jason A. Wilder, and Michael F. Hammer, University of Arizona, Tucson, Genetics, Vol. 170, 1849-1856, August 2005
- Linfield.edu - 'The Origin of Modern Humans: Multiregional and Replacement Theories', Michael Roberts, Linfield College
- [6] - 'Evidence for Archaic Asian Ancestry on the Human X Chromosome' (suggests ancient RRM2P4 lineage is remnant of introgressive hybrid of anatomically modern humans from Africa and archaic populations in Eurasia), Daniel Garrigan, Zahra Mobasher, Tesa Severson, Jason A. Wilder, Michael F. Hammer, University of Arizona, Tucson, Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol 22, no 2, p 189-192 (2005)
- PNAS.org - 'Mitochondrial DNA sequences in ancient Australians: Implications for modern human origins', Gregory J. Adcock, Elizabeth S. Dennis, Simon Easteal, Gavin A. Huttley, Lars S. Jermiin, W. James Peacock, Alan Thorne, Australian National University, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol 98, no 2, p 537-542 (January 16, 2001)
- StephenJayGould.org - 'Out of Africa vs. Multiregionalism', Tod Billings (December 7, 1999)
- TalkOrigins.org - 'The evolution of modern humans: where are we now?' Christopher B. Stringer, General Anthropology, vol 7, no 2, p 1-5 (2001)
- Selection, nuclear genetic variation, and mtDNA