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{{short description|Grouping of people native to Asia, America, and the Pacific Islands proposed as one of three races by Georges Cuvier}} |
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{{MeyersLexikonEthnographicMap}} |
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'''Mongoloid''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɒ|ŋ|.|g|ə|.|l|ɔɪ|d}}<ref>''Mongoloid.'' (2012). Dictionary.com. Retrieved September 3, 2012, from [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mongoloid?s=t link].</ref><ref>For a contrast with the "Europoid" or [[Caucasian race]] see footnote #4 of page 58-59 in Beckwith, Christopher. (2009). ''Empires of the Silk Road: a History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present''. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-13589-2}}.</ref>) is a grouping of |
'''Mongoloid''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɒ|ŋ|.|g|ə|.|l|ɔɪ|d}}<ref>''Mongoloid.'' (2012). Dictionary.com. Retrieved September 3, 2012, from [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mongoloid?s=t link].</ref><ref>For a contrast with the "Europoid" or [[Caucasian race]] see footnote #4 of page 58-59 in Beckwith, Christopher. (2009). ''Empires of the Silk Road: a History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present''. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-13589-2}}.</ref>) is a grouping of various peoples indigenous to [[Asia]], [[North America]], [[South America]], and the [[Pacific Islands]] (with some exceptions). It is one of the [[Scientific racism#Georges Cuvier|three races]] proposed by [[Georges Cuvier]] in the 18th century, the other two groups being [[Caucasian race|Caucasoid]] and [[Negroid]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}} |
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Individuals within these populations often share certain associated [[Phenotype|phenotypic]] traits, such as [[epicanthic fold]]s, [[Sinodonty and Sundadonty|sino- or sundadonty]], [[shovel-shaped incisors]] and [[Neoteny in humans|neoteny]]. The concept of ''Mongoloid'' races is historical referring to a grouping of human beings historically regarded as a biological [[taxon]]. It is today not widely used by anthropologists as its validity and usefulness in classification is considered highly questionable. |
Individuals within these populations often share certain associated [[Phenotype|phenotypic]] traits, such as [[epicanthic fold]]s, [[Sinodonty and Sundadonty|sino- or sundadonty]], [[shovel-shaped incisors]] and [[Neoteny in humans|neoteny]]. The concept of ''Mongoloid'' races is historical referring to a grouping of human beings historically regarded as a biological [[taxon]]. It is today not widely used by anthropologists as its validity and usefulness in classification is considered highly questionable. |
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Epicanthic folds and oblique [[palpebral fissure]]s are common among Mongoloid individuals. Most exhibit the [[Mongolian spot]] from birth to about age four.<ref name="Mongolian Spot">[http://www.drgreene.com/21_1143.html Mongolian Spot] DrGreen.com</ref><ref>[http://www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/msp/index.htm Mongolian Spot] |
Epicanthic folds and oblique [[palpebral fissure]]s are common among Mongoloid individuals. Most exhibit the [[Mongolian spot]] from birth to about age four years.<ref name="Mongolian Spot">[http://www.drgreene.com/21_1143.html Mongolian Spot] DrGreen.com</ref><ref>[http://www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/msp/index.htm Mongolian Spot] – English information of Mongolian spot, written by Hironao NUMABE, M.D., Tokyo Medical University.</ref> Mongoloids in general have straight, black hair and dark brown almond-shaped eyes, and have relatively flatter faces in comparison to those of Caucasoid and Negroid skulls.<ref name="Montagu, A. 1951">Montagu, A. (1951). An introduction to physical anthropology: A revised second edition. Charles C. Thomas Publisher: Springfield, Illinois, USA.</ref> |
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The concept continues to be in use as a rough categorization of ethnic or racial origin, even though its use even as such in [[forensic anthropology]] has been criticized as too vague as the term covers a very large and diverse group of phenotypes.<ref>Forensic Anthropology. (2017). [[Infobase Publishing]]. Retrieved June 12, 2017, from [http://www.infobasepublishing.com/Bookdetail.aspx?ISBN=0791091988 link.]</ref><!--The information about what Bradley J. Adams said is in the first sentence of the second paragraph of page 44. The word "covers" is a rewording of the source text's word "encompasses". The phrase "group of people" is a rewording of the source text's word "population". The front cover of the book has the words "Inside Forensic Science" before the book's title, but the book's title is written only as "Forensic anthropology" in the "Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data" section in the page before the "Table of Contents" page.--><ref>Adams, Bradley J. (2007). Forensic Anthropology. USA: [[Infobase Publishing|Chelsea House]]. Page 44. {{ISBN|978-0-7910-9198-2}} Retrieved June 12, 2017, from [https://books.google.com/books?id=tZUPBYdqLNsC&pg=PA44 link.]</ref> |
The concept continues to be in use as a rough categorization of ethnic or racial origin, even though its use even as such in [[forensic anthropology]] has been criticized as too vague as the term covers a very large and diverse group of phenotypes.<ref>Forensic Anthropology. (2017). [[Infobase Publishing]]. Retrieved June 12, 2017, from [http://www.infobasepublishing.com/Bookdetail.aspx?ISBN=0791091988 link.]</ref><!--The information about what Bradley J. Adams said is in the first sentence of the second paragraph of page 44. The word "covers" is a rewording of the source text's word "encompasses". The phrase "group of people" is a rewording of the source text's word "population". The front cover of the book has the words "Inside Forensic Science" before the book's title, but the book's title is written only as "Forensic anthropology" in the "Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data" section in the page before the "Table of Contents" page.--><ref>Adams, Bradley J. (2007). Forensic Anthropology. USA: [[Infobase Publishing|Chelsea House]]. Page 44. {{ISBN|978-0-7910-9198-2}} Retrieved June 12, 2017, from [https://books.google.com/books?id=tZUPBYdqLNsC&pg=PA44 link.]</ref> |
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Like controversial "Albinist" to describe "Caucasian" who suffer [[Albinism]], the term ''Mongoloid'' has had a second usage referencing [[Down syndrome]], now generally avoided as highly offensive.<ref name="Smay and Armelagos">{{cite web |last1=Smay |first1=Diana |last2= |
Like controversial "Albinist" to describe "Caucasian" who suffer [[Albinism]], the term ''Mongoloid'' has had a second usage referencing [[Down syndrome]], now generally avoided as highly offensive.<ref name="Smay and Armelagos">{{cite web |last1=Smay |first1=Diana |last2=Armelagos |first2=George |publisher=Emory University |title=Galileo Wept: A Critical Assessment of the Use of Race in Forensic Anthropology |url=http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref><ref name=Lieberman>{{cite journal |last=Lieberman |first=Leonard |title=Out of Our Skulls: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid? |doi=10.1111/an.1997.38.9.56 |volume=38 |issue=9 |journal=Anthropology News |pages=56|year=1997 }}</ref><ref name=Templeton>{{cite web |last=Templeton |first=Alan R. |work=Washington University |title=Human Races: A Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective |url=http://www.realfuture.org/GIST/Readings/Templeton(1998).pdf |format=PDF |publisher=Realfuture.org}}</ref><ref name=Keevak>Keevak, Michael. "Becoming Yellow: A Short History of Racial Thinking". Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-691-14031-5}}.</ref> Those affected were often referred to as "Mongoloids" or in terms of "[[Mongolian idiocy]]" or "Mongolian imbecility". |
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==Geographic range and populations included== |
== Geographic range and populations included == |
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[[File:HM-Hsr.jpg|thumb|<center>Distribution Map of Modern Man ([[Horniman Museum]])</center> |
[[File:HM-Hsr.jpg|thumb|<center>Distribution Map of Modern Man ([[Horniman Museum]])</center> |
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|{{legend|#5CB8E6|[[Caucasian race|Caucasoids]]|}}||{{legend|#723900|[[Australoid race|Australoids]]|}} |
|{{legend|#5CB8E6|[[Caucasian race|Caucasoids]]|}}||{{legend|#723900|[[Australoid race|Australoids]]|}} |
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According to [[historical race concepts]], Mongoloid peoples are the most spread out among all human populations since they have stretched almost completely around the earth's surface. From an [[Asia]]n point of reference, populations range from as far east as [[Greenland]], to as far west as [[Kalmykia]], [[Crimea]], and [[northern Europe]],<ref name="Beckman2001">{{cite journal |author1=L.E. Beckman |author2=K. Sjoberg |author3=S. Eriksson |author4=L. Beckman |year=2001 |title=Haemochromatosis gene mutations in Finns, Swedes and Swedish Saamis |journal=Human Heredity |volume=52 |pages= |
According to [[historical race concepts]], Mongoloid peoples are the most spread out among all human populations since they have stretched almost completely around the earth's surface. From an [[Asia]]n point of reference, populations range from as far east as [[Greenland]], to as far west as [[Kalmykia]], [[Crimea]], and [[northern Europe]],<ref name="Beckman2001">{{cite journal |author1=L.E. Beckman |author2=K. Sjoberg |author3=S. Eriksson |author4=L. Beckman |year=2001 |title=Haemochromatosis gene mutations in Finns, Swedes and Swedish Saamis |journal=Human Heredity |volume=52 |pages=110–112 |pmid=11474212 |issue=2 |doi=10.1159/000053362}}</ref> giving Mongoloid peoples or their descendants a historical presence across four continents. According to the [[Meyers Konversations-Lexikon]] (1885–90), peoples included in the Mongoloid race are [[Indigenous peoples of Siberia|North Mongol]], [[Chinese people|Chinese]] & [[Indochina|Indochinese]], [[Japanese people|Japanese]] & [[Koreans|Korean]], [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] & [[Bamar people|Burmese]], [[Malay race|Malay]], [[Polynesians|Polynesian]], [[Māori people|Maori]], [[Micronesia]]n, [[Eskimo]], and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]].<ref>''[[Meyers Konversations-Lexikon]]'', 4th edition, 1885–90.</ref> |
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In 1856, the "Mongolian" race, using a narrow definition which did not include either the "Malay" or the "American" races, was the second most populous race in the world behind the Caucasian race.<!--This is in the bottom-left data table of page 77.--><ref>Warren, D.M. (1856). <u>A System of Physical Geography</u>. Philadelphia: H. Cowperthwait & Co. pp. 77.</ref> In 1881, the Mongoloid race, using a broad definition which included both Malays<!--bottom of page 57--> and indigenous Americans,<!--page 66--> was the most populous race on Earth,<!--The 1881 statement is in the second paragraph on page 57 of Winchell (1881).--><ref>Winchell, A. (1881). <u>Preadamites; or A Demonstration of the Existence of Men Before Adam; (3rd ed.)</u>. Chicago: S.C. Griggs and Company; London: Trubner & Co. pp. 57.</ref> and it was still the most populous race on Earth in the year 1892, using a narrow definition which did not include either the "Malayan" or the "American" races.<!--In the fifth line of page 239 of Berg & Wendt (2014), it says that the statement about the "most numerous race" is dated to the year 1892, so Berg & Wendt is being used as a secondary source. The statement about the "most numerous race" is found on page 239 about three-quarters of the way down the page. The text indicating that the "Malayan" and "American" races were not being grouped with the "Mongoloid" race in this definition is in the middle and bottom of page 239.--><ref>Berg, M. & Wendt, S. (2014). ''Racism in the Modern World: Historical Perspectives on Cultural Transfer and Adaptation''. Berghahn Books. pp. 239. {{ISBN|978-1-78238-086-3}}</ref> In 2018, the Mongoloid race,which included indigenous Americans,<!--The scope of the definition is indicated in Table 8-11 of page 328.--> comprised 28% of the Earth's human population and |
In 1856, the "Mongolian" race, using a narrow definition which did not include either the "Malay" or the "American" races, was the second most populous race in the world behind the Caucasian race.<!--This is in the bottom-left data table of page 77.--><ref>Warren, D.M. (1856). <u>A System of Physical Geography</u>. Philadelphia: H. Cowperthwait & Co. pp. 77.</ref> In 1881, the Mongoloid race, using a broad definition which included both Malays<!--bottom of page 57--> and indigenous Americans,<!--page 66--> was the most populous race on Earth,<!--The 1881 statement is in the second paragraph on page 57 of Winchell (1881).--><ref>Winchell, A. (1881). <u>Preadamites; or A Demonstration of the Existence of Men Before Adam; (3rd ed.)</u>. Chicago: S.C. Griggs and Company; London: Trubner & Co. pp. 57.</ref> and it was still the most populous race on Earth in the year 1892, using a narrow definition which did not include either the "Malayan" or the "American" races.<!--In the fifth line of page 239 of Berg & Wendt (2014), it says that the statement about the "most numerous race" is dated to the year 1892, so Berg & Wendt is being used as a secondary source. The statement about the "most numerous race" is found on page 239 about three-quarters of the way down the page. The text indicating that the "Malayan" and "American" races were not being grouped with the "Mongoloid" race in this definition is in the middle and bottom of page 239.--><ref>Berg, M. & Wendt, S. (2014). ''Racism in the Modern World: Historical Perspectives on Cultural Transfer and Adaptation''. Berghahn Books. pp. 239. {{ISBN|978-1-78238-086-3}}</ref> In 2018, the Mongoloid race, which included indigenous Americans,<!--The scope of the definition is indicated in Table 8-11 of page 328.--> comprised 28% of the Earth's human population and Caucasoids comprised 21% of the Earth's human population.<!--This is in Table 8-11 on page 328. After the words "Percent of Earth's Population" in the data table, there is the number 95 enclosed in brackets. This indicates that the author is citing his ninety-fifth source here, so Robbins (1994) is being used as a secondary source.--><ref>Robbins, C.R. (1994). ''Chemical and Physical Behavior of Human Hair (3rd ed.)''. New York: Springer Science. pp. 328. {{ISBN|978-1-4757-3898-8}}</ref> |
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The first use of the term ''Mongolian race'' was by [[Christoph Meiners]] in 1785, who divided humanity into two races he labeled "Tartar-Caucasians" and "Mongolians".<ref name=Painter>{{cite web |first=Nell Irvin |last=Painter |authorlink=Nell Irvin Painter |publisher=Yale University |title=Why White People are Called Caucasian? |year=2003 |accessdate=September 27, 2007 |url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Painter.pdf |format=PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020105628/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Painter.pdf |archive-date=October 20, 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all |
The first use of the term ''Mongolian race'' was by [[Christoph Meiners]] in 1785, who divided humanity into two races he labeled "Tartar-Caucasians" and "Mongolians".<ref name=Painter>{{cite web |first=Nell Irvin |last=Painter |authorlink=Nell Irvin Painter |publisher=Yale University |title=Why White People are Called Caucasian? |year=2003 |accessdate=September 27, 2007 |url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Painter.pdf |format=PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020105628/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Painter.pdf |archive-date=October 20, 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all}} Keevak. Becoming Yellow, pp. 74–77</ref><!-- page 34 --> |
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[[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]] said that he borrowed the term ''Mongolian'' from Christoph Meiners to describe the race he designated "second, [which] includes that part of Asia beyond the Ganges and below the river [[Amur River|Amoor]], which looks toward the south, together with the islands and the greater part of these countries which is now called Australian".<!--p.99--><ref name=Blumtreat>Blumenbach, Johann. "The Anthropological Treatise of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach". London: Longman Green, 1865.</ref> |
[[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]] said that he borrowed the term ''Mongolian'' from Christoph Meiners to describe the race he designated "second, [which] includes that part of Asia beyond the Ganges and below the river [[Amur River|Amoor]], which looks toward the south, together with the islands and the greater part of these countries which is now called Australian".<!--p.99--><ref name=Blumtreat>Blumenbach, Johann. "The Anthropological Treatise of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach". London: Longman Green, 1865.</ref> |
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In 1861, [[Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]] added the Australian as a secondary race (subrace) of the principal race of Mongolian.<!--p.282--><ref name=Deniker>Deniker, Joseph. ''The Races of Man: An Outline of Anthropology and Ethnography'' |
In 1861, [[Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]] added the Australian as a secondary race (subrace) of the principal race of Mongolian.<!--p.282--><ref name=Deniker>Deniker, Joseph. ''The Races of Man: An Outline of Anthropology and Ethnography'' |
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C. Scribner's Sons: New York, 1900. {{ISBN|0-8369-5932-9}}</ref> In the nineteenth century [[Georges Cuvier]] used the term ''Mongolian'' again as a racial classification, but additionally included [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indians]] under the term.<ref>[The End of Racism by Dinesh D'Souza, pg 124]</ref> [[Arthur de Gobineau]] defined the extent of the Mongolian race, "by the yellow the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches".<!--p.146--><ref name=Gob>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=JeM_1BCeffAC|year=1915|publisher=Putnam|last=Gobineau|first= |
C. Scribner's Sons: New York, 1900. {{ISBN|0-8369-5932-9}}</ref> In the nineteenth century [[Georges Cuvier]] used the term ''Mongolian'' again as a racial classification, but additionally included [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indians]] under the term.<ref>[The End of Racism by Dinesh D'Souza, pg 124]</ref> [[Arthur de Gobineau]] defined the extent of the Mongolian race, "by the yellow the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches".<!--p.146--><ref name=Gob>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=JeM_1BCeffAC |year=1915 |publisher=Putnam |last=Gobineau |first=Arthur |title=The Inequality of Human Races |accessdate=2007-10-18 |isbn=978-0-86527-430-3}}</ref><!--p.8--><ref name=anthroGob>DiPiero, Thomas. ''White Men Aren't'' gid/s work |
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Duke University Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-8223-2961-1}}</ref> Later, [[Thomas Huxley]] used the term ''Mongoloid'' and included American Indians as well as Arctic Native Americans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/SM3/GeoDis.html |title=Huxley, Thomas, On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. 1870. August 14, 2006 |publisher=Aleph0.clarku.edu |accessdate=2013-12-15}}</ref> Other terms were proposed, such as ''Mesochroi'' (middle color),<ref>James Dallas, "On the Primary Divisions and Geographical Distributions of Mankind", 1886 ''Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'', p.304-30. James describes this as "equivalent to Professor Huxley's Mongoloid division" and as encompassing "Mongols and American Indians"</ref> but ''Mongoloid'' was widely adopted. |
Duke University Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-8223-2961-1}}</ref> Later, [[Thomas Huxley]] used the term ''Mongoloid'' and included American Indians as well as Arctic Native Americans.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/SM3/GeoDis.html |title=Huxley, Thomas, On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. 1870. August 14, 2006 |publisher=Aleph0.clarku.edu |accessdate=2013-12-15}}</ref> Other terms were proposed, such as ''Mesochroi'' (middle color),<ref>James Dallas, "On the Primary Divisions and Geographical Distributions of Mankind", 1886 ''Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'', p.304-30. James describes this as "equivalent to Professor Huxley's Mongoloid division" and as encompassing "Mongols and American Indians"</ref> but ''Mongoloid'' was widely adopted. |
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In 1909, a map published based on racial classifications conceived by [[Herbert Hope Risley]] classified inhabitants of [[Bengal]] and parts of [[Odisha]] as ''Mongolo-Dravidians'', people of mixed Mongoloid and [[Dravidian people|Dravidian]] origin.<ref>{{ |
In 1909, a map published based on racial classifications conceived by [[Herbert Hope Risley]] classified inhabitants of [[Bengal]] and parts of [[Odisha]] as ''Mongolo-Dravidians'', people of mixed Mongoloid and [[Dravidian people|Dravidian]] origin.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=PwNkQgAACAAJ |title=The Concept of Race in South Asia |first=Peter |last=Robb |date=21 April 1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-19-564268-1 }}</ref> Similarly in 1904, [[Ponnambalam Arunachalam]] claimed the [[Sinhalese people]] of [[Sri Lanka]] were a people of mixed ''Mongolian'' and ''[[Malay race|Malay]]'' racial origins as well as ''[[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]]'', ''Dravidian'' and [[Vedda]] origins.<ref>http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2097/32648/StefanSchubert2016.pdf?sequence=1</ref> Howard S. Stoudt in ''The Physical Anthropology of Ceylon'' (1961) and [[Carleton S. Coon]] in ''The Living Races of Man'' (1966) classified the Sinhalese as partly Mongoloid.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1525/aa.1963.65.3.02a00260 |volume=65 |issue=3 |title=: The Physical Anthropology of Ceylon. Howard W. Stoudt. |journal=American Anthropologist |pages=694–695|year=1963 |last1=Angel |first1=J. Lawrence }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/?id=qepKAAAAYAAJ |title=The living races of man |first1=Carleton Stevens |last1=Coon |first2=Edward E. |last2=Hunt |date=21 April 1966 |publisher=Cape |via=Google Books}}</ref> In 1927, [[Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt]] classified people from Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, East India, parts of Northeast India, western Myanmar and Sri Lanka as ''East Brachid'', referring to people of mixed ''Indid'' and ''South Mongolid'' origins.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=29535004 |title=Die Indien-Expedition des Staatlichen Forschungsinstituts für Völkerkunde in Leipzig. 1. Anthropologischer Bericht |first=Egon Frhr. |last=von Eickstedt |date=21 April 2018 |journal=Anthropologischer Anzeiger |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=208–219}}</ref> ''East Brachid'' is another term for Risley's ''Mongolo-Dravidian''.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dDrYsjGq35wC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Anthropology |first1=Ram Nath |last1=Sharma |first2=Rajendra K. |last2=Sharma |date=21 April 1997 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |via=Google Books|isbn=9788171566730 }}</ref> Eickstedt also classified the people of central Myanmar, Yunnan, southern Tibet, Thailand and parts of India as ''Palaungid'' deriving from the name of the [[Palaung people]] of Myanmar. The Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Shan, Sri Lankans, Tai, South Chinese, Munda and Juang, among others were classified as having "mixed" with the ''Palaungid'' phenotype according to Eickstedt.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ykgRAQAAMAAJ |title=Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der Menschheit |first=Egon von |last=Eickstedt |date=21 April 2018 |publisher=F. Enke |via=Google Books}}</ref> |
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In 1940, anthropologist [[Franz Boas]] included the American race as part of the Mongoloid race of which he mentioned the [[Aztec]]s of [[Mexico]] and the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] of [[Yucatán (state)|Yucatán]].<ref name="Boas" /> Boas also said that, out of the races of the [[Old World]], the American native had features most similar to the east Asiatic.<ref name="Boas">Boas, F. (1940). ''Race, language, and culture''. New York: Macmillan.</ref> |
In 1940, anthropologist [[Franz Boas]] included the American race as part of the Mongoloid race of which he mentioned the [[Aztec]]s of [[Mexico]] and the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] of [[Yucatán (state)|Yucatán]].<ref name="Boas" /> Boas also said that, out of the races of the [[Old World]], the American native had features most similar to the east Asiatic.<ref name="Boas">Boas, F. (1940). ''Race, language, and culture''. New York: Macmillan.</ref> |
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In 1981, Elizabeth Smithgall Watts who taught anthropology at [[Tulane University]]<ref>Anemone, R. L. (1996). Obituary: Elizabeth Smithgall Watts ( |
In 1981, Elizabeth Smithgall Watts who taught anthropology at [[Tulane University]]<ref>Anemone, R. L. (1996). Obituary: Elizabeth Smithgall Watts (1941–1994). In American Journal of Physical Anthropology. (99)221-222. [https://www.academia.edu/503731/Obituary_Elizabeth_Smithgall_Watts_1941_1994_ link]</ref> said that the question of American Indians being a separate race from "Asiatic Mongoloids" is a question of how much genetic difference a population needs from another population to be considered a "major race". She said that even the people who consider American Indians to be a separate race acknowledge that they are genetically closest to "Asians".<!-- This is on page 17 and 18 of the original article, and it is on page 161 to 162 of the 1997 compilation book entitled "The Concept of Race in Natural and Social Science" by E. Nathaniel Gates that includes the original article. --><ref>Watts, E.S. (1981). "The Biological Race Concept and Diseases of Modern Man." In Biocultural Aspects of Disease. New York: Academic Press.</ref> |
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In 1983, [[Douglas J. Futuyma]], professor of evolutionary processes at the [[University of Michigan]], said that the inclusion of Native Americans and Pacific Islanders under the Mongoloid race was not recognized by many anthropologists who consider them distinct races.<ref name=Futuyma>Futuyma, Douglas A. Evolutionary Biology. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, 1983. p. 520</ref> |
In 1983, [[Douglas J. Futuyma]], professor of evolutionary processes at the [[University of Michigan]], said that the inclusion of Native Americans and Pacific Islanders under the Mongoloid race was not recognized by many anthropologists who consider them distinct races.<ref name=Futuyma>Futuyma, Douglas A. Evolutionary Biology. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, 1983. p. 520</ref> |
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In 1984, Roger J. Lederer, Professor of Biological Sciences at [[California State University, Chico|California State University at Chico]],<ref>{{cite web |publisher=California State University, Chico |title= |
In 1984, Roger J. Lederer, Professor of Biological Sciences at [[California State University, Chico|California State University at Chico]],<ref>{{cite web |publisher=California State University, Chico |title=University Catalog |accessdate=September 28, 2007 |year=2003 |url=http://www.csuchico.edu/catalog/cat03/programs/biol/faculty.html}}</ref> separately listed the Mongoloid race from Pacific islanders and American Indians when he enumerated the "geographical variants of the same species known as races...we recognize several races, Inuit, American Indians, Mongoloid... Polynesian".<ref>Lederer Roger J. ''Ecology and Field Biology.'' Cummings Publishing Company: California, 1984. {{ISBN|0-8053-5718-1}} p.129</ref> |
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In 1995, Dr. [[Marta Mirazón Lahr]] of the Department of Biological Anthropology at [[Cambridge University]] used the term ''Mongoloid'' to refer to [[Asian people|Asian populations]], [[Indigenous Australians]], [[Pacific Islander]]s, [[Negrito]]s, and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindians]], classifying Northeast Asians as ''typical Mongoloids'' and all other ''Mongoloid'' groups as ''atypical Mongoloids''.<ref name="Lahr" /> |
In 1995, Dr. [[Marta Mirazón Lahr]] of the Department of Biological Anthropology at [[Cambridge University]] used the term ''Mongoloid'' to refer to [[Asian people|Asian populations]], [[Indigenous Australians]], [[Pacific Islander]]s, [[Negrito]]s, and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindians]], classifying Northeast Asians as ''typical Mongoloids'' and all other ''Mongoloid'' groups as ''atypical Mongoloids''.<ref name="Lahr" /> |
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[[Finns]] were previously considered by some scholars to be partly Mongoloid, dating to claims by [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]]. Finns (and other Finno-Ugrians in Europe) are now considered typically European.<ref name="Niskanen" |
[[Finns]] were previously considered by some scholars to be partly Mongoloid, dating to claims by [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]]. Finns (and other Finno-Ugrians in Europe) are now considered typically European.<ref name="Niskanen">Niskanen, M. (2002). The Origin of the Baltic-Finns from the Physical Anthropological Point of View. ''Mankind Quarterly'' Volume XLIII Number 2, Winter. p. 125</ref> Less than 10% of Finnish genes are shared with [[Siberian]] populations. Nevertheless, more than 80% of Finnish genes are from a single ancient Northeastern European population.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=2 |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |last2=Patterson |first2=Nick |last3=Mittnik |first3=Alissa |last4=Renaud |first4=Gabriel |last5=Mallick |first5=Swapan |last6=Kirsanow |first6=Karola |last7=Sudmant |first7=Peter H. |last8=Schraiber |first8=Joshua G. |last9=Castellano |first9=Sergi |last10=Lipson |first10=Mark |last11=Berger |first11=Bonnie |last12=Economou |first12=Christos |last13=Bollongino |first13=Ruth |last14=Fu |first14=Qiaomei |last15=Bos |first15=Kirsten I. |last16=Nordenfelt |first16=Susanne |last17=Li |first17=Heng |last18=de Filippo |first18=Cesare |last19=Prüfer |first19=Kay |last20=Sawyer |first20=Susanna |last21=Posth |first21=Cosimo |last22=Haak |first22=Wolfgang |last23=Hallgren |first23=Fredrik |last24=Fornander |first24=Elin |last25=Rohland |first25=Nadin |last26=Delsate |first26=Dominique |last27=Francken |first27=Michael |last28=Guinet |first28=Jean-Michel |last29=Wahl |first29=Joachim |last30=Ayodo |first30=George |last31=Babiker |first31=Hamza A. |last32=Bailliet |first32=Graciela |last33=Balanovska |first33=Elena |last34=Balanovsky |first34=Oleg |last35=Barrantes |first35=Ramiro |last36=Bedoya |first36=Gabriel |last37=Ben-Ami |first37=Haim |last38=Bene |first38=Judit |last39=Berrada |first39=Fouad |last40=Bravi |first40=Claudio M. |last41=Brisighelli |first41=Francesca |last42=Busby |first42=George B. J. |last43=Cali |first43=Francesco |last44=Churnosov |first44=Mikhail |last45=Cole |first45=David E. C. |last46=Corach |first46=Daniel |last47=Damba |first47=Larissa |last48=van Driem |first48=George |last49=Dryomov |first49=Stanislav |last50=Dugoujon |first50=Jean-Michel |last51=Fedorova |first51=Sardana A. |last52=Gallego Romero |first52=Irene |last53=Gubina |first53=Marina |last54=Hammer |first54=Michael |last55=Henn |first55=Brenna M. |last56=Hervig |first56=Tor |last57=Hodoglugil |first57=Ugur |last58=Jha |first58=Aashish R. |last59=Karachanak-Yankova |first59=Sena |last60=Khusainova |first60=Rita |last61=Khusnutdinova |first61=Elza |last62=Kittles |first62=Rick |last63=Kivisild |first63=Toomas |last64=Klitz |first64=William |last65=Kučinskas |first65=Vaidutis |last66=Kushniarevich |first66=Alena |last67=Laredj |first67=Leila |last68=Litvinov |first68=Sergey |last69=Loukidis |first69=Theologos |last70=Mahley |first70=Robert W. |last71=Melegh |first71=Béla |last72=Metspalu |first72=Ene |last73=Molina |first73=Julio |last74=Mountain |first74=Joanna |last75=Näkkäläjärvi |first75=Klemetti |last76=Nesheva |first76=Desislava |last77=Nyambo |first77=Thomas |last78=Osipova |first78=Ludmila |last79=Parik |first79=Jüri |last80=Platonov |first80=Fedor |last81=Posukh |first81=Olga |last82=Romano |first82=Valentino |last83=Rothhammer |first83=Francisco |last84=Rudan |first84=Igor |last85=Ruizbakiev |first85=Ruslan |last86=Sahakyan |first86=Hovhannes |last87=Sajantila |first87=Antti |last88=Salas |first88=Antonio |last89=Starikovskaya |first89=Elena B. |last90=Tarekegn |first90=Ayele |last91=Toncheva |first91=Draga |last92=Turdikulova |first92=Shahlo |last93=Uktveryte |first93=Ingrida |last94=Utevska |first94=Olga |last95=Vasquez |first95=René |last96=Villena |first96=Mercedes |last97=Voevoda |first97=Mikhail |last98=Winkler |first98=Cheryl A. |last99=Yepiskoposyan |first99=Levon |last100=Zalloua |first100=Pierre |last101=Zemunik |first101=Tatijana |last102=Cooper |first102=Alan |last103=Capelli |first103=Cristian |last104=Thomas |first104=Mark G. |last105=Ruiz-Linares |first105=Andres |last106=Tishkoff |first106=Sarah A. |last107=Singh |first107=Lalji |last108=Thangaraj |first108=Kumarasamy |last109=Villems |first109=Richard |last110=Comas |first110=David |last111=Sukernik |first111=Rem |last112=Metspalu |first112=Mait |last113=Meyer |first113=Matthias |last114=Eichler |first114=Evan E. |last115=Burger |first115=Joachim |last116=Slatkin |first116=Montgomery |last117=Pääbo |first117=Svante |last118=Kelso |first118=Janet |last119=Reich |first119=David |last120=Krause |first120=Johannes |title=Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans |journal=Nature |date=18 September 2014 |volume=513 |issue=7518 |pages=409–413 |doi=10.1038/nature13673 |pmid=25230663 |arxiv=1312.6639 |pmc=4170574 |bibcode=2014Natur.513..409L}}</ref> |
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The [[Sami people]] of the [[Finno-Ugric peoples|Finno-Ugric branch]] are also included as ''Mongoloid'' as of their genes, origin and physical appearance,<ref name="Beckman2001"/> although dating perhaps to as far back as the Bronze-age many of the indigenous people have received some [[Nordic race|Nordic]] genes through mixing of the local population between the [[Scandinavia]]n people and the aboriginals in the [[Sápmi]] region.{{Ref|a|1}} |
The [[Sami people]] of the [[Finno-Ugric peoples|Finno-Ugric branch]] are also included as ''Mongoloid'' as of their genes, origin and physical appearance,<ref name="Beckman2001" /> although dating perhaps to as far back as the Bronze-age many of the indigenous people have received some [[Nordic race|Nordic]] genes through mixing of the local population between the [[Scandinavia]]n people and the aboriginals in the [[Sápmi]] region.{{Ref|a|1}} |
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==Subraces== |
== Subraces == |
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[[File:Carleton Coon races after Pleistocene.PNG|thumb|Distribution of the races after the [[Pleistocene]] according to [[Carleton S. Coon|Carleton Coon]] (1962). |
[[File:Carleton Coon races after Pleistocene.PNG|thumb|Distribution of the races after the [[Pleistocene]] according to [[Carleton S. Coon|Carleton Coon]] (1962). |
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{| |
{| |
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| style="background-color:lime; width:1.0em" | |
| style="background-color:lime; width:1.0em" | |
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| [[Caucasoid]] |
| [[Caucasoid]] |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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==History of the concept== |
== History of the concept == |
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The earliest systematic use of the term was by Blumenbach in ''De generis humani varietate nativa'' (''On the Natural Variety of Mankind'', University of Göttingen, first published in 1775, re-issued with alteration of the title-page in 1776). Blumenbach included East and Southeast Asians, but not Native Americans or Malays, who were each assigned separate categories. |
The earliest systematic use of the term was by Blumenbach in ''De generis humani varietate nativa'' (''On the Natural Variety of Mankind'', University of Göttingen, first published in 1775, re-issued with alteration of the title-page in 1776). Blumenbach included East and Southeast Asians, but not Native Americans or Malays, who were each assigned separate categories. |
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[[File:Huxley races.png|thumb|left|300px|[[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley's]] map of racial categories from ''On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind'' (1870)<ref name=Huxley>[[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley, T. H.]] [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/SM3/GeoDis.html On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind] (1870) ''Journal of the Ethnological Society of London''. Huxley indicates that he has omitted certain areas with complex ethnic compositions that do not fit into his racial paradigm, including much of the Indian subcontinent and Horn of Africa. (Huxley, Thomas (1873). Critiques and Addresses by Thomas Henry Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. Macmillan and Company. p. 153.) By the late nineteenth century, his Xanthochroi group had been redefined as the [[Nordic race]], whereas his Melanochroi became the [[Mediterranean race]]. As such, Huxley's Melanochroi eventually also comprised various other dark Caucasoid populations, including the [[Hamitic|Hamites]] and [[Moors]]. (Gregory, John Walter (1931). Race as a Political Factor. Watts & Company. p. 19. Retrieved 8 May 2016.)</ref> |
[[File:Huxley races.png|thumb|left|300px|[[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley's]] map of racial categories from ''On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind'' (1870)<ref name=Huxley>[[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley, T. H.]] [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/SM3/GeoDis.html On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind] (1870) ''Journal of the Ethnological Society of London''. Huxley indicates that he has omitted certain areas with complex ethnic compositions that do not fit into his racial paradigm, including much of the Indian subcontinent and Horn of Africa. (Huxley, Thomas (1873). Critiques and Addresses by Thomas Henry Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. Macmillan and Company. p. 153.) By the late nineteenth century, his Xanthochroi group had been redefined as the [[Nordic race]], whereas his Melanochroi became the [[Mediterranean race]]. As such, Huxley's Melanochroi eventually also comprised various other dark Caucasoid populations, including the [[Hamitic|Hamites]] and [[Moors]]. (Gregory, John Walter (1931). Race as a Political Factor. Watts & Company. p. 19. Retrieved 8 May 2016.)</ref> |
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{{legend|#a14308|1: [[ |
{{legend|#a14308|1: [[Bushmen]]}} |
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{{legend|#682b05|2: [[ |
{{legend|#682b05|2: [[Negroes]]}} |
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{{legend|#060606|3: [[ |
{{legend|#060606|3: [[Negritoes]]}} |
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{{legend|#ffcccc|4: [[ |
{{legend|#ffcccc|4: [[Melanochroi]] (including [[Hamitic|Hamites]] and [[Moors]])}} |
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{{legend|#328a85|5: [[ |
{{legend|#328a85|5: [[Australoids]]}} |
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{{legend|#ff0000|6: [[ |
{{legend|#ff0000|6: [[Xanthochroi]]}} |
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{{legend|#efc417|7: [[ |
{{legend|#efc417|7: [[Polynesians]]}} |
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{{legend|#c6520a|8: [[ |
{{legend|#c6520a|8: [[Mongoloids A]]}} |
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{{legend|#cb780a|8: [[ |
{{legend|#cb780a|8: [[Mongoloids B]]}} |
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{{legend|#cb970a|8: [[ |
{{legend|#cb970a|8: [[Mongoloids C]]}} |
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{{legend|#f9b90d|9: [[ |
{{legend|#f9b90d|9: [[Esquimaux]]}}]] |
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Mahinder Kumar Bhasin ({{lang-hi|महेंद्र कुमार भसीन}}) of the Department of Anthropology at the [[University of Delhi]] suggested in a review of an article referencing Mourant 1983 that "The Caucasoids and the Mongoloid almost certainly became differentiated from one another somewhere in Asia" and that "Another differentiation, which probably took place in Asia, is that of the Australoids, perhaps from a common type before the separation of the Mongoloids".<ref name="bhasin">{{cite journal|url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/IJHG/IJHG-06-0-000-000-2006-Web/IJHG-06-3-177-280-2006-Abst-PDF/IJHG-06-3-233-274-2006-000-Bhasin-M-K/IJHG-06-3-233-274-2006-000-Bhasin-M-K-Text.PDF|last=Bhasin|first=M.K.|title=Genetics of Caste and Tribes of India: Indian Population Milieu|journal=Int J Hum Genet|volume=6|issue=3|page=244|year=2006 |
Mahinder Kumar Bhasin ({{lang-hi|महेंद्र कुमार भसीन}}) of the Department of Anthropology at the [[University of Delhi]] suggested in a review of an article referencing Mourant 1983 that "The Caucasoids and the Mongoloid almost certainly became differentiated from one another somewhere in Asia" and that "Another differentiation, which probably took place in Asia, is that of the Australoids, perhaps from a common type before the separation of the Mongoloids".<ref name="bhasin">{{cite journal |url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/IJHG/IJHG-06-0-000-000-2006-Web/IJHG-06-3-177-280-2006-Abst-PDF/IJHG-06-3-233-274-2006-000-Bhasin-M-K/IJHG-06-3-233-274-2006-000-Bhasin-M-K-Text.PDF |last=Bhasin |first=M.K. |title=Genetics of Caste and Tribes of India: Indian Population Milieu |journal=Int J Hum Genet |volume=6 |issue=3 |page=244 |year=2006 |accessdate=2007-10-22}}</ref> |
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Paleo-anthropologist [[Milford Wolpoff]] and Rachel Caspari characterize "his [Carleton Coon's] contention [as being] that the Mongoloid race crossed the 'sapiens threshold' first and thereby evolved the furthest".<!--pg. 157--><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=gjYvEunARoYC|author1=Milford Wolpoff |
Paleo-anthropologist [[Milford Wolpoff]] and Rachel Caspari characterize "his [Carleton Coon's] contention [as being] that the Mongoloid race crossed the 'sapiens threshold' first and thereby evolved the furthest".<!--pg. 157--><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=gjYvEunARoYC |author1=Milford Wolpoff |author2=Rachel Caspari |lastauthoramp=yes |title=Race and Human Evolution: A Fatal Attraction |publisher=Westview Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8133-3546-9}}</ref> |
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[[Douglas J. Futuyma]], professor of evolutionary processes at the [[University of Michigan]], said the Mongoloid race "diverged 41,000 years ago" from a Mongoloid and Caucasoid group which diverged from Negroids "110,000 years ago".<!--p.522--><ref name=Futuyma /> |
[[Douglas J. Futuyma]], professor of evolutionary processes at the [[University of Michigan]], said the Mongoloid race "diverged 41,000 years ago" from a Mongoloid and Caucasoid group which diverged from Negroids "110,000 years ago".<!--p.522--><ref name=Futuyma /> |
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In 1996, professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, [[Kyoto]], said Mongoloids originated in [[Xinjiang]] during the "[[Quaternary glaciation|Ice Age]]".<ref name="Takeru" /> |
In 1996, professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, [[Kyoto]], said Mongoloids originated in [[Xinjiang]] during the "[[Quaternary glaciation|Ice Age]]".<ref name="Takeru" /> |
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[[File:Navajo Cowboy-1.jpg|thumb|[[Navajo]], North American Indian. [[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas| |
[[File:Navajo Cowboy-1.jpg|thumb|[[Navajo]], North American Indian. [[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|Amerindians]] are New World Mongoloids, which diverged from the [[Northern Mongoloid]]s in [[Northeast Asia]] after they entered the [[Americas]].]] |
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In 1999, Peter Brown of the Department of Anthropology and Paleoanthropology at the [[University of New England (Australia)|University of New England]] evaluated three sites with early East Asian [[modern human]] skeletal remains (Liujiang, [[Liuzhou]], [[Guangxi]], China; Shandingdong Man of (but not [[Peking Man]]) [[Zhoukoudian]]'s Upper Cave; and [[Minatogawa Man|Minatogawa]] in [[Okinawa]]) dated to between 10,175 and 33,200 years ago, and finds lack of support for the conventional designation of skeletons from this period as "Proto-Mongoloid". He stated that "The colonisation of the Americas by 11 kyr indicates an earlier date for the appearance of distinctively East Asian features, however, the earliest unequivocal evidence for anatomically East Asian people on the Asian mainland remains at 7000 years BP." He saw this as "possibility that migration across the Bering Strait went in two directions and the first morphological Mongoloids evolved in the Americas."<ref>{{cite web|author=Peter Brown|publisher=Department of Anthropology and Paleoanthropology, University of New England|title=The First Modern East Asians? another Look at Upper Cave 101, Liujiang, and Minatogawa|year=1999|accessdate= |
In 1999, Peter Brown of the Department of Anthropology and Paleoanthropology at the [[University of New England (Australia)|University of New England]] evaluated three sites with early East Asian [[modern human]] skeletal remains (Liujiang, [[Liuzhou]], [[Guangxi]], China; Shandingdong Man of (but not [[Peking Man]]) [[Zhoukoudian]]'s Upper Cave; and [[Minatogawa Man|Minatogawa]] in [[Okinawa]]) dated to between 10,175 and 33,200 years ago, and finds lack of support for the conventional designation of skeletons from this period as "Proto-Mongoloid". He stated that "The colonisation of the Americas by 11 kyr indicates an earlier date for the appearance of distinctively East Asian features, however, the earliest unequivocal evidence for anatomically East Asian people on the Asian mainland remains at 7000 years BP." He saw this as "possibility that migration across the Bering Strait went in two directions and the first morphological Mongoloids evolved in the Americas."<ref>{{cite web |author=Peter Brown |publisher=Department of Anthropology and Paleoanthropology, University of New England |title=The First Modern East Asians? another Look at Upper Cave 101, Liujiang, and Minatogawa |year=1999 |accessdate=2007-09-23 |url=http://www.peterbrown-palaeoanthropology.net/brown99.pdf |work=K. Omoto (ed.) Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese, International Research Center for Japanese Studies: Kyoto |pages=105–130}}</ref> |
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In 2006, Yali [[Xue]] ({{zh|c=薛雅丽}}) et al. of the genome research [[Sanger Institute]] conducted a study of [[linkage disequilibrium]] that said that northern populations in East Asia started to expand in number between 34 and 22 [[tya (unit)|thousand years ago]], before the [[last glacial maximum]] at 21–18 KYA, while southern populations |
In 2006, Yali [[Xue]] ({{zh|c=薛雅丽}}) et al. of the genome research [[Sanger Institute]] conducted a study of [[linkage disequilibrium]] that said that northern populations in East Asia started to expand in number between 34 and 22 [[tya (unit)|thousand years ago]], before the [[last glacial maximum]] at 21–18 KYA, while southern populations |
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started to expand between 18 and 12 KYA, but then grew faster, and suggests that the northern populations expanded earlier because they could exploit the abundant [[megafauna]] of the "[[Steppe-tundra|Mammoth Steppe]]", while the southern populations could increase in number only when a warmer and more stable climate led to more plentiful plant resources such as [[tuber]]s.<ref>{{ |
started to expand between 18 and 12 KYA, but then grew faster, and suggests that the northern populations expanded earlier because they could exploit the abundant [[megafauna]] of the "[[Steppe-tundra|Mammoth Steppe]]", while the southern populations could increase in number only when a warmer and more stable climate led to more plentiful plant resources such as [[tuber]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times |journal=Genetics |volume=172 |issue=4 |pages=2431–2439 |url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint/172/4/2431.pdf |year=2006 |doi=10.1534/genetics.105.054270 |pmid=16489223 |pmc=1456369 |accessdate=2007-09-29 |author=Yali Xue,*,†,‡ Tatiana Zerjal,*,‡ Weidong Bao,‡,§ Suling Zhu,‡,§ Qunfang Shu,§ Jiujin Xu,§ Ruofu Du,§ Songbin Fu; † Pu Li; † Matthew E. Hurles,* Huanming Yang** and Chris Tyler-Smith*,‡,1}}</ref> |
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==Racial depiction== |
== Racial depiction == |
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{{See also|Epicanthal fold}} |
{{See also|Epicanthal fold}} |
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[[File:Mongoloid eye Kalmuk girl.png|thumb|A drawing of a "Mongoloid" eye according to French anthropologist [[Joseph Deniker]] showing a Russian [[Kalmyks|Kalmyk]]]] |
[[File:Mongoloid eye Kalmuk girl.png|thumb|A drawing of a "Mongoloid" eye according to French anthropologist [[Joseph Deniker]] showing a Russian [[Kalmyks|Kalmyk]]]] |
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In 1919, [[John Cameron (anatomist)|John Cameron]] wrote that vertical distances of the openings of the eye sockets of Mongoloids are the longest, the vertical distances of the openings of the eye sockets of Europeans are intermediate, and the vertical distances of the openings of the eye sockets of aboriginal Australians and Melanesians are the shortest.<!--In the last sentence of the third paragraph of page 412, Cameron said, "However variable the orbital index may be, it certainly indicates to us that the vertical dimensions of the orbital aperture are greatest in the mongoloid races and least in the aboriginal Australians and Melanesians, <sup>(30)</sup> with the European races occupying an intermediate position."--><ref>Cameron, J. (1919). Two Remarkable Skulls from the New Hebrides: An Anthropological and Ethnological Study. In [[Nova Scotian Institute of Science|Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science]].<!--The name of the journal is abbreviated at the bottom of page 403 as "Proc. & Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci."--> 14(26).<!--The volume number of the journal (14) is written in Roman numerals as XIV at the bottom of page 403 in the source text. The journal issue number (26) is written to the right of XIV.--> Page 412. Retrieved January 18, 2017, from [http://dalspace.library.dal.ca/bitstream/handle/10222/12982/v14_p4_a4_Cameron_two_remarkable_skulls_New_Hebrides.pdf link].</ref> |
In 1919, [[John Cameron (anatomist)|John Cameron]] wrote that vertical distances of the openings of the eye sockets of Mongoloids are the longest, the vertical distances of the openings of the eye sockets of Europeans are intermediate, and the vertical distances of the openings of the eye sockets of aboriginal Australians and Melanesians are the shortest.<!--In the last sentence of the third paragraph of page 412, Cameron said, "However variable the orbital index may be, it certainly indicates to us that the vertical dimensions of the orbital aperture are greatest in the mongoloid races and least in the aboriginal Australians and Melanesians, <sup>(30)</sup> with the European races occupying an intermediate position."--><ref>Cameron, J. (1919). Two Remarkable Skulls from the New Hebrides: An Anthropological and Ethnological Study. In [[Nova Scotian Institute of Science|Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science]].<!--The name of the journal is abbreviated at the bottom of page 403 as "Proc. & Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci."--> 14(26).<!--The volume number of the journal (14) is written in Roman numerals as XIV at the bottom of page 403 in the source text. The journal issue number (26) is written to the right of XIV.--> Page 412. Retrieved January 18, 2017, from [http://dalspace.library.dal.ca/bitstream/handle/10222/12982/v14_p4_a4_Cameron_two_remarkable_skulls_New_Hebrides.pdf link].</ref> |
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In 1963, William Loomis wrote that Mongoloids have "''yellowish skin''", because the [[stratum corneum]] of Mongoloid skin contains lots of "''disks of [[keratin]]''".<!--This information is in the second sentence of the second paragraph that starts with "Thomson has shown" of the left-most column of numbered page 505 which is the seventh page of the PDF document. The phrase "contains lots of" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "is packed with".--><ref>{{cite journal |author=Loomis, W.F. |year=1967 |title=Skin-Pigment Regulation of Vitamin-D Biosynthesis in Man |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=157 |issue=3788 |pages=501–506 |doi=10.1126/science.157.3788.501 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/17157192 |pmid=6028915 |bibcode=1967Sci...157..501F}}</ref> |
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In |
In 1953, Dentist Stephen Kolas wrote that [[Torus palatinus|Palatine tori]] and [[Torus mandibularis|mandibular tori]] are more commonly present in Mongoloids than in Caucasians and Negroids.<!--This information is in the very last sentence of the article's abstract. The phrase "more commonly present" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "occur with greater frequency".--><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kolas, S.|display-authors=etal |year=1953 |title=The occurrence of torus palatinus and torus mandibularis in 2,478 dental patients |journal=[[Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, and Oral Radiology]] |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=1134–1141 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0030422053902254 |doi=10.1016/0030-4220(53)90225-4}}</ref> |
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Also in 1963, writing about Eskimos and Aleuts, W. S. Laughlin may have written there are "''many Mongoloid groups''" that characteristically have "''enormously broad [[ramus of the mandible|ascending ramus]]''".<!--This information is in the caption of the mandible photograph at the top of numbered page 639 which is the seventh page of the PDF document.--><ref>{{cite journal|author=Laughlin, W.S.|year=1963|title=Eskimos and Aleuts: Their Origins and Evolution|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=142|issue=3593|pages=639|doi=10.1126/science.142.3593.633|bibcode=1963Sci...142..633L}}</ref> |
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In 1953, Dentist Stephen Kolas wrote that [[Torus palatinus|Palatine tori]] and [[Torus mandibularis|mandibular tori]] are more commonly present in Mongoloids than in Caucasians and Negroids.<!--This information is in the very last sentence of the article's abstract. The phrase "more commonly present" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "occur with greater frequency".--><ref>{{cite journal|author=Kolas, S.|display-authors=etal|year=1953|title=The occurrence of torus palatinus and torus mandibularis in 2,478 dental patients|journal=[[Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, and Oral Radiology]]|volume=6|issue=9|pages=1134–1141|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0030422053902254|doi=10.1016/0030-4220(53)90225-4}}</ref> |
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A "''[[Torus mandibularis|mandibular torus]]''" is a trait that commonly occurs in "''Mongoloid populations''".<!--This information is in the paragraph that starts with "With all specimens considered" which is the third paragraph of page 116.--><ref>Wu, R. & Olsen, J.W. (2009). Paleoanthropology and Paleolithic Archaeology in the People's Republic of China. USA: Left Coast Press, Inc. Page 116.</ref> |
A "''[[Torus mandibularis|mandibular torus]]''" is a trait that commonly occurs in "''Mongoloid populations''".<!--This information is in the paragraph that starts with "With all specimens considered" which is the third paragraph of page 116.--><ref>Wu, R. & Olsen, J.W. (2009). Paleoanthropology and Paleolithic Archaeology in the People's Republic of China. USA: Left Coast Press, Inc. Page 116.</ref> |
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A 1992 study compared the features of North African skull samples dated to the [[Late Pleistocene]] against purported<!--The word "purported" is a rewording of the source text's word "supposed".--> "mongoloid" and "australoid" features. The study found that the skull samples had at "moderate to high frequencies" the "Chinese features" of shovel-shaped incisors and a horizontally flat face,<!--The phrase "horizontally flat face" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "transversely flat face". The word "transverse" means at right angles with the longest axis, so it means at right angles with the vertical axis in this instance.--> and the study found that the skull samples had at "moderate to high frequencies" the "southeast Asian traits" of a high degree of prognathism, strong brow ridges, projecting cheekbones<!--The phrase "strong brow ridges" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "strong supraorbital region", and the phrase "projecting cheekbones" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "everted malars".--> and "[[Zygomatic bone|malar]] [[wikt:tuberosity|tuberosities]]".<!--This information is in the last paragraph of page 195.--><ref>Clark, G.A. & Willermet, C.M. (1997). Conceptual Issues in Modern Human Origins Research. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. page 195.</ref> |
A 1992 study compared the features of North African skull samples dated to the [[Late Pleistocene]] against purported<!--The word "purported" is a rewording of the source text's word "supposed".--> "mongoloid" and "australoid" features. The study found that the skull samples had at "moderate to high frequencies" the "Chinese features" of shovel-shaped incisors and a horizontally flat face,<!--The phrase "horizontally flat face" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "transversely flat face". The word "transverse" means at right angles with the longest axis, so it means at right angles with the vertical axis in this instance.--> and the study found that the skull samples had at "moderate to high frequencies" the "southeast Asian traits" of a high degree of prognathism, strong brow ridges, projecting cheekbones<!--The phrase "strong brow ridges" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "strong supraorbital region", and the phrase "projecting cheekbones" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "everted malars".--> and "[[Zygomatic bone|malar]] [[wikt:tuberosity|tuberosities]]".<!--This information is in the last paragraph of page 195.--><ref>Clark, G.A. & Willermet, C.M. (1997). Conceptual Issues in Modern Human Origins Research. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. page 195.</ref> |
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According to [[George W. Gill]] physical traits of Mongoloid crania are generally distinct from those of the [[Caucasoid]] and [[Negroid]] races. He asserts that forensic anthropologists can identify a Mongoloid skull with an accuracy of up to 95%.<ref>Gill, George W. 1998. "Craniofacial Criteria in the Skeletal Attribution of Race. " In Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains. (2nd edition) Reichs, Kathleen l(ed.), pp. 293–315.</ref> However, [[Alan H. Goodman]] cautions that this precision estimate is often based on methodologies using subsets of samples. He also argues that scientists have a professional and ethical duty to avoid such biological analyses since they could potentially have sociopolitical effects.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Diana Smay, George Armelagos|title=Galileo wept: A critical assessment of the use of race of forensic anthropolopy|journal=Transforming Anthropology|date=2000|volume=9|issue=2|pages=22–24|url=http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf|accessdate=13 July 2016|doi=10.1525/tran.2000.9.2.19}}</ref> |
According to [[George W. Gill]] physical traits of Mongoloid crania are generally distinct from those of the [[Caucasoid]] and [[Negroid]] races. He asserts that forensic anthropologists can identify a Mongoloid skull with an accuracy of up to 95%.<ref>Gill, George W. 1998. "Craniofacial Criteria in the Skeletal Attribution of Race. " In Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains. (2nd edition) Reichs, Kathleen l(ed.), pp. 293–315.</ref> However, [[Alan H. Goodman]] cautions that this precision estimate is often based on methodologies using subsets of samples. He also argues that scientists have a professional and ethical duty to avoid such biological analyses since they could potentially have sociopolitical effects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diana Smay, George Armelagos |title=Galileo wept: A critical assessment of the use of race of forensic anthropolopy |journal=Transforming Anthropology |date=2000 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=22–24 |url=http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf |accessdate=13 July 2016 |doi=10.1525/tran.2000.9.2.19}}</ref> |
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Variation in craniofacial form between humans has been found to be largely due to differing patterns of biological inheritance. Modern cross-analysis of osteological variables and genome-wide [[single-nucleotide polymorphism|SNPs]] has identified specific genes, which control this craniofacial development. Of these genes, [[DCHS2]], [[RUNX2]], [[GLI3]], [[PAX1]] and [[PAX3]] were found to determine [[human nose|nasal morphology]], whereas [[EDAR]] impacts chin protrusion.<ref>{{cite journal|authors=Adhikari, K., Fuentes-Guajardo, M., Quinto-Sánchez, M., Mendoza-Revilla, J., Chacón-Duque, J. C., Acuña-Alonzo, V., Gómez-Valdés, J.|title=A genome-wide association scan implicates DCHS2, RUNX2, GLI3, PAX1 and EDAR in human facial variation|journal=Nature Communications|date=2016|volume=7|doi=10.1038/ncomms11616|url=http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2016/160519/ncomms11616/full/ncomms11616.html|accessdate=12 November 2016|page=11616|bibcode=2016NatCo...711616A}}</ref> |
Variation in craniofacial form between humans has been found to be largely due to differing patterns of biological inheritance. Modern cross-analysis of osteological variables and genome-wide [[single-nucleotide polymorphism|SNPs]] has identified specific genes, which control this craniofacial development. Of these genes, [[DCHS2]], [[RUNX2]], [[GLI3]], [[PAX1]] and [[PAX3]] were found to determine [[human nose|nasal morphology]], whereas [[EDAR]] impacts chin protrusion.<ref>{{cite journal |authors=Adhikari, K., Fuentes-Guajardo, M., Quinto-Sánchez, M., Mendoza-Revilla, J., Chacón-Duque, J. C., Acuña-Alonzo, V., Gómez-Valdés, J. |title=A genome-wide association scan implicates DCHS2, RUNX2, GLI3, PAX1 and EDAR in human facial variation |journal=Nature Communications |date=2016 |volume=7 |doi=10.1038/ncomms11616 |pmid=27193062 |pmc=4874031 |url=http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2016/160519/ncomms11616/full/ncomms11616.html |accessdate=12 November 2016 |page=11616 |bibcode=2016NatCo...711616A}}</ref> |
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Mongoloid teeth are larger than Caucasoid and Negroid teeth.<!--This is in the first paragraph of the right column of page 26.--> Mongoloids have mandibles that are "robust", and Mongoloids have mandibles that are "similar" to the mandibles of Negroids<!--This is in the third paragraph of the left column of page 25.--> in respect to the chins of Mongoloids and Negroids not being as prominent as the chins of Caucasoids and in respect to the chins of Mongoloids and Negroids being "median" while the Caucasoid chin is "bilateral".<!--Exactly how the chins of Mongoloids and Negroids are "similar" is ambiguously indicated by these two chin traits separated by a comma from the "similar" statement in the source text. The source text shows in a data table on page 22 that Mongoloid and Negroid mandibles are not "similar" in both being robust, since that data table labels Negroid mandibles as "gracile" and Mongoloid mandibles as "robust".--><ref name="Blumenfield">{{cite journal | |
Mongoloid teeth are larger than Caucasoid and Negroid teeth.<!--This is in the first paragraph of the right column of page 26.--> Mongoloids have mandibles that are "robust", and Mongoloids have mandibles that are "similar" to the mandibles of Negroids<!--This is in the third paragraph of the left column of page 25.--> in respect to the chins of Mongoloids and Negroids not being as prominent as the chins of Caucasoids and in respect to the chins of Mongoloids and Negroids being "median" while the Caucasoid chin is "bilateral".<!--Exactly how the chins of Mongoloids and Negroids are "similar" is ambiguously indicated by these two chin traits separated by a comma from the "similar" statement in the source text. The source text shows in a data table on page 22 that Mongoloid and Negroid mandibles are not "similar" in both being robust, since that data table labels Negroid mandibles as "gracile" and Mongoloid mandibles as "robust".--><ref name="Blumenfield">{{cite journal |author=Blumenfield J |year=2000 |title=Racial Identification in the Skull and Teeth |url= |journal=Totem: The University of Western Ontario Journal of Anthropology |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=21–33}} Retrieved December 10, 2016, from [http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1137&context=totem link].</ref> |
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Mongoloids generally have |
Mongoloids generally have large [[incisor]]s, large [[Canine tooth|canines]], large [[Molar (tooth)|molars]] and small [[premolar]]s.<!--This is in the second paragraph of the right column of page 5. The source text wrote "large incisors, canines", indicating that the adjective "large" distributes to describe both Mongoloid incisors and Mongoloid canines.--><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yaacob |first1=H. |last2=Narnbiar |first2=P. |last3=Naidu |first3=M.D.K. |year=1996 |title=Racial characteristics of human teeth with special emphasis on the Mongoloid dentition |url= |journal=Malaysian Journal of Pathology |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=5}}</ref> |
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The East Polynesian, the Paleoindian/North American Archaic, and the Mongoloid/Late Amerindian are characterized by a "Square, heavy jaw".<!--This description is in the fourth row from the bottom of Table 15.1 on page 275.--> The East Polynesian and the Mongoloid/Late Amerindian are characterized by a "Median chin".<!--This description is in the fifth row from the bottom of Table 15.1 on page 275.--> The European is characterized by a "sharp, thin jaw" that has a "strong, prominent chin".<!--This description is in the first sentence of page 277.--> Mongoloid peoples, meaning modern East Asians and Amerindians of the later time periods,<!--In the first sentence of the second paragraph of page 276, the authors define Mongoloid peoples as East Asians and Amerindians.--> are characterized by "robust" cheekbones that project forward and to either side of the face.<!--The information about cheekbones is in the first paragraph of page 275. Projecting to either side of the face is a rewording of the source's "laterally flaring".--><ref name="Gill">Stefan, V.H. & Gill, G.W. (2016). Skeletal Biology of the Ancient Rapanui (Easter Islanders). United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 275-277.</ref> |
The East Polynesian, the Paleoindian/North American Archaic, and the Mongoloid/Late Amerindian are characterized by a "Square, heavy jaw".<!--This description is in the fourth row from the bottom of Table 15.1 on page 275.--> The East Polynesian and the Mongoloid/Late Amerindian are characterized by a "Median chin".<!--This description is in the fifth row from the bottom of Table 15.1 on page 275.--> The European is characterized by a "sharp, thin jaw" that has a "strong, prominent chin".<!--This description is in the first sentence of page 277.--> Mongoloid peoples, meaning modern East Asians and Amerindians of the later time periods,<!--In the first sentence of the second paragraph of page 276, the authors define Mongoloid peoples as East Asians and Amerindians.--> are characterized by "robust" cheekbones that project forward and to either side of the face.<!--The information about cheekbones is in the first paragraph of page 275. Projecting to either side of the face is a rewording of the source's "laterally flaring".--><ref name="Gill">Stefan, V.H. & Gill, G.W. (2016). Skeletal Biology of the Ancient Rapanui (Easter Islanders). United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 275-277.</ref> |
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The nasal sill bones of American Indians are of medium development and "sometimes even sharp", and, in this respect, they are like the nasal sill bones of "Whites" whose nasal sill bones are almost without exception sharp.<!--This information is in the last paragraph of page 275 which starts with "American Indian nasal sills" which is a paragraph that spans to the next page to be the first paragraph of page 276. The phrase "almost without exception" is a rewording of the source text's word "invariably".--> The nasal bones of East Asians are "small" and "often flat". American Indians and East Asians almost never have a nasion depression which is the depression between the brow ridge and the bridge of the nose.<!--This information is in the second-to-last paragraph of page 275 which starts with "The nasal bones are rather large". The phrase "almost never" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "Virtually never".--> The nasal sill bones of East Polynesians are "rounded", smooth and "dull" and, in this respect, they are like the nasal sill bones of sub-Saharan Africans and Australians/Melanesians.<!--This information is in the last paragraph of page 275 which starts with "American Indian nasal sills" which is a paragraph that spans to the next page to be the first paragraph of page 276.--> The nasal bones of East Polynesians are "large and prominent"<!--This information is in the second-to-last paragraph of page 275 which starts with "The nasal bones are rather large".--> and there is often a nasion depression in East Polynesians which is a trait that is also present in "Whites". East Polynesians have a lower nasal root than "Europeans". The nasal bridge of East Polynesians is not as straight in profile as the "European" nasal bridge, and the nasal bridge of East Polynesians does not have the "[[steeple]] shape" of the "Caucasoid" nasal bridge.<!--This information is in the second paragraph of page 277 which starts with "The reduced nasal spines and dull nasal sills".--><ref name="Gill" /> |
The nasal sill bones of American Indians are of medium development and "sometimes even sharp", and, in this respect, they are like the nasal sill bones of "Whites" whose nasal sill bones are almost without exception sharp.<!--This information is in the last paragraph of page 275 which starts with "American Indian nasal sills" which is a paragraph that spans to the next page to be the first paragraph of page 276. The phrase "almost without exception" is a rewording of the source text's word "invariably".--> The nasal bones of East Asians are "small" and "often flat". American Indians and East Asians almost never have a nasion depression which is the depression between the brow ridge and the bridge of the nose.<!--This information is in the second-to-last paragraph of page 275 which starts with "The nasal bones are rather large". The phrase "almost never" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "Virtually never".--> The nasal sill bones of East Polynesians are "rounded", smooth and "dull" and, in this respect, they are like the nasal sill bones of sub-Saharan Africans and Australians/Melanesians.<!--This information is in the last paragraph of page 275 which starts with "American Indian nasal sills" which is a paragraph that spans to the next page to be the first paragraph of page 276.--> The nasal bones of East Polynesians are "large and prominent"<!--This information is in the second-to-last paragraph of page 275 which starts with "The nasal bones are rather large".--> and there is often a nasion depression in East Polynesians which is a trait that is also present in "Whites". East Polynesians have a lower nasal root than "Europeans". The nasal bridge of East Polynesians is not as straight in profile as the "European" nasal bridge, and the nasal bridge of East Polynesians does not have the "[[steeple]] shape" of the "Caucasoid" nasal bridge.<!--This information is in the second paragraph of page 277 which starts with "The reduced nasal spines and dull nasal sills".--><ref name="Gill" /> |
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A study took [[panoramic radiograph]]s of two sites at the [[angle of the mandible]]<!--Figure 2 of page 21 which is the second page of the PDF document shows the two sites on the left side of the diagram, and the caption on the right side of the diagram says "Shadow of the contralateral angle of the mandible". The second-to-last paragraph which starts with "Two sites were selected" of the left column of page 21 also talks about the two sites being taken on each side of the shadow of the contralateral angle of the mandible.--> of 79 dental students, consisting of 20 male Caucasoids, 20 female Caucasoids, 17 male Mongoloids and 22 female Mongoloids.<!--The 79 number and "dental students" description of the subjects is in the "Methods" section of the abstract in the first page. The break down by gender of the subjects is in the second paragraph of the "Materials and methods" section at the bottom of the right column of the first page of the PDF document.--> The [[Abstract (summary)|abstract]] for the study said that the Mongoloids in the study had about "''20% higher bone density at the angle of the mandible''" than the Caucasoids in the study with a [[p-value]] of 0.0094 for the males and a p-value of 0.0004 for females.<!--The bone density percent and p-values are in the "Results" section of the abstract on the first page.--><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ong RG, Stevenson MR |title=Evaluation of bone density in the mandibles of young Australian adults of Mongoloid and Caucasoid descent |journal=Dentomaxillofacial Radiology |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=20–5 |date=January 1999 |
A study took [[panoramic radiograph]]s of two sites at the [[angle of the mandible]]<!--Figure 2 of page 21 which is the second page of the PDF document shows the two sites on the left side of the diagram, and the caption on the right side of the diagram says "Shadow of the contralateral angle of the mandible". The second-to-last paragraph which starts with "Two sites were selected" of the left column of page 21 also talks about the two sites being taken on each side of the shadow of the contralateral angle of the mandible.--> of 79 dental students, consisting of 20 male Caucasoids, 20 female Caucasoids, 17 male Mongoloids and 22 female Mongoloids.<!--The 79 number and "dental students" description of the subjects is in the "Methods" section of the abstract in the first page. The break down by gender of the subjects is in the second paragraph of the "Materials and methods" section at the bottom of the right column of the first page of the PDF document.--> The [[Abstract (summary)|abstract]] for the study said that the Mongoloids in the study had about "''20% higher bone density at the angle of the mandible''" than the Caucasoids in the study with a [[p-value]] of 0.0094 for the males and a p-value of 0.0004 for females.<!--The bone density percent and p-values are in the "Results" section of the abstract on the first page.--><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ong RG, Stevenson MR |title=Evaluation of bone density in the mandibles of young Australian adults of Mongoloid and Caucasoid descent |journal=Dentomaxillofacial Radiology |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=20–5 |date=January 1999 |pmid=10202474 |doi=10.1038/sj.dmfr.4600399}} Retrieved December 11, 2016, from [http://www.birpublications.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1038/sj.dmfr.4600399 link].</ref> |
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<!--Louis R. Sullivan, Curator of Physical Anthropology, [[American Museum of Natural History]], said -->[[Samoan people| |
<!--Louis R. Sullivan, Curator of Physical Anthropology, [[American Museum of Natural History]], said -->[[Samoan people|Samoans]] are of the Mongoloid race but their features represent a "slightly different evolution since the time of their separation and isolation from their parental stock" or a retention of features that have been lost in other Mongoloid types. The "straight" or "low waves" hair<!--Samoan hair texture is described in Table XLI on page 94.--> of the Samoan is one such retention compared to the stiff, coarse hair that typifies the Mongoloid.<!--This is in the first paragraph of page 98.--> Most of the characteristics of the Samoan have Mongoloid affinities such as: skin color, hair color, eye color, conjuctiva, amount of beard, hair on chest, nasal bridge, nostrils, lips, face width, biogonial width, cephalo-facial index, nasal height, ear height and chin.<!--This is in Table XLIV at the bottom of page 97.--> Polynesians lack characteristic Mongoloid shovel-shaped incisors, because this characteristic Mongoloid trait disappeared in the Polynesian population as the teeth of Polynesians reduced in size over the course of their evolutionary history.<!--This is in the second paragraph of page 98.--><ref name="Sullivan">Sullivan, L.R., Gifford, E.W. & McKern, W.C. (1921). A Contribution to Samoan Somatology. Bishop Museum Press: Hawaii. Pages 94, 97 & 98.</ref> |
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<!--Dr. Rukang [[Wu (surname)|Wu]] ({{zh|c=吴汝康}}) of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, [[Academia Sinica]], [[Taiwan]], said-->Mongoloid features are a [[Cephalic index#Brachycephalic animals|mesocranic]] skull, fairly large and protruding [[Zygomatic bone|cheekbones]], [[nasal bone]]s that are flat and broad, a [[nasal bridge]] that is slightly concave without depression in the [[nasion]], "the lower borders of the [[Anterior nasal aperture|piriform aperture]] are not sharp but guttered", shallow prenasal fossae, small [[anterior nasal spine]], trace amounts of [[canine fossa]]e and moderate alveolar [[prognathism]].<ref name="Rukang">{{cite journal |last=Wu |first=Ju-kang |year=1959 |title=Human Fossils Found in Liukiang, Kwangsi, China |journal=Paleovertebrata et Paleoanthropologia |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=97–104 |url=http://www.ivpp.cas.cn/cbw/gjzdwxb/xbwzxz/201003/P020100325320789803271.pdf}}</ref> |
<!--Dr. Rukang [[Wu (surname)|Wu]] ({{zh|c=吴汝康}}) of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, [[Academia Sinica]], [[Taiwan]], said-->Mongoloid features are a [[Cephalic index#Brachycephalic animals|mesocranic]] skull, fairly large and protruding [[Zygomatic bone|cheekbones]], [[nasal bone]]s that are flat and broad, a [[nasal bridge]] that is slightly concave without depression in the [[nasion]], "the lower borders of the [[Anterior nasal aperture|piriform aperture]] are not sharp but guttered", shallow prenasal fossae, small [[anterior nasal spine]], trace amounts of [[canine fossa]]e and moderate alveolar [[prognathism]].<ref name="Rukang">{{cite journal |last=Wu |first=Ju-kang |year=1959 |title=Human Fossils Found in Liukiang, Kwangsi, China |journal=Paleovertebrata et Paleoanthropologia |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=97–104 |url=http://www.ivpp.cas.cn/cbw/gjzdwxb/xbwzxz/201003/P020100325320789803271.pdf}}</ref> |
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<!--Dr. [[Marta Mirazón Lahr]] of the Department of Biological Anthropology at [[Cambridge University]] said -->The [[Paleoindian]] has proto-Mongoloid morphology such as pronounced development of supraorbital ridges low frontals, marked post-orbital constriction, prominent and protruding occipitals, small mastoids, long crania and a relatively narrow bizygomatic breadth.<ref name="Lahr" /> |
<!--Dr. [[Marta Mirazón Lahr]] of the Department of Biological Anthropology at [[Cambridge University]] said -->The [[Paleoindian]] has proto-Mongoloid morphology such as pronounced development of supraorbital ridges low frontals, marked post-orbital constriction, prominent and protruding occipitals, small mastoids, long crania and a relatively narrow bizygomatic breadth.<ref name="Lahr" /> |
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<!--{{nihongo|Shunsuke Yuzuriha|杠俊介}} et al. of [[Shinshu University]] School of Medicine, [[Matsumoto, Nagano|Matsumoto]], [[Japan]], said -->The Mongoloid eyelid is characterized by puffiness of the upper eyelid, "superficial expansion of the levator aponeurosis" that are "turned up around this transverse ligament to become the [[orbital septum]]", "low position of the preaponeurotic fat" and narrowness of the [[palpebral fissure]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Yuzurihaa Shunsuke |author2=Matsuo Kiyoshi |author3=Kushimaa Hideo | |
<!--{{nihongo|Shunsuke Yuzuriha|杠俊介}} et al. of [[Shinshu University]] School of Medicine, [[Matsumoto, Nagano|Matsumoto]], [[Japan]], said -->The Mongoloid eyelid is characterized by puffiness of the upper eyelid, "superficial expansion of the levator aponeurosis" that are "turned up around this transverse ligament to become the [[orbital septum]]", "low position of the preaponeurotic fat" and narrowness of the [[palpebral fissure]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Yuzurihaa Shunsuke |author2=Matsuo Kiyoshi |author3=Kushimaa Hideo |year=2000 |title=An anatomical structure which results in puffiness of the upper eyelid and a narrow palpebral fissure in the Mongoloid eye. |url= |journal=British Journal of Plastic Surgery |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=466–472 |doi=10.1054/bjps.2000.3387|pmid=10927673 }}</ref> |
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<!--Theodore G. Schurr of the Department of Anthropology at [[University of Pennsylvania]] said -->The Mongoloid racial type is distinguished by forward-projecting malar (cheek) bones, comparatively flat faces, large circular orbits, "moderate nasal aperture with a slightly pointed lower margin", larger, more gracile braincase, broader skull, broader face and flatter roof of the nose.<ref name="Schurr">Schurr, Theodore G. (2011). Mapping Mongolia: Situating Mongolia in the World from Geologic Time to the Present. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Pennsylvania. {{ISBN|1-934536-18-0}}{{page needed|date=August 2014}}</ref> |
<!--Theodore G. Schurr of the Department of Anthropology at [[University of Pennsylvania]] said -->The Mongoloid racial type is distinguished by forward-projecting malar (cheek) bones, comparatively flat faces, large circular orbits, "moderate nasal aperture with a slightly pointed lower margin", larger, more gracile braincase, broader skull, broader face and flatter roof of the nose.<ref name="Schurr">Schurr, Theodore G. (2011). Mapping Mongolia: Situating Mongolia in the World from Geologic Time to the Present. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Pennsylvania. {{ISBN|1-934536-18-0}}{{page needed|date=August 2014}}</ref> |
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<!--Akazawa said -->Mongoloid skin has thick skin cuticle and an abundance of carotene (yellow pigment).<ref name="Takeru" /> <!--Rodney P.R. Dawber of the Oxford Hair Foundation and Clinical Lecturer in Dermatology said -->Mongoloid males have "little or no facial or body hair".<ref>Dawber R.P.R. (1997). Diseases of the head and scalp (3rd ed.). Virginia:Blackwell Science Ltd.</ref> <!--Mildred Trotter of the School of Medicine St. Louis Missouri said -->Mongoloid hair is coarse, straight, blue-black and weighs the most out of the races.<ref>{{cite journal | |
<!--Akazawa said -->Mongoloid skin has thick skin cuticle and an abundance of carotene (yellow pigment).<ref name="Takeru" /> <!--Rodney P.R. Dawber of the Oxford Hair Foundation and Clinical Lecturer in Dermatology said -->Mongoloid males have "little or no facial or body hair".<ref>Dawber R.P.R. (1997). Diseases of the head and scalp (3rd ed.). Virginia:Blackwell Science Ltd.</ref> <!--Mildred Trotter of the School of Medicine St. Louis Missouri said -->Mongoloid hair is coarse, straight, blue-black and weighs the most out of the races.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Trotter M |year=1938 |title=A review of the classifications of hair |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=24 |issue= |pages=105–126 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330240131}}</ref> <!--Mildred Trotter of the School of Medicine St. Louis Missouri and Oliver H. Duggins of the Department of Anatomy Washington University said -->The size of the average Mongoloid hair is {{convert|0.0051|mm2|sqin|sigfig=2}} based on samples from [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|North and South American Indians]], [[Inuit|Eskimos]] and [[Thai people|Thais]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Duggins O. H. |author2=Trotter M. |author3=Coon C. S. |year=1959 |title=Hair from a Kadar woman of India |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=17 |issue= 2|pages=95–98 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330170203}}</ref> <!--Daniel Hrdy of the Department of Anthropology at Harvard University said that -->Mongoloid hair whether it be [[Sioux]], [[Ifugao]] or [[Japanese people|Japanese]] has the thickest diameter out of all human hair.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hrdy D |year=1973 |title=Quantitative hair form variation in seven populations |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=39 |issue= 1|pages=7–17 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330390103 |pmid=4713565}}</ref> |
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<!--Robert B. Pickering Professor of Anthropology at the [[University of Tulsa]] said -->The traits of the Mongoloid skull are: long and broad skulls of intermediate height, arched sagittal contour, very wide facial contour, high face height, rounded orbital opening, narrow nasal opening, wide, flat nasal bones, sharp lower nasal margin, straight facial profile, moderate and white palate shape, 90%+ shovel-shaped incisors and large, smooth general form.<ref>Robert B. Pickering, David Bachman. (2009). The Use of Forensic Anthropology (2nd ed.). CRC Press. {{ISBN|9781420068771}}. pp. 83</ref> |
<!--Robert B. Pickering Professor of Anthropology at the [[University of Tulsa]] said -->The traits of the Mongoloid skull are: long and broad skulls of intermediate height, arched sagittal contour, very wide facial contour, high face height, rounded orbital opening, narrow nasal opening, wide, flat nasal bones, sharp lower nasal margin, straight facial profile, moderate and white palate shape, 90%+ shovel-shaped incisors and large, smooth general form.<ref>Robert B. Pickering, David Bachman. (2009). The Use of Forensic Anthropology (2nd ed.). CRC Press. {{ISBN|9781420068771}}. pp. 83</ref> |
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Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the [[University of Barcelona]] said East Asians ([[Kyushu]], [[Atayal people|Atayal]], [[Filipino people|Philippines]], [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Hokkaido]] and [[Anyang]]) and Amerinds ([[Indigenous peoples in Peru|Yaujos]], [[Ohlone people|Santa Cruz]] and [[Arikara people|Arikara]]) have the typical Mongoloid cranial pattern, but other Mongoloids such as Pacific groups ([[Rapa Nui people|Easter Island]], [[Oahu|Mokapu]], [[Chamorro people|Guam]] and [[Moriori people]]), arctic groups ([[Eskimos]] and [[Buryats|Buriats]]), Fuegians ([[Selknam people|Selk’nam]], [[Yaghan people|Ya´mana]], [[Alacaluf people|Kawe´skar]]) and the [[Ainu people|Ainu]] differ from this by having "larger cranial dimensions over many variables".<ref name="Hernández" |
Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the [[University of Barcelona]] said East Asians ([[Kyushu]], [[Atayal people|Atayal]], [[Filipino people|Philippines]], [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Hokkaido]] and [[Anyang]]) and Amerinds ([[Indigenous peoples in Peru|Yaujos]], [[Ohlone people|Santa Cruz]] and [[Arikara people|Arikara]]) have the typical Mongoloid cranial pattern, but other Mongoloids such as Pacific groups ([[Rapa Nui people|Easter Island]], [[Oahu|Mokapu]], [[Chamorro people|Guam]] and [[Moriori people]]), arctic groups ([[Eskimos]] and [[Buryats|Buriats]]), Fuegians ([[Selknam people|Selk’nam]], [[Yaghan people|Ya´mana]], [[Alacaluf people|Kawe´skar]]) and the [[Ainu people|Ainu]] differ from this by having "larger cranial dimensions over many variables".<ref name="Hernández">{{cite journal |author1=Hernández M. |author2=Fox C. L. |author3=Garcia-Moro C. |year=1997 |title=Fueguian cranial morphology: The adaptation to a cold, harsh environment |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=103 |issue= 1|pages=103–117 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199705)103:1<103::AID-AJPA7>3.0.CO;2-X |pmid=9185954}}</ref> |
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Commenting on the lack of body hair ([[glabrousness]]) of Negroids and Mongoloids, [[Carleton S. Coon]] wrote in 1939 that "[b]oth negroid and mongoloid skin conditions are [[wikt:inimical|inimical]] to excessive hair development except upon the [[scalp]]."<!--This is on the top of page 278.--><ref>Coon, C.S. (1939). The Races of Europe. USA: The Macmillan Company.</ref> |
Commenting on the lack of body hair ([[glabrousness]]) of Negroids and Mongoloids, [[Carleton S. Coon]] wrote in 1939 that "[b]oth negroid and mongoloid skin conditions are [[wikt:inimical|inimical]] to excessive hair development except upon the [[scalp]]."<!--This is on the top of page 278.--><ref>Coon, C.S. (1939). The Races of Europe. USA: The Macmillan Company.</ref> |
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The theoretical index of hair bending stiffness is calculated using the thickest and thinnest axial diameters of human hair,<!--The first paragraph of page 82 explains what the abbreviations "Dmaj" and "Dmin" mean as used in the hair bending stiffness formula written in note "f" of Table 2 in page 88.--> and this index differs by race. The hair stiffness indexes of Mongoloids, Africans and Europeans are: 4.23, 2.75 and 1.59, respectively.<!--The far right column of Table 2 in page 88 gives the hair stiffness index values of the three groups.--> This means that Mongoloids with the highest hair stiffness index value of 4.23 have the most rigid hair and Europeans with the lowest hair stiffness index value of 1.59 have the least rigid hair.<!--The first paragraph of page 89 explains the meaning of the hair stiffness index.--> The eccentricity of hair cross-sectional shape index is also calculated using the thickest and thinnest axial diameters of human hair,<!--The formula for the hair eccentricity index is "Dmaj/Dmin", and it is located in the first paragraph of page 89.--> and this index also differs by race. The hair eccentricity indexes of Africans, Europeans and Mongoloids are: 1.74, 1.49 and 1.30, respectively.<!--The "Dmaj/Dmin" column of Table 2 in page 88 gives the hair eccentricity index values of the three groups.--> This means that Africans with the highest hair eccentricity index value of 1.74 have the curliest hair and Mongoloids with the lowest hair eccentricity index value of 1.30 have the least curly hair.<!--The first paragraph of page 89 explains the meaning of the hair eccentricity index.--><ref name="Maibach">Berardesca, E., Lévêque, J. & Maibach H.I. (2007). Ethnic Skin and Hair (Dermatology: Clinical & Basic Science). USA: Informa Healthcare, Inc. 82, 88 & 89.</ref> |
The theoretical index of hair bending stiffness is calculated using the thickest and thinnest axial diameters of human hair,<!--The first paragraph of page 82 explains what the abbreviations "Dmaj" and "Dmin" mean as used in the hair bending stiffness formula written in note "f" of Table 2 in page 88.--> and this index differs by race. The hair stiffness indexes of Mongoloids, Africans and Europeans are: 4.23, 2.75 and 1.59, respectively.<!--The far right column of Table 2 in page 88 gives the hair stiffness index values of the three groups.--> This means that Mongoloids with the highest hair stiffness index value of 4.23 have the most rigid hair and Europeans with the lowest hair stiffness index value of 1.59 have the least rigid hair.<!--The first paragraph of page 89 explains the meaning of the hair stiffness index.--> The eccentricity of hair cross-sectional shape index is also calculated using the thickest and thinnest axial diameters of human hair,<!--The formula for the hair eccentricity index is "Dmaj/Dmin", and it is located in the first paragraph of page 89.--> and this index also differs by race. The hair eccentricity indexes of Africans, Europeans and Mongoloids are: 1.74, 1.49 and 1.30, respectively.<!--The "Dmaj/Dmin" column of Table 2 in page 88 gives the hair eccentricity index values of the three groups.--> This means that Africans with the highest hair eccentricity index value of 1.74 have the curliest hair and Mongoloids with the lowest hair eccentricity index value of 1.30 have the least curly hair.<!--The first paragraph of page 89 explains the meaning of the hair eccentricity index.--><ref name="Maibach">Berardesca, E., Lévêque, J. & Maibach H.I. (2007). Ethnic Skin and Hair (Dermatology: Clinical & Basic Science). USA: Informa Healthcare, Inc. 82, 88 & 89.</ref> |
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===Proto-Mongoloids=== |
=== Proto-Mongoloids === |
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{{See also|wikt:proto-#English|l1=proto-}} |
{{See also|wikt:proto-#English|l1=proto-}} |
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[[File:Mosy Higgins Maidu man age 27 American Indian Northern California.png|thumb|This is a [[Maidu]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indian]] man from a publication by German-American anthropologist [[Franz Boas]] in 1905.<ref>Franz Boas. (1905). ''Anthropometry of Central California''. Harvard University.</ref>]] |
[[File:Mosy Higgins Maidu man age 27 American Indian Northern California.png|thumb|This is a [[Maidu]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indian]] man from a publication by German-American anthropologist [[Franz Boas]] in 1905.<ref>Franz Boas. (1905). ''Anthropometry of Central California''. Harvard University.</ref>]] |
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In 1959, Dr. Wu Rukang ({{zh|c=吴汝康}}) of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, [[Academia Sinica]], [[China]], said the remains of [[Liujiang County|Liukiang]] human fossils were an early type of evolving Mongoloid that indicated South China was the birthplace where the Mongoloid race originated.<ref name="Rukang" /> |
In 1959, Dr. Wu Rukang ({{zh|c=吴汝康}}) of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, [[Academia Sinica]], [[China]], said the remains of [[Liujiang County|Liukiang]] human fossils were an early type of evolving Mongoloid that indicated South China was the birthplace where the Mongoloid race originated.<ref name="Rukang" /> |
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Dr. [[Marta Mirazón Lahr]] of the Department of Biological Anthropology at [[Cambridge University]] said there are two hypotheses on the origin of Mongoloids. Lahr said that one hypothesis is that Mongoloids originated in north Asia due to the regional continuity in this region and this population conforming best to the standard Mongoloid features. Lahr said that the other hypothesis is that Mongoloids originate from Southeast Asian populations that expanded from Africa to Southeast Asia during the first half of the [[Upper Pleistocene]] and then traveled to Australia-Melanesia and East Asia. Lahr said that the morphology of the [[Paleoindian]] is consistent with the proto-Mongoloid definition.<ref name="Lahr">{{cite journal | |
Dr. [[Marta Mirazón Lahr]] of the Department of Biological Anthropology at [[Cambridge University]] said there are two hypotheses on the origin of Mongoloids. Lahr said that one hypothesis is that Mongoloids originated in north Asia due to the regional continuity in this region and this population conforming best to the standard Mongoloid features. Lahr said that the other hypothesis is that Mongoloids originate from Southeast Asian populations that expanded from Africa to Southeast Asia during the first half of the [[Upper Pleistocene]] and then traveled to Australia-Melanesia and East Asia. Lahr said that the morphology of the [[Paleoindian]] is consistent with the proto-Mongoloid definition.<ref name="Lahr">{{cite journal |author=Lahr M. M. |year=1995 |title=Patterns of modern human diversification: Implications for Amerindian origins |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=38 |issue= |pages=163–198 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330380609}}</ref> |
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Hisao Baba and Shuichiro Narasaki of the Department of Anthropology at the [[National Museum of Nature and Science|National Science Museum]], in Tokyo, Japan,<!--Note number 2 at the bottom of page 221 (the first page) gave this information about the study's authors.--> said that it is broadly accepted that Zhoukoudian Upper Cave Man and maybe [[Liujiang man|Liujian Man]] were "''so-called proto-Mongoloids''" who did not have a completely developed Mongoloid complex.<!--This information is in the bottom paragraph of the right column of page 227. In that paragraph, Baba and Narasaki mention Weidenreich (1943) and Wolpoff (1980) as examples to support their "widely accepted" claim. Therefore, Baba and Narasaki serve as a secondary source in this instance that made an interpretive claim that used the previous work by other authors. Reliable secondary sources are allowed to make interpretive claims per the [[WP:ANALYSIS]] policy. The word "maybe" preceding Liujian Man is a rewording of the source text's word "perhaps". The shortened term "Upper Cave Man" is used in the referenced paragraph of page 227, but "Zhoukoudian Upper Cave Man" is a longer term for the Upper Cave Man which is used in the first paragraph of the Introduction section of page 221.--><ref>Baba, H. & Narasaki, S. (1991). Minatogawa Man, the Oldest Type of Modern Homo sapiens in East Asia. In [[Quaternary Research]]. 30(3). Pages 221 & 227. Retrieved January 19, 2017, from [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jaqua1957/30/3/30_3_221/_pdf link].</ref> |
Hisao Baba and Shuichiro Narasaki of the Department of Anthropology at the [[National Museum of Nature and Science|National Science Museum]], in Tokyo, Japan,<!--Note number 2 at the bottom of page 221 (the first page) gave this information about the study's authors.--> said that it is broadly accepted that Zhoukoudian Upper Cave Man and maybe [[Liujiang man|Liujian Man]] were "''so-called proto-Mongoloids''" who did not have a completely developed Mongoloid complex.<!--This information is in the bottom paragraph of the right column of page 227. In that paragraph, Baba and Narasaki mention Weidenreich (1943) and Wolpoff (1980) as examples to support their "widely accepted" claim. Therefore, Baba and Narasaki serve as a secondary source in this instance that made an interpretive claim that used the previous work by other authors. Reliable secondary sources are allowed to make interpretive claims per the [[WP:ANALYSIS]] policy. The word "maybe" preceding Liujian Man is a rewording of the source text's word "perhaps". The shortened term "Upper Cave Man" is used in the referenced paragraph of page 227, but "Zhoukoudian Upper Cave Man" is a longer term for the Upper Cave Man which is used in the first paragraph of the Introduction section of page 221.--><ref>Baba, H. & Narasaki, S. (1991). Minatogawa Man, the Oldest Type of Modern Homo sapiens in East Asia. In [[Quaternary Research]]. 30(3). Pages 221 & 227. Retrieved January 19, 2017, from [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jaqua1957/30/3/30_3_221/_pdf link].</ref> |
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===Neoteny=== |
=== Neoteny === |
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{{Main|Neoteny in humans}} |
{{Main|Neoteny in humans}} |
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[[File:Yanomami Woman & Child.jpg|thumb|South American [[Yanomami]] woman and child from the [[Amazon rainforest]]]] |
[[File:Yanomami Woman & Child.jpg|thumb|South American [[Yanomami]] woman and child from the [[Amazon rainforest]]]] |
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Paul Storm said that Asia contained humans with "generalized" cranial morphology, but between 20,000 [[Before Present|BP]] and 12,000 BP this generalized type disappeared as a new type emerged. This new type had a flatter face with more pronounced cheekbones, a more rounded head, reduced [[sexual dimorphism]] (male skulls started to resemble female skulls), a reduction of superstructures such as the [[Supraorbital ridge|supraorbital region]] and an increased "retention of juvenile characters".<!--This is on page 132.--> Storm said that this new type of skull that emerged is called the "Proto-Sunda" (Proto-Mongoloid) type, and it is distinguished from the "Sunda" (Mongoloid) type by being more "[[Robustness (morphology)|robust]]".<!-- The "Proto-Sunda" type is described on page 133.--> Storm said that the "Mongoloid" or "Asian" type of skull developed relatively fast during a [[population bottleneck]] in Asia that happened during the [[Late Pleistocene]] or [[Holocene|Early Holocene]] through a [[microevolution]]ary trend that<!-- This was on page 132.--> involved a "continuation of neoteny and [[Gracility|gracilisation]] trends". Due to different courses of evolution, Storm said that these two types of skulls, the "Sunda" (Mongoloid) type and the "Sahul" (Australoid) type, are now clearly recognizable at the present time.<!-- This was on page 133.--><ref name="Storm">Storm, P. The evolutionary significance of the Wajak skulls. — Scripta Geol., 110: 1-247, figs. 1-30, tabs. 1-121, Leiden, September 1995.</ref> |
Paul Storm said that Asia contained humans with "generalized" cranial morphology, but between 20,000 [[Before Present|BP]] and 12,000 BP this generalized type disappeared as a new type emerged. This new type had a flatter face with more pronounced cheekbones, a more rounded head, reduced [[sexual dimorphism]] (male skulls started to resemble female skulls), a reduction of superstructures such as the [[Supraorbital ridge|supraorbital region]] and an increased "retention of juvenile characters".<!--This is on page 132.--> Storm said that this new type of skull that emerged is called the "Proto-Sunda" (Proto-Mongoloid) type, and it is distinguished from the "Sunda" (Mongoloid) type by being more "[[Robustness (morphology)|robust]]".<!-- The "Proto-Sunda" type is described on page 133.--> Storm said that the "Mongoloid" or "Asian" type of skull developed relatively fast during a [[population bottleneck]] in Asia that happened during the [[Late Pleistocene]] or [[Holocene|Early Holocene]] through a [[microevolution]]ary trend that<!-- This was on page 132.--> involved a "continuation of neoteny and [[Gracility|gracilisation]] trends". Due to different courses of evolution, Storm said that these two types of skulls, the "Sunda" (Mongoloid) type and the "Sahul" (Australoid) type, are now clearly recognizable at the present time.<!-- This was on page 133.--><ref name="Storm">Storm, P. The evolutionary significance of the Wajak skulls. — Scripta Geol., 110: 1-247, figs. 1-30, tabs. 1-121, Leiden, September 1995.</ref> |
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Andrew Arthur Abbie who was an anatomist and anthropologist at the [[University of Adelaide]]<ref>Ronald Elmslie and Susan Nance, 'Abbie, Andrew Arthur (1905–1976)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, [http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/abbie-andrew-arthur-9300/text16317 link], published first in hardcopy 1993, accessed online 18 November 2014.</ref> talked about leg-to-torso length being related to neoteny. Abbie said that women normally have shorter legs than men, and he said that shorter legs are the normal condition in some ethnic groups such as Mongoloids. Abbie said that Mongoloids of whom he listed the people of "China, Japan and the Americas" have proportionately larger heads and shorter legs than Europeans, and he said that this is a case of "paedomorphism". Abbie said that [[aboriginal Australians]] and some African ethnic groups such as the "[[Negroid|Negro]]", the "[[Khoikhoi|Hottentot]]" and the "[[Nubian people|Nubian]]" peoples<!--The diagram on page 66 shows that these are the African ethnic groups with longer legs than Europeans.--> have proportionately longer legs than Europeans, and he said that this is a case of "gerontomorphism".<!-- This is on page 67.--> Abbie said that ethnic groups with proportionately shorter legs than Europeans are relatively "paedomorphic" in terms of leg-to-torso ratios when compared to Europeans, and he said that ethnic groups with proportionately longer legs than Europeans are relatively "gerontomorphic" in terms of leg-to-torso ratios when compared to Europeans.<!--This is on page 69 on the bottom right.--><ref>{{cite journal | |
Andrew Arthur Abbie who was an anatomist and anthropologist at the [[University of Adelaide]]<ref>Ronald Elmslie and Susan Nance, 'Abbie, Andrew Arthur (1905–1976)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, [http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/abbie-andrew-arthur-9300/text16317 link], published first in hardcopy 1993, accessed online 18 November 2014.</ref> talked about leg-to-torso length being related to neoteny. Abbie said that women normally have shorter legs than men, and he said that shorter legs are the normal condition in some ethnic groups such as Mongoloids. Abbie said that Mongoloids of whom he listed the people of "China, Japan and the Americas" have proportionately larger heads and shorter legs than Europeans, and he said that this is a case of "paedomorphism". Abbie said that [[aboriginal Australians]] and some African ethnic groups such as the "[[Negroid|Negro]]", the "[[Khoikhoi|Hottentot]]" and the "[[Nubian people|Nubian]]" peoples<!--The diagram on page 66 shows that these are the African ethnic groups with longer legs than Europeans.--> have proportionately longer legs than Europeans, and he said that this is a case of "gerontomorphism".<!-- This is on page 67.--> Abbie said that ethnic groups with proportionately shorter legs than Europeans are relatively "paedomorphic" in terms of leg-to-torso ratios when compared to Europeans, and he said that ethnic groups with proportionately longer legs than Europeans are relatively "gerontomorphic" in terms of leg-to-torso ratios when compared to Europeans.<!--This is on page 69 on the bottom right.--><ref>{{cite journal |author=Abbie A.A. |year=1964 |title=THE FACTOR TIMING IN EMERGENCE DISTINCTIVELY HUMAN CHARACTERS |url= |journal=Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania |volume=98 |issue= |pages=63–71}}</ref> |
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===Cold adaptation=== |
=== Cold adaptation === |
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{{See also|Allen's rule}} |
{{See also|Allen's rule}} |
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[[File:Qamutik 1 1999-04-01.jpg|thumb|Some [[Inuit people]] on a traditional ''qamutik'' (dog sled) in [[Cape Dorset]], [[Nunavut]], [[Canada]]]] |
[[File:Qamutik 1 1999-04-01.jpg|thumb|Some [[Inuit people]] on a traditional ''qamutik'' (dog sled) in [[Cape Dorset]], [[Nunavut]], [[Canada]]]] |
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Akazawa Takeru, an anthropology professor at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies in [[Kyoto]], wrote that Mongoloid features are an adaptation to the cold of the [[Mammoth steppe]].<ref name="Takeru" /> He mentions the [[Lewis wave]]s of warm blood cyclical vasodilation and vasoconstriction of the peripheral [[capillary|capillaries]] in Mongoloids as an adaption to the cold.<ref name="Takeru" /> He lists the short limbs, short noses, flat faces, epicanthic fold and lower surface-to-mass ratio as further Mongoloid adaptations to cold.<ref name="Takeru" /> |
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[[Nicholas Wade]] said that biologists have speculated that the Mongoloid skull type was the result of [[natural selection]] in response to a cold climate,<!-- This was on page 121. --> and Wade said that the Mongoloid skull type first started to indisputably appear in the archaeological record 10,000 years ago.<!-- This was on page 120. --> Wade said that biologists have speculated that the fat in the eyelids of Mongoloids and the stocky builds of Mongoloids were selected for as adaptations to the cold.<!-- This was on page 121. --><ref name="Wade">Nicholas, Wade. Before the Dawn. Published by Penguin Publishing, 2006 {{ISBN|978-1594200793}}</ref> |
[[Nicholas Wade]] said that biologists have speculated that the Mongoloid skull type was the result of [[natural selection]] in response to a cold climate,<!-- This was on page 121. --> and Wade said that the Mongoloid skull type first started to indisputably appear in the archaeological record 10,000 years ago.<!-- This was on page 120. --> Wade said that biologists have speculated that the fat in the eyelids of Mongoloids and the stocky builds of Mongoloids were selected for as adaptations to the cold.<!-- This was on page 121. --><ref name="Wade">Nicholas, Wade. Before the Dawn. Published by Penguin Publishing, 2006 {{ISBN|978-1594200793}}</ref> |
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{{nihongo|Takasaki Yuji|高崎裕治}} of [[Akita University]], [[Japan]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://air.lib.akita-u.ac.jp/dspace/handle/10295/868 |title=秋田大学: Comparison between Triceps and Subscapular Skinfold Thickness of Japanese Children with respect to Environmental Effects |publisher=Air.lib.akita-u.ac.jp |accessdate=2013-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811063054/http://air.lib.akita-u.ac.jp/dspace/handle/10295/868 |archive-date=2011-08-11 |dead-url=yes |df= |
{{nihongo|Takasaki Yuji|高崎裕治}} of [[Akita University]], [[Japan]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://air.lib.akita-u.ac.jp/dspace/handle/10295/868 |title=秋田大学: Comparison between Triceps and Subscapular Skinfold Thickness of Japanese Children with respect to Environmental Effects |publisher=Air.lib.akita-u.ac.jp |accessdate=2013-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811063054/http://air.lib.akita-u.ac.jp/dspace/handle/10295/868 |archive-date=2011-08-11 |dead-url=yes |df=}}</ref> in the ''Journal of Physiological Anthropology and Applied Human Science'' said that, "Mongoloid ancestors had evolved over time in cold environments" and the short limbs of the Mongoloid was due to [[Allen's rule|Allen's ecological rule]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Takasaki Yuji |author2=Loy Steven F. |author3=Juergens Hans W. |year=2003 |title=Ethnic Differences in the Relationship between Bioelectrical Impedance and Body Size |url= |journal=Journal of Physiological Anthropology and Applied Human Science |volume=22 |issue= 5|pages=233–235 |doi=10.2114/jpa.22.233}}</ref> |
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Writing in 1980, anthropology professor Joseph K. So at [[Trent University]] in Ontario, cited a 1965 study by J. T. Steegman showing that the so-called cold-adapted Mongoloid face failed to provide greater protection against frostbite than the facial structure of European subjects.<ref name="So" /> In explaining Mongoloid cold-adaptiveness, So cites the work of W. L. Hylander (1977) where Hylander said that in the Eskimo (Inuit), for example, the reduction of the brow ridge and flatness of the face is instead due to internal structural configurations that are cold adapted in the sense that they produce a large vertical [[bite force]] necessary to chew frozen [[seal meat]].<ref name="So">Joseph K. So. "Human Biological Adaptation to Arctic and Subarctic Zones". ''Annual Review of Anthropology''; Vol. 9, (1980), pp. 63–82</ref> |
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[[File:Inupiat Family from Noatak, Alaska, 1929, Edward S. Curtis (restored).jpg|thumb|left|An [[Inupiat]] family from [[Noatak, Alaska]], 1929]] |
[[File:Inupiat Family from Noatak, Alaska, 1929, Edward S. Curtis (restored).jpg|thumb|left|An [[Inupiat]] family from [[Noatak, Alaska]], 1929]] |
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Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the [[University of Barcelona]] said that the high and narrow nose of [[Eskimos]] (Inuit) and the [[Neanderthal]]s is an adaptation to a cold and dry environment, since it contributes to warming and moisturizing the air and the "recovery of heat and moisture from expired air".<ref name="Hernández" /> |
Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the [[University of Barcelona]] said that the high and narrow nose of [[Eskimos]] (Inuit) and the [[Neanderthal]]s is an adaptation to a cold and dry environment, since it contributes to warming and moisturizing the air and the "recovery of heat and moisture from expired air".<ref name="Hernández" /> |
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A. T. Steegman of the Department of Anthropology at [[State University of New York]] investigated the assumption that [[Allen's rule]] caused the structural configuration of the [[Arctic]] Mongoloid face.<ref name="Steegman" /> Steegman did an experiment that involved the survival of [[rat]]s in the cold.<ref name="Steegman" /> Steegman said that the rats with narrow nasal passages, broader faces, shorter tails and shorter legs survived the best in the cold.<ref name="Steegman" /> Steegman paralleled his findings with the Arctic Mongoloids, particularly the Eskimo and Aleut, by claiming these Arctic Mongoloids have similar features in accordance with Allen's rule: a narrow [[nasal cavity|nasal passage]], relatively large heads, long to round heads, large jaws, relatively large bodies, and short limbs.<ref name="Steegman">{{cite journal |author1=Steegmann A. T. |author2=Platner W. S. | |
A. T. Steegman of the Department of Anthropology at [[State University of New York]] investigated the assumption that [[Allen's rule]] caused the structural configuration of the [[Arctic]] Mongoloid face.<ref name="Steegman" /> Steegman did an experiment that involved the survival of [[rat]]s in the cold.<ref name="Steegman" /> Steegman said that the rats with narrow nasal passages, broader faces, shorter tails and shorter legs survived the best in the cold.<ref name="Steegman" /> Steegman paralleled his findings with the Arctic Mongoloids, particularly the Eskimo and Aleut, by claiming these Arctic Mongoloids have similar features in accordance with Allen's rule: a narrow [[nasal cavity|nasal passage]], relatively large heads, long to round heads, large jaws, relatively large bodies, and short limbs.<ref name="Steegman">{{cite journal |author1=Steegmann A. T. |author2=Platner W. S. |year=1968 |title=Experimental cold modification of cranio-facial morphology |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=28 |issue= 1|pages=17–30 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330280111|pmid=5659959 }}</ref> |
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Kenneth L. Beals of the Department of Anthropology at [[Oregon State University]] said that the [[indigenous people of the Americas]] have cephalic indexes that are an exception to Allen's rule, since the indigenous people of the hot climates of North and South America have cold-adapted, high cephalic indexes.<ref name="Beals">{{cite journal | |
Kenneth L. Beals of the Department of Anthropology at [[Oregon State University]] said that the [[indigenous people of the Americas]] have cephalic indexes that are an exception to Allen's rule, since the indigenous people of the hot climates of North and South America have cold-adapted, high cephalic indexes.<ref name="Beals">{{cite journal |author=Beals K. L. |year=1972 |title=Head form and climatic stress |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=37 |issue= 1|pages=85–92 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330370111|pmid=5039741 }}</ref> Beals said that these peoples have not yet evolved the appropriate cephalic index for their climate, being, comparatively, only recently descended from the cold-adapted Arctic Mongoloid.<ref name="Beals" /> |
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In 1950, [[Carleton S. Coon]] et al. said that Mongoloids have faces that are adapted to the extreme cold of subarctic and arctic conditions.<!--This information is in the second-to-last paragraph of page 132 that starts with "The most famous cold adaptation hypothesis".--> Coon et al. said that Mongoloids have eye sockets<!--The phrase "eye sockets" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "bony orbit".--> that have been extended vertically to make room for the |
In 1950, [[Carleton S. Coon]] et al. said that Mongoloids have faces that are adapted to the extreme cold of subarctic and arctic conditions.<!--This information is in the second-to-last paragraph of page 132 that starts with "The most famous cold adaptation hypothesis".--> Coon et al. said that Mongoloids have eye sockets<!--The phrase "eye sockets" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "bony orbit".--> that have been extended vertically to make room for the adipose tissue that Mongoloids have around their eyeballs. Coon et al. said that Mongoloids have "''reduced''" brow ridges to decrease the size of the air spaces inside of their brow ridges known as the [[frontal sinus]]es which are "''vulnerable''" to the cold.<!--The source text stated that the sinuses were "vulnerable", but it did not explicitly state that they were "vulnerable" to the cold. However, the context of the paragraph which was about Mongoloid faces being cold adapted indicated that the word "vulnerable" referred to the cold. The source text implied that smaller brow ridges contain smaller frontal sinuses, but it did not explicitly state this in the source text's sentence "Brow ridges, with their vulnerable sinuses, are reduced".--> Coon et al. said that Mongoloid facial features reduce the surface area of the nose by having nasal bones that are flat against the face and having enlarged cheekbones that project forward which effectively reduce the external projection of the nose.<!--This information comes from the last paragraph of page 132 that starts with "The bony orbit of the mongoloid". Note that this paragraph has "(1950:69)" at the very end of it, and note that it is written in a smaller font than the other text. The reason for this difference is that the whole paragraph is a quote from Coon et al. (1950) as explained in the previous paragraph. The phrase "effectively reduce the external projection of the nose" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "reducing the effective salient of the nose".--><ref name="Dahlberg">Dahlberg, A.A. & Graber, T.M. (1977). Orofacial Growth and Development. USA & Canada: Mouton Publishers. Pages 132, 147 & 148.</ref> |
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[[Carleton S. Coon]] also has a hypothesis for why noses on Mongoloids are very distinct. Typically, the nose is not very prominent on the face of a Mongoloid. Their frontal sinus is also reduced in order to allow more room for padding to protect from their cold environment. Regardless of the environment that the mongoloid is in, his nose helps reduce the stress of the environment on their body by moistening the air inspired to cool the body off instead of doing a straight up heat exchange.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Human Biology|last=Harrison, Weiner, Tanner, Barnicot |
[[Carleton S. Coon]] also has a hypothesis for why noses on Mongoloids are very distinct. Typically, the nose is not very prominent on the face of a Mongoloid. Their frontal sinus is also reduced in order to allow more room for padding to protect from their cold environment. Regardless of the environment that the mongoloid is in, his nose helps reduce the stress of the environment on their body by moistening the air inspired to cool the body off instead of doing a straight up heat exchange.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Human Biology |last=Harrison, Weiner, Tanner, Barnicot |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1977 |isbn= |location=Oxford |pages=437}}</ref> |
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====Mitochrondrial heat production==== |
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The Asian [[Haplogroup_D_(mtDNA)|mt-DNA Haplogroup D]] has been shown in a small Japanese study <ref> https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4169230/ </ref> to provide greater heat production upon exposure to cold than other haplogroups prevalent in the area. |
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{{stack|[[File:Blackfoot American Indian Mongoloid.png|100px|[[Blackfoot]]]]|[[File:Ainu of Okinawa Mongoloid.png|100px|[[Ainu people|Ainu]] Okinawan]]|[[File:Mexican Indian Mongoloid.png|100px|[[Mexican Indian]]]]|[[File:Jose rizal 01.jpg|100px|[[Filipino people|Filipino]]]]}} |
{{stack|[[File:Blackfoot American Indian Mongoloid.png|100px|[[Blackfoot]]]]|[[File:Ainu of Okinawa Mongoloid.png|100px|[[Ainu people|Ainu]] Okinawan]]|[[File:Mexican Indian Mongoloid.png|100px|[[Mexican Indian]]]]|[[File:Jose rizal 01.jpg|100px|[[Filipino people|Filipino]]]]}} |
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{{stack|[[File:NSRW - Asiatic Types - Chinese.jpg|100px|[[Chinese people|Chinese]]]]|[[File:Native Hawaiian girl.png|100px|[[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] girl]]|[[File:Tierra del Fuegan American Indian Mongoloid.png|100px|[[Tierra del Fuego|Tierra del Fuegan]] American Indian]]|[[File:Japanese woman Mongoloid.png|100px|[[Japanese people|Japanese]] geisha]]}} |
{{stack|[[File:NSRW - Asiatic Types - Chinese.jpg|100px|[[Chinese people|Chinese]]]]|[[File:Native Hawaiian girl.png|100px|[[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] girl]]|[[File:Tierra del Fuegan American Indian Mongoloid.png|100px|[[Tierra del Fuego|Tierra del Fuegan]] American Indian]]|[[File:Japanese woman Mongoloid.png|100px|[[Japanese people|Japanese]] geisha]]}} |
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The skin of Asians turns darker and yellower with age relative to the skin of Caucasians.<!--This information is in the only paragraph in the section titled "Cultural Differences" which is in the right column of page 36. The numbers 1 and 2 in superscript following the relevant sentence in the source text indicates that the source text is a secondary source for this information, and these numbers indicate that references 1 and/or 2 are the primary sources for this information.--><ref>Vashi, N.A., Maymone, M.B. & Kundu, R.V. (2016). Aging Differences in Ethnic Skin. In The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology, 9(1). Page 36. Retrieved December 22, 2016, from [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4756870/pdf/jcad_9_1_31.pdf link].</ref> |
The skin of Asians turns darker and yellower with age relative to the skin of Caucasians.<!--This information is in the only paragraph in the section titled "Cultural Differences" which is in the right column of page 36. The numbers 1 and 2 in superscript following the relevant sentence in the source text indicates that the source text is a secondary source for this information, and these numbers indicate that references 1 and/or 2 are the primary sources for this information.--><ref>Vashi, N.A., Maymone, M.B. & Kundu, R.V. (2016). Aging Differences in Ethnic Skin. In The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology, 9(1). Page 36. Retrieved December 22, 2016, from [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4756870/pdf/jcad_9_1_31.pdf link].</ref> |
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Willett Enos Rotzell professor of Botany and Zoology at the [[Drexel University College of Medicine#History|Hahnemann Medical College]] said the Asian race has skin color ranging from a yellowish tint to an [[Olive |
Willett Enos Rotzell, professor of Botany and Zoology at the [[Drexel University College of Medicine#History|Hahnemann Medical College]], said the Asian race has skin color ranging from a yellowish tint to an [[Olive skin|olive shade]], with black and coarse hair with a circular cross section, an absent or scanty beard, a [[Cephalic index|brachycephalic skull]], prominent cheek bones and a broad face. Rotzell said that the Asian race has its [[Indigenous peoples|original home]] in [[Asia]].<ref name="Rotzell">Willett Enos Rotzell. (1905). Man: an introduction to anthropology. Philadelphia.</ref> |
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The [[Ectodysplasin_A_receptor|EDAR]] gene causes the Sinodont tooth pattern, and also affects hair texture,<ref name=Kamberov_2013>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kamberov YG, Wang S, Tan J, Gerbault P, Wark A, Tan L, Yang Y, Li S, Tang K, Chen H, Powell A, Itan Y, Fuller D, Lohmueller J, Mao J, Schachar A, Paymer M, Hostetter E, Byrne E, Burnett M, McMahon AP, Thomas MG, Lieberman DE, Jin L, Tabin CJ, Morgan BA, Sabeti PC | title = Modeling recent human evolution in mice by expression of a selected EDAR variant | journal = Cell | volume = 152 | issue = 4 | pages = 691–702 | date = Feb 2013 | pmid = 23415220 | pmc = 3575602 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2013.01.016 }}</ref> jaw morphology,<ref>{{cite journal|authors=Adhikari, K., Fuentes-Guajardo, M., Quinto-Sánchez, M., Mendoza-Revilla, J., Chacón-Duque, J. C., Acuña-Alonzo, V., Gómez-Valdés, J.|title=A genome-wide association scan implicates DCHS2, RUNX2, GLI3, PAX1 and EDAR in human facial variation|journal=Nature Communications|date=2016|volume=7|url=http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2016/160519/ncomms11616/full/ncomms11616.html|accessdate=12 November 2016|doi=10.1038/ncomms11616|page=11616|bibcode=2016NatCo...711616A}}</ref> and perhaps the nutritional profile of [[breast milk]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Lozovschi |first=Alexandra |date=24 April 2018 |title=Ancient Teeth Reveal Breastfeeding-Related Gene Helped Early Americans Survive The Ice Age [Study] |url=https://www.inquisitr.com/4876126/ancient-teeth-reveal-breastfeeding-related-gene-helped-early-americans-survive-the-ice-age-study |work=Inquisitr |location= |access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref> |
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⚫ | Dennis C. Dirkmaat professor of [[paleoanthropology]] and [[archaeology]] at [[Mercyhurst University]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mai.mercyhurst.edu/personnel/dennis-c-dirkmaat/|title=Dennis C. Dirkmaat, Ph.D., D.A.B.F.A.|publisher=Mai.mercyhurst.edu|accessdate=20 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120185527/http://mai.mercyhurst.edu/personnel/dennis-c-dirkmaat/|archive-date=20 January 2015|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> said that Southeast Asian skulls can be distinguished from Asian and Native American skulls in that they are "smaller and less robust" with noses exhibiting a medium width without nasal overgrowth, and can "exhibit gracile features common to female skulls".<!-- pp. 76 --><ref name="Dirkmaat" |
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⚫ | Dennis C. Dirkmaat, professor of [[paleoanthropology]] and [[archaeology]] at [[Mercyhurst University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mai.mercyhurst.edu/personnel/dennis-c-dirkmaat/ |title=Dennis C. Dirkmaat, Ph.D., D.A.B.F.A. |publisher=Mai.mercyhurst.edu |accessdate=20 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120185527/http://mai.mercyhurst.edu/personnel/dennis-c-dirkmaat/|archive-date=20 January 2015|dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all}}</ref> said that Southeast Asian skulls can be distinguished from Asian and Native American skulls in that they are "smaller and less robust" with noses exhibiting a medium width without nasal overgrowth, and can "exhibit gracile features common to female skulls".<!-- pp. 76 --><ref name="Dirkmaat">Dirkmaat, D. (2012). A companion to forensic anthropology. Wiley-Blackwell Publishing: USA. pp. 300 {{ISBN|978-1-4051-9123-4}}</ref> |
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Dr. Ann H. Ross, Co-Director of the Forensic Sciences Institute at [[North Carolina State University]],<ref>Ann H Ross. ''Research Gate'' Retrieved March 8, 2014, from [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ann_Ross4/ Research Gate]</ref> in a presentation on the concept of "race" (written in [[scare quotes]]) from the perspective of [[forensic anthropology]], said individuals of "Asian ancestry" have an "intermediate profile", meaning the part of the [[maxilla]] is "moderate" compared to individuals of "African ancestry" who have a "projecting maxilla", and compared to individuals who are "White/Hispanic" who generally have a "straight profile" or "lack of [[prognathism]]".<!--- video segment 24:12 to 24:35 ---> She qualified her statement about Hispanics by adding that their lack of prognathism would not hold true for Hispanic populations with "African admixture".<!--- video segment 24:35 to 24:48 ---><ref>Ross, A.H. (2011). Seminar Session 1 The Concept of "Race": A Forensic Anthropological Perspective on Human Variation. ''Advances in Forensic Anthropology'' Retrieved March 8, 2014, from [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fMdqE94CQ9M YouTube Video]</ref> |
Dr. Ann H. Ross, Co-Director of the Forensic Sciences Institute at [[North Carolina State University]],<ref>Ann H Ross. ''Research Gate'' Retrieved March 8, 2014, from [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ann_Ross4/ Research Gate]</ref> in a presentation on the concept of "race" (written in [[scare quotes]]) from the perspective of [[forensic anthropology]], said individuals of "Asian ancestry" have an "intermediate profile", meaning the part of the [[maxilla]] is "moderate" compared to individuals of "African ancestry" who have a "projecting maxilla", and compared to individuals who are "White/Hispanic" who generally have a "straight profile" or "lack of [[prognathism]]".<!--- video segment 24:12 to 24:35 ---> She qualified her statement about Hispanics by adding that their lack of prognathism would not hold true for Hispanic populations with "African admixture".<!--- video segment 24:35 to 24:48 ---><ref>Ross, A.H. (2011). Seminar Session 1 The Concept of "Race": A Forensic Anthropological Perspective on Human Variation. ''Advances in Forensic Anthropology'' Retrieved March 8, 2014, from [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fMdqE94CQ9M YouTube Video]</ref> |
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Qing He et al. of the Obesity Research Center at [[Columbia University]] did a study on "fat distribution" of 358 [[Puberty|prepubertal]] children and the study said that Asians have less [[gynoid fat]] than [[African American]]s and more relative [[Trunk (anatomy)|trunk]] fat than [[Caucasoid race|Caucasians]], but less relative [[Limb (anatomy)|extremity]] fat than Caucasians.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Horlick M |author2=Thornton J |author3=Wang J |author4=Pierson R.N. |author5=Heshka S |author6=Gallagher D | |
Qing He et al. of the Obesity Research Center at [[Columbia University]] did a study on "fat distribution" of 358 [[Puberty|prepubertal]] children and the study said that Asians have less [[gynoid fat]] than [[African American]]s and more relative [[Trunk (anatomy)|trunk]] fat than [[Caucasoid race|Caucasians]], but less relative [[Limb (anatomy)|extremity]] fat than Caucasians.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Horlick M |author2=Thornton J |author3=Wang J |author4=Pierson R.N. |author5=Heshka S |author6=Gallagher D |year=2002 |title=Sex and race differences in fat distribution among Asian, African-American and Caucasian prepubertal children |url= |journal=Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=2164–2170 |doi=10.1210/jc.87.5.2164}}</ref> |
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Douglas W. Deedrick, Unit Chief of the Trace Evidence Unit for the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]],<!-- His qualifications are given at the top of the first page of the eighteen page document.--> said that [[hair]]s of "Mongoloid or Asian origin" are characterized as being straight and coarse with a circular [[Cross section (geometry)|cross section]] and a wider [[diameter]] than those of other "racial groups". He said that the [[Cuticle (hair)|cuticle]] is thicker than those of [[Negroid]] or [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]] hairs while the [[Medulla (hair)|medulla]] is "continuous and wide". He said that the [[Melanin|pigment]] granules are smaller than the larger pigment granules of Negroid hair,<!-- The relative size of the Asian pigment granules to those of African hair appears in the paragraph about African hair on page three. --> and the pigment granules in the [[Cortex (hair)|cortex]] are "generally larger" than those of Caucasian hair. Unlike the "evenly distributed" pigment granules of Caucasian hair, Asian hair frequently has clusters of pigment granules that form "patchy areas".<ref>{{cite journal | |
Douglas W. Deedrick, Unit Chief of the Trace Evidence Unit for the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]],<!-- His qualifications are given at the top of the first page of the eighteen page document.--> said that [[hair]]s of "Mongoloid or Asian origin" are characterized as being straight and coarse with a circular [[Cross section (geometry)|cross section]] and a wider [[diameter]] than those of other "racial groups". He said that the [[Cuticle (hair)|cuticle]] is thicker than those of [[Negroid]] or [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]] hairs while the [[Medulla (hair)|medulla]] is "continuous and wide". He said that the [[Melanin|pigment]] granules are smaller than the larger pigment granules of Negroid hair,<!-- The relative size of the Asian pigment granules to those of African hair appears in the paragraph about African hair on page three. --> and the pigment granules in the [[Cortex (hair)|cortex]] are "generally larger" than those of Caucasian hair. Unlike the "evenly distributed" pigment granules of Caucasian hair, Asian hair frequently has clusters of pigment granules that form "patchy areas".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Deedrick D. W. |year=2000 |title=Hairs, fibers, crime, and evidence |url= |journal=Forensic Science Communications |volume=2 |issue= |page=3}}</ref> |
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Jeong Sang-ki ({{lang-ko|정상기}}) et al. of [[Chonnam University]], [[Kwangju]], [[Korea]], using both Asian and [[Caucasoid race|Caucasian]] [[cadaver]]s as well as four healthy young [[Koreans|Korean]] men said that "Asian eyelids" whether "Asian single eyelids" or "Asian double eyelids" had more fat in them than in Caucasians.<ref name="Jeong" /> Jeong et al. said that the cause of the "Asian single eyelid" was that "the [[orbital septum]] fuses to the levator [[aponeurosis]] at variable distances below the [[Superior tarsal muscle|superior tarsal]] border; (2) [[wikt:preaponeurotic|preaponeurotic]] fat pad protusion and a thick subcutaneous fat layer prevent levator fibers from extending toward the skin near the superior tarsal border; and (3) the primary insertion of the levator aponeurosis into the [[Orbicularis oculi muscle|orbicularis muscle]] and into the upper eyelid skin occurs closer to the eyelid margin in Asians."<ref name="Jeong">{{cite journal |author1=Jeong Sangki |author2=Lemke Bradley N. |author3=Dortzbach Richard K. |author4=Geol Park Yeoung |author5=Keun Kang Heoung | |
Jeong Sang-ki ({{lang-ko|정상기}}) et al. of [[Chonnam University]], [[Kwangju]], [[Korea]], using both Asian and [[Caucasoid race|Caucasian]] [[cadaver]]s as well as four healthy young [[Koreans|Korean]] men said that "Asian eyelids" whether "Asian single eyelids" or "Asian double eyelids" had more fat in them than in Caucasians.<ref name="Jeong" /> Jeong et al. said that the cause of the "Asian single eyelid" was that "the [[orbital septum]] fuses to the levator [[aponeurosis]] at variable distances below the [[Superior tarsal muscle|superior tarsal]] border; (2) [[wikt:preaponeurotic|preaponeurotic]] fat pad protusion and a thick subcutaneous fat layer prevent levator fibers from extending toward the skin near the superior tarsal border; and (3) the primary insertion of the levator aponeurosis into the [[Orbicularis oculi muscle|orbicularis muscle]] and into the upper eyelid skin occurs closer to the eyelid margin in Asians."<ref name="Jeong">{{cite journal |author1=Jeong Sangki |author2=Lemke Bradley N. |author3=Dortzbach Richard K. |author4=Geol Park Yeoung |author5=Keun Kang Heoung |year=1999 |title=The Asian Upper Eyelid: An Anatomical Study With Comparison to the Caucasian Eyelid |url= |journal=Arch Ophthalmol |volume=117 |issue= 7|pages=907–912 |doi=10.1001/archopht.117.7.907 |pmid=10408455}}</ref> |
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[[File:Во время репетиции сводного оркестра домбристов в Элисте, 14.06.2015.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kalmyk people]] of [[Kalmykia]], [[North Caucasus]], [[European Russia]]]] |
[[File:Во время репетиции сводного оркестра домбристов в Элисте, 14.06.2015.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kalmyk people]] of [[Kalmykia]], [[North Caucasus]], [[European Russia]]]] |
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The average size of random [[melanosome]]s of "Asian skin" for Chinese individuals of [[Fitzpatrick scale|Fitzpatrick phototype]] IV through V was measured to be 1.36 [[Plus-minus sign|±]] 0.15 [[micro-|μ]][[Metre|m]][[Square (algebra)|<sup>2</sup>]] |
The average size of random [[melanosome]]s of "Asian skin" for Chinese individuals of [[Fitzpatrick scale|Fitzpatrick phototype]] IV through V was measured to be 1.36 [[Plus-minus sign|±]] 0.15 [[micro-|μ]][[Metre|m]][[Square (algebra)|<sup>2</sup>]] × 10<sup>−2</sup> which was between the higher value of 1.44 ± 0.67 μm<sup>2</sup> × 10<sup>−2</sup> measured for "African/American skin" of Fitzpatrick phototype VI and the lower value of 0.94 ± 0.48 μm<sup>2</sup> × 10<sup>−2</sup> measured for "Caucasian skin" of Fitzpatrick phototype II.<!-- The Fitzpatrick phototype values and the statement that the "Asian skin" was of Chinese origin were both located in the "Sources of skin" section on page 499. The average size of random melanosomes was found on page 502.--> The ratio of clustered to distributed melanosomes was 37.4% clustered vs. 62.6% distributed in Asian skin, 84.5%. clustered vs. 15.5% distributed in Caucasian skin and 11.1% clustered vs. 88.9% distributed in African/American skin.<!-- The clustered vs. distributed numbers came from page 500 in the upper right.--><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Thong H. Y. |author2=Jee S. H. |author3=Sun C. C. |author4=Biossy R. E. |year=2003 |title=The patterns of melanosome distribution in keratinocytes of human skin as one determining factor of skin colour |url= |journal=British Journal of Dermatology |volume=149 |issue=3 |pages=498–505 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2133.2003.05473.x |pmid=14510981}}</ref> |
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George Richard Scott, physical anthropologist at the [[University of Nevada, Reno|University of Nevada]], said that some East Asians (in particular, Koreans, Han Chinese and some Japanese), as well as [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], have a distinctive dental pattern known as [[Sinodonty]], where, among other features, the upper first two [[incisors]] are not aligned with the other teeth, but are rotated a few degrees inward and are shovel-shaped.<ref>{{cite book|author1=George Richard Scott|author2=Christy G. Turner|date=1997|title=The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth: Dental Morphology and Its Variation|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|url=https://books.google.com/ |
George Richard Scott, physical anthropologist at the [[University of Nevada, Reno|University of Nevada]], said that some East Asians (in particular, Koreans, Han Chinese and some Japanese), as well as [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], have a distinctive dental pattern known as [[Sinodonty]], where, among other features, the upper first two [[incisors]] are not aligned with the other teeth, but are rotated a few degrees inward and are shovel-shaped.<ref>{{cite book |author1=George Richard Scott |author2=Christy G. Turner |date=1997 |title=The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth: Dental Morphology and Its Variation |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/?id=HuRcAyXWJxIC&pg=PA165&dq=dental+complex#PPA177,M1|isbn=978-0-521-78453-5 }}</ref> |
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Both darker-skinned and lighter-skinned Asians have a thicker [[dermis]] than Caucasians of comparable skin pigment which may be the reason for a "substantially lower incidence of fine wrinkles" in Asians when compared to Caucasians, and this lower incidence of fine wrinkles may be the reason for the "myth" that Asian faces age slower than Caucasian faces.<!--This information is in the third paragraph of the "Skin Color and Texture" section on page 4.--><ref>McCurdy, J.A., Jr., & Lam, S.M. (2005). Cosmetic Surgery of the Asian Face (2nd ed.). China: Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc. pp. 4. TMP {{ISBN|1-58890-218-8}} GTV {{ISBN|3 13 747602 X}}</ref> |
Both darker-skinned and lighter-skinned Asians have a thicker [[dermis]] than Caucasians of comparable skin pigment which may be the reason for a "substantially lower incidence of fine wrinkles" in Asians when compared to Caucasians, and this lower incidence of fine wrinkles may be the reason for the "myth" that Asian faces age slower than Caucasian faces.<!--This information is in the third paragraph of the "Skin Color and Texture" section on page 4.--><ref>McCurdy, J.A., Jr., & Lam, S.M. (2005). Cosmetic Surgery of the Asian Face (2nd ed.). China: Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc. pp. 4. TMP {{ISBN|1-58890-218-8}} GTV {{ISBN|3 13 747602 X}}</ref> |
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Asian people and black people have a thicker [[dermis]] than white people. The skin of Asian people and black people also has more sun protection than the skin of white people due to Asian people and black people having larger and more numerous [[melanosome]]s in their skin than white people. The thicker dermis and the more numerous melanosomes of larger size might be the reasons that Asian people and black people have a lower incidence facial wrinkles than white people.<!--This is in the third paragraph of the right column of page 293. This book appears to be a secondary source for citations 10 and 11 which appear to be cited at the bottom of this paragraph. The source uses the technical term "rhytides" which means wrinkles of the skin.--><ref>Goldman, M.P. et al. (2013). Lasers and Energy Devices for the Skin (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 293. {{ISBN|978-1-84184-934-8}}</ref> |
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[[File:PSM V52 D323 Global hair texture map.png|thumb|350px|Global hair texture distribution]] |
[[File:PSM V52 D323 Global hair texture map.png|thumb|350px|Global hair texture distribution]] |
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[[File:Malagasy girls Madagascar Merina.jpg|thumb|[[Merina]] children of [[Madagascar]]]] |
[[File:Malagasy girls Madagascar Merina.jpg|thumb|[[Merina]] children of [[Madagascar]]]] |
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===Turkic peoples=== |
=== Turkic peoples === |
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{{Main|Turkic peoples}} |
{{Main|Turkic peoples}} |
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All the Turkic peoples native to Central Asia are of mixed [[Caucasoid]] and Mongoloid origin. Turkic people display a great variety of ethnic types.<ref name="Turkic people"/> They possess physical features ranging from [[Caucasoid]] to [[Northern Mongoloid]]. Mongoloid and Caucasoid facial structure is common among many Turkic groups, such as [[Chuvash people]], [[Tatars]], [[Kazakhs]], [[Uzbeks]], [[Bashkirs]], also such Mongoloid and Caucasoid features are present in some [[Russians]] in different proportions, less or more. Historically, the [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]] classification of the Turkic peoples was sometimes given as "[[Turanid]]". Turanid [[Race (human categorization)|racial type]] or "minor race", situated at the boundary of the distribution of the Mongoloid and [[Europid]] "great races".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=01LfoBC6jZkC&pg=PA32&dq=turanid+race&lr=&hl=bg#v=onepage&q=turanid%20race&f=false Racial and cultural minorities: an analysis of prejudice and discrimination, Environment, development, and public policy, George Eaton Simpson, John Milton Yinger, Springer, 1985], {{ISBN|0-306-41777-4}}, p.32.</ref><ref>''American anthropologist'', American Anthropological Association, Anthropological Society of Washington (Washington, D.C,), 1984 v. 86, nos. 3-4, p. 741.</ref> |
All the Turkic peoples native to Central Asia are of mixed [[Caucasoid]] and Mongoloid origin. Turkic people display a great variety of ethnic types.<ref name="Turkic people" /> They possess physical features ranging from [[Caucasoid]] to [[Northern Mongoloid]]. Mongoloid and Caucasoid facial structure is common among many Turkic groups, such as [[Chuvash people]], [[Tatars]], [[Kazakhs]], [[Uzbeks]], [[Bashkirs]], also such Mongoloid and Caucasoid features are present in some [[Russians]] in different proportions, less or more. Historically, the [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]] classification of the Turkic peoples was sometimes given as "[[Turanid]]". Turanid [[Race (human categorization)|racial type]] or "minor race", situated at the boundary of the distribution of the Mongoloid and [[Europid]] "great races".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=01LfoBC6jZkC&pg=PA32&dq=turanid+race&lr=&hl=bg#v=onepage&q=turanid%20race&f=false Racial and cultural minorities: an analysis of prejudice and discrimination, Environment, development, and public policy, George Eaton Simpson, John Milton Yinger, Springer, 1985], {{ISBN|0-306-41777-4}}, p.32.</ref><ref>''American anthropologist'', American Anthropological Association, Anthropological Society of Washington (Washington, D.C,), 1984 v. 86, nos. 3-4, p. 741.</ref> |
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The Turkic people live in central, eastern, northern, and western Asia as well as parts of eastern Europe.<ref name="Turkic people">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/609972/Turkic-peoples Turkic people], [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], Online Academic Edition, 2010</ref> The term "Turkic" represents a broad [[ethnic group]] of peoples including existing societies such as [[Altai people|Altai]], [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijanis]], [[Balkars]], [[Bashkirs]], [[Chuvashes]], [[Crimean Karaites]], [[Gagauz people|Gagauz]], [[Karachays]], [[Karakalpaks]], [[Kazakh people|Kazakhs]], [[Khakas people|Khakas]], [[Krymchaks]], [[Kyrgyz people]], [[Nogais]], [[Qashqai people|Qashqai]], [[Tatars]], [[Turkmens]], [[Turkish people]], [[Tuvans]], [[Uyghurs]], [[Uzbeks]], and [[Yakuts]] and as well as [[List of Turkic states and empires|past civilizations]] such as [[Dingling]], [[Bulgars]], [[Chuban]], [[Göktürks]], [[Oghuz Turks]], [[Khazars]], [[Khalji dynasty|Khaljis]], [[Kipchaks]], [[Cumans|Kumans]], [[Karluks]], [[Tiele people|Tiele]], [[Turgesh]]es, [[Yenisei Kirghiz]], and possibly [[Huns]], [[Tuoba]] and the [[Xiongnu]].<ref name="Turkic people"/><ref name="Pritsak O 1982">[[Omeljan Pritsak|Pritsak O.]] & [[Norman Golb|Golb. N]]: ''Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century'', Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1982.</ref><ref>"[http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/Timur Timur] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922063332/http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/Timur |date=2013-09-22 }}", The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]], Sixth Edition, 2001–05, [[Columbia University Press]].</ref><ref>[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] article: [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26937/Islamic-world Consolidation & expansion of the Indo-Timurids], Online Edition, 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Walton|first1= |
The Turkic people live in central, eastern, northern, and western Asia as well as parts of eastern Europe.<ref name="Turkic people">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/609972/Turkic-peoples Turkic people], [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], Online Academic Edition, 2010</ref> The term "Turkic" represents a broad [[ethnic group]] of peoples including existing societies such as [[Altai people|Altai]], [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijanis]], [[Balkars]], [[Bashkirs]], [[Chuvashes]], [[Crimean Karaites]], [[Gagauz people|Gagauz]], [[Karachays]], [[Karakalpaks]], [[Kazakh people|Kazakhs]], [[Khakas people|Khakas]], [[Krymchaks]], [[Kyrgyz people]], [[Nogais]], [[Qashqai people|Qashqai]], [[Tatars]], [[Turkmens]], [[Turkish people]], [[Tuvans]], [[Uyghurs]], [[Uzbeks]], and [[Yakuts]] and as well as [[List of Turkic states and empires|past civilizations]] such as [[Dingling]], [[Bulgars]], [[Chuban]], [[Göktürks]], [[Oghuz Turks]], [[Khazars]], [[Khalji dynasty|Khaljis]], [[Kipchaks]], [[Cumans|Kumans]], [[Karluks]], [[Tiele people|Tiele]], [[Turgesh]]es, [[Yenisei Kirghiz]], and possibly [[Huns]], [[Tuoba]] and the [[Xiongnu]].<ref name="Turkic people" /><ref name="Pritsak O 1982">[[Omeljan Pritsak|Pritsak O.]] & [[Norman Golb|Golb. N]]: ''Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century'', Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1982.</ref><ref>"[http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/Timur Timur] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922063332/http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/Timur |date=2013-09-22 }}", The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]], Sixth Edition, 2001–05, [[Columbia University Press]].</ref><ref>[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] article: [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26937/Islamic-world Consolidation & expansion of the Indo-Timurids], Online Edition, 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Walton |first1=Linda |title=World History: Journeys from Past to Present |page=210 |date=2013 |ref=https://books.google.com/books?id=Os-g5vLFfBcC&pg=PA210&lpg=PA210&dq=tabgach+turkic&source=bl&ots=BmDhsU24hp&sig=a7chSDegS4kzcRRNAYQdWvutNvA&hl=sv&sa=X&ei=IaCpVPCaNMbMygPFg4KQCw&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=tabgach%20turkic&f=false}}</ref> |
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===Mongolian spot=== |
=== Mongolian spot === |
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{{See also|Mongolian spot}} |
{{See also|Mongolian spot}} |
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A Mongolian spot, also known as Mongolian blue spot, congenital dermal melanocytosis,<ref name="Bolognia" /> and dermal melanocytosis<ref name="Bolognia">{{cite book |author1=Rapini, Ronald P. |author2=Bolognia, Jean L. |author3=Jorizzo, Joseph L. |title=Dermatology: 2-Volume Set |publisher=Mosby |location=St. Louis |year=2007 |pages=1720 |isbn=1-4160-2999- |
A Mongolian spot, also known as Mongolian blue spot, congenital dermal melanocytosis,<ref name="Bolognia" /> and dermal melanocytosis<ref name="Bolognia">{{cite book |author1=Rapini, Ronald P. |author2=Bolognia, Jean L. |author3=Jorizzo, Joseph L. |title=Dermatology: 2-Volume Set |publisher=Mosby |location=St. Louis |year=2007 |pages=1720 |isbn=978-1-4160-2999-1 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> is a [[benign]], flat, [[congenital disorder|congenital]] [[birthmark]] with wavy borders and irregular shape. In 1883 it was described and named after [[Mongols|Mongolians]] by [[Erwin Bälz]], a German anthropologist based in Japan.<ref>Die koerperlichen Eigenschaften der Japaner.(1885) Baelz.E. Mittheil.d.deusch Gesell.f.Natur-u-Voelkerheilkunde Ostasiens. Bd.4.H.32</ref><ref>Circumscribed dermal melanosis (Mongolian spot)(1981) Kikuchi I, Inoue S. in "Biology and Diseases of Dermal Pigmentation", University of Tokyo Press, p83</ref><ref>{{cite book |pages=6–17 |edition= |year=1993 |accessdate=May 17, 2014 |publisher=Wolfe |author=Bernard Cohen |volume= |quote= |location= |title=Atlas of pediatric dermatology |url=https://books.google.com/?id=grlsAAAAMAAJ&q=ines+mongolian+spot&dq=ines+mongolian+spot |isbn=978-1-56375-019-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=2262 |edition= |year=1908 |accessdate=May 17, 2014 |publisher=American Medical Association |others=American Medical Association |volume= |quote= |location= |title=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, Volume 51 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=KUgcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA2262&dq=ines+mongolian+spot#v=onepage&q=ines%20mongolian%20spot&f=false |isbn=}}</ref> It normally disappears three to five years after birth and almost always by [[puberty]].<ref name="Mongolian Spot" /> The most common color is blue, although they can be blue-gray, blue-black or deep brown. |
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The spot is prevalent among [[East Asia|East]], [[South Asia|South]], [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]], [[Turkic peoples|North and Central Asian peoples]], Indigenous [[Oceania]]ns (chiefly [[Micronesia]]ns and [[Polynesia]]ns), Sub-Saharan Africans,<ref>{{cite book|page=95|edition=illustrated |
The spot is prevalent among [[East Asia|East]], [[South Asia|South]], [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]], [[Turkic peoples|North and Central Asian peoples]], Indigenous [[Oceania]]ns (chiefly [[Micronesia]]ns and [[Polynesia]]ns), Sub-Saharan Africans,<ref>{{cite book |page=95 |edition=illustrated |year=1997 |accessdate=May 17, 2014 |publisher=Edwin Mellen Press |author=Kevin C. Stuart |volume= |quote= |location= |title=Mongols in Western/American consciousness |url=https://books.google.com/?id=tCRtAAAAMAAJ&q=white+spanish+mongolian+spot&dq=white+spanish+mongolian+spot |isbn=978-0-7734-8443-6}}</ref> [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindians]],<ref>{{cite book |page=90 |edition=3, illustrated |year=1999 |accessdate=May 17, 2014 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |author=Miller |volume= |quote= |location= |title=Nursing Care of Older Adults: Theory and Practice |url=https://books.google.com/?id=nJ3pBEh1osMC&q=ines+mongolian+spot&dq=ines+mongolian+spot |isbn=978-0-7817-2076-2}}</ref> non-European [[Latin Americans]], [[Caribbean people|Caribbeans]] of mixed-race descent, and [[Turkish people]].<ref name=skin>[http://skin-care.health-cares.net/Mongolian-blue-spots.php Mongolian blue spots] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170119081851/http://skin-care.health-cares.net/Mongolian-blue-spots.php |date=2017-01-19 }} - Health care guide discussing the Mongolian blue spot.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Frequency and characteristics of Mongolian spots among Turkish children in Aegean region |date=July 2006 |pmid=17172067 |volume=48 |issue=3 |journal=Turk J Pediatr |pages=232–6 |last1=Egemen |first1=A |last2=Ikizoğlu |first2=T |last3=Ergör |first3=S |last4=Mete Asar |first4=G |last5=Yilmaz |first5=O}}</ref><ref name=tokyo>{{cite web |url=http://www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/msp/about.htm |title=About Mongolian Spot |work=tokyo-med.ac.jp |accessdate=1 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNx9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT289&lpg=PT289&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Transcultural Medicine: Dealing with patients from different cultures |first=B. |last=Qureshi |date=6 December 2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |via=Google Books|isbn=9789401163644 }}</ref> |
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They occur in about 90 |
They occur in about 90 to 95% of Asian and 80 to 85% [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] infants.<ref name="tokyo" /> Approximately 90% of Polynesians and Micronesians are born with Mongolian spots, as are about 46% of children in Latin America,<ref name=med>{{cite journal |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1068732-overview#a0199 |title=Congenital Dermal Melanocytosis (Mongolian Spot): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology |date=7 January 2017 |publisher= |via=eMedicine}}</ref> where they are associated with non-European descent. These spots also appear on 5-10% of babies of full Caucasian descent; [[Coria del Río]] in Spain has a high incidence due to the presence of descendants of [[Hasekura Tsunenaga]], the first Japanese official envoy to Spain in the early 17th century.<ref name="tokyo" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20031211b4.html |title=Spain's Japon clan has reunion to trace its 17th century roots – The Japan Times |work=The Japan Times |accessdate=1 October 2015}}</ref> Black babies have Mongolian spots at a frequency of 96%.<ref>{{cite book |page=34 |edition= |year=2012 |accessdate=May 17, 2014 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |author=N Silverberg |volume= |quote= |location= |title=Atlas of Pediatric Cutaneous Biodiversity: Comparative Dermatologic Atlas of Pediatric Skin of All Colors |url=https://books.google.com/?id=8ra2I3Vj8Y8C&pg=PA34&dq=white+spanish+mongolian+spot#v=onepage&q=white%20spanish%20mongolian%20spot&f=false |archiveurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ra2I3Vj8Y8C&pg=PA34&dq=spanish+mongolian+spot&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6pqdVb6-Kozj-QG_xr2QBQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=spanish%20mongolian%20spot&f=false |archivedate=2012 |isbn=978-1-4614-3564-8}}</ref> |
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==Genetic research== |
== Genetic research == |
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{{see|Basal Eurasian|Ancient North Eurasian}} |
{{see|Basal Eurasian|Ancient North Eurasian}} |
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{{See also|Asian people|Race and genetics}} |
{{See also|Asian people|Race and genetics}} |
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[[File:Neighbor-joining Tree-2.png|thumb|This genetic distance from Naruya (2002) is an estimate of 18 world human groups by a [[neighbor-joining]] method based on 23 kinds of genetic information.<ref name="Kyushu">{{cite web |url=http://www.museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp/WAJIN/113.html |title=斎藤成也 Naruya, S. Kyushu Museum. 2002. February 2, 2007 |publisher=Museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp |accessdate=2013-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906055349/http://www.museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp/WAJIN/113.html |archive-date=September 6, 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all |
[[File:Neighbor-joining Tree-2.png|thumb|This genetic distance from Naruya (2002) is an estimate of 18 world human groups by a [[neighbor-joining]] method based on 23 kinds of genetic information.<ref name="Kyushu">{{cite web |url=http://www.museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp/WAJIN/113.html |title=斎藤成也 Naruya, S. Kyushu Museum. 2002. February 2, 2007 |publisher=Museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp |accessdate=2013-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906055349/http://www.museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp/WAJIN/113.html |archive-date=September 6, 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Saitou et al. considered a "pan-Mongoloid grouping" which included the [[Australoid race|Australoid]], [[Amerindian]] and [[Asian people|Asian]] Mongoloid groups.<ref name="Roberts" />]] |
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[[File:The history and geography of human genes Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza map genetic.png|thumb|Genetic distance map by Cavalli-Sforza et al. (1994)<ref name="Sforza" />]] |
[[File:The history and geography of human genes Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza map genetic.png|thumb|Genetic distance map by Cavalli-Sforza et al. (1994)<ref name="Sforza" />]] |
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[[File:Human migration out of Africa.png|thumb|Map of early human migrations out of Africa from Naruya (2002)<ref name="Kyushu" /><ref name="Roberts" |
[[File:Human migration out of Africa.png|thumb|Map of early human migrations out of Africa from Naruya (2002)<ref name="Kyushu" /><ref name="Roberts">Roberts, D.F., Fujiki, N. and Torizuka, N. (1992). Isolation, Migration and Health. 33rd Symposium Volume of the Society for Study of Human Biology.</ref>]] |
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Genetic research into the separation time between the major racial groups was presented as early as 1985 by [[Masatoshi Nei]]. |
Genetic research into the separation time between the major racial groups was presented as early as 1985 by [[Masatoshi Nei]]. |
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Nei, M. (1985). Human Evolution at the Molecular Level. Population Genetics and Molecular Evolution. Japan Sci. Soc. Press, Tokyo. pp. 44–64.</ref> |
Nei, M. (1985). Human Evolution at the Molecular Level. Population Genetics and Molecular Evolution. Japan Sci. Soc. Press, Tokyo. pp. 44–64.</ref> |
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Gravel et al. (2010) gave a lower estimate for Caucasoid-Mongoloid divergece, between 28,000 and 21,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal | |
Gravel et al. (2010) gave a lower estimate for Caucasoid-Mongoloid divergece, between 28,000 and 21,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gravel S. |year=2010 |title=Demographic history and rare allele sharing among human populations |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/108/29/11983.full.pdf |format=PDF |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=108 |issue=29 |pages=11983–8 |display-authors=etal |pmid=21730125 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1019276108 |pmc=3142009 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10811983G}}</ref> |
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A 2016 study presented an analysis of the population genetics of the [[Ainu people|Ainu]] people of northern Japan as key to the reconstruction of the early peopling of East Asia. The Ainu were found to represent a more basal branch than the modern farming populations of East Asia, suggesting an ancient (pre-Neolithic) connection with northeast Siberians.<ref>Jeong et al., "Deep History of East Asian Populations Revealed Through Genetic Analysis of the Ainu", Genetics. 2016 Jan;202(1):261-72. doi: 10.1534/genetics.115.178673.</ref> |
A 2016 study presented an analysis of the population genetics of the [[Ainu people|Ainu]] people of northern Japan as key to the reconstruction of the early peopling of East Asia. The Ainu were found to represent a more basal branch than the modern farming populations of East Asia, suggesting an ancient (pre-Neolithic) connection with northeast Siberians.<ref>Jeong et al., "Deep History of East Asian Populations Revealed Through Genetic Analysis of the Ainu", Genetics. 2016 Jan;202(1):261-72. doi: 10.1534/genetics.115.178673.</ref> |
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Numerous studies performed during |
Numerous studies performed during 2009–2016 have suggested that Eurasian populations can be derived from an early division of the [[Non-Africans (genetic lineage)|non-African]] lineage into an eastern and a western clade before around 40,000 years ago.<ref>"The former [eastern clade] includes present-day East Asians and had differentiated as early as the ∼40 kya Tianyuan individual (Fu et al. 2013), while early members of the latter [western clade] include ancient European hunter-gatherers (Lazaridis et al. 2014; Seguin-Orlando et al. 2014; Fu et al. 2016) and the ancient northern Eurasian [[Mal'ta boy|Mal’ta 1]] (MA1, a ∼24 kya Upper Paleolithic individual from south-central Siberia) (Raghavan et al. 2014). More recent (Neolithic and later) western Eurasians, such as Europeans, are mostly descended from the western clade but with an additional component of “[[Basal Eurasian]]” ancestry (via the Near East) splitting more deeply than any other known non-African lineage (Lazaridis et al. 2014, 2016). The timing of the eastern/western split is uncertain, but several papers (Gutenkunst et al. 2009; Laval et al. 2010; Gravel et al. 2011) have used present-day European and East Asian populations to infer dates of initial separation of 40–45 kya (adjusted for a mutation rate of 0.5 × 10−9 per year; Scally 2016)." |
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Mark Lipson and David Reich, "A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa", ''Mol Biol Evol'' 34.4 (2017), 889–902, {{DOI|10.1093/molbev/msw293}}.</ref> |
Mark Lipson and David Reich, "A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa", ''Mol Biol Evol'' 34.4 (2017), 889–902, {{DOI|10.1093/molbev/msw293}}.</ref> |
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The position of the [[Australasia]]n clade relative to this has long been uncertain, with some authors arguing from an early division of Australasians from all other Eurasians.<ref> |
The position of the [[Australasia]]n clade relative to this has long been uncertain, with some authors arguing from an early division of Australasians from all other Eurasians.<ref>Mondal M, Casals F, Xu T, Dall’Olio GM, Pybus M, Netea MG, Comas D, Laayouni H, Li Q, Majumder PP., et al. 2016. "Genomic analysis of Andamanese provides insights into ancient human migration into Asia and adaptation", Nat Genet. 48(9): 1066–1070. |
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Mondal M, Casals F, Xu T, Dall’Olio GM, Pybus M, Netea MG, Comas D, Laayouni H, Li Q, Majumder PP., et al. 2016. "Genomic analysis of Andamanese provides insights into ancient human migration into Asia and adaptation", Nat Genet. 48(9): 1066–1070. |
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Rasmussen, M., et al., "An Aboriginal Australian genome reveals separate human dispersals into Asia", ''Science'' 334(6052) (2011), 94-98, {{DOI|10.1126/science.1211177}}. |
Rasmussen, M., et al., "An Aboriginal Australian genome reveals separate human dispersals into Asia", ''Science'' 334(6052) (2011), 94-98, {{DOI|10.1126/science.1211177}}. |
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"We show that Aboriginal Australians are descendants of an early human dispersal into eastern Asia, possibly 62,000 to 75,000 years ago. This dispersal is separate from the one that gave rise to modern Asians 25,000 to 38,000 years ago."</ref> |
"We show that Aboriginal Australians are descendants of an early human dispersal into eastern Asia, possibly 62,000 to 75,000 years ago. This dispersal is separate from the one that gave rise to modern Asians 25,000 to 38,000 years ago."</ref> |
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Journalistic report: [https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/15/science/studying-recent-human-evolution-at-the-genetic-level.html East Asian Physical Traits Linked to 35,000-Year-Old Mutation], ''NYT'', 14 February 2013.</ref> |
Journalistic report: [https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/15/science/studying-recent-human-evolution-at-the-genetic-level.html East Asian Physical Traits Linked to 35,000-Year-Old Mutation], ''NYT'', 14 February 2013.</ref> |
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A 2013 study found [[Neanderthal admixture|Neanderthal introgression]] of 18 genes—several of which are related to UV-light adaptation—within the chromosome 3p21.31 region (HYAL region) of East Asians. The introgressive haplotypes were positively selected in only East Asian populations, rising steadily from 45,000 years ago until a sudden increase of growth rate around 5,000 to 3,500 years ago. They occur at very high frequencies among East Asian populations in contrast to other Eurasian populations (e.g. European and South Asian populations). The findings also suggests that this Neanderthal introgression occurred within the ancestral population shared by East Asians and Native Americans.<ref name=dinch3>{{cite journal |
A 2013 study found [[Neanderthal admixture|Neanderthal introgression]] of 18 genes—several of which are related to UV-light adaptation—within the chromosome 3p21.31 region (HYAL region) of East Asians. The introgressive haplotypes were positively selected in only East Asian populations, rising steadily from 45,000 years ago until a sudden increase of growth rate around 5,000 to 3,500 years ago. They occur at very high frequencies among East Asian populations in contrast to other Eurasian populations (e.g. European and South Asian populations). The findings also suggests that this Neanderthal introgression occurred within the ancestral population shared by East Asians and Native Americans.<ref name=dinch3>{{cite journal |last=Ding |first=Q. |author2=Hu, Y. |author3=Xu, S. |author4=Wang, J. |author5=Jin, L. |title=Neanderthal Introgression at Chromosome 3p21.31 was Under Positive Natural Selection in East Asians |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |year=2014 |origyear=Online 2013 |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=683–695 |doi=10.1093/molbev/mst260 |pmid=24336922}}.</ref> |
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"[[Tianyuan Man]]", an individual who lived in China c. 40,000 years ago, showed substantial Neanderthal admixture. |
"[[Tianyuan Man]]", an individual who lived in China c. 40,000 years ago, showed substantial Neanderthal admixture. |
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A 2017 study of the ancient DNA of Tianyuan Man found that the individual is closely related to modern East Asian popularions, but not a direct ancestor.<ref>Yang et al., "40,000-Year-Old Individual from Asia Provides Insight into Early Population Structure in Eurasia", Current Biology Volume 27, Issue 20, p3202–3208.e9, 23 October 2017, DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.030.</ref> |
A 2017 study of the ancient DNA of Tianyuan Man found that the individual is closely related to modern East Asian popularions, but not a direct ancestor.<ref>Yang et al., "40,000-Year-Old Individual from Asia Provides Insight into Early Population Structure in Eurasia", Current Biology Volume 27, Issue 20, p3202–3208.e9, 23 October 2017, DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.030.</ref> |
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===Subgroupings=== |
=== Subgroupings === |
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In a 1994 study led by [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza]],<ref name=Sforza>Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., Menozzi, P. & Piazza, A. (1994). The History and Geography of Human Genes. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.</ref> 42 Asian populations were divided into three groupings, 1. [[Caucasoid race|Asian Caucasoids]], 2. [[Northeast Asia|Northeast]] and [[East Asia]]n, 3. [[Southeast Asia]]n, with substantial Caucasoid-Mongoloid hybridization along an approximate boundary running from the [[Ural Mountains|Urals]] to [[East India|the eastern part of India]].<ref>More specifically, the ethnic groups Cavalli-Sforza said that were in the Northeast and East Asian cluster were the [[Koryaks|Koryak]], [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]], [[Chukchi people|Reindeer Chukchi]], [[Nganasan people|Nganasan]] [[Samoyedic peoples|Samoyed]], [[Tungusic peoples|Northern Tungus]], [[List of small-numbered indigenous peoples of Russia|Nentsy]], N. Chinese, [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]], [[Demographics of Bhutan|Bhutanese]], [[Ainu people|Ainu]], [[Mongols|Mongol]], [[Japanese people|Japanese]] and [[Koreans|Korean]]. |
In a 1994 study led by [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza]],<ref name=Sforza>Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., Menozzi, P. & Piazza, A. (1994). The History and Geography of Human Genes. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.</ref> 42 Asian populations were divided into three groupings, 1. [[Caucasoid race|Asian Caucasoids]], 2. [[Northeast Asia|Northeast]] and [[East Asia]]n, 3. [[Southeast Asia]]n, with substantial Caucasoid-Mongoloid hybridization along an approximate boundary running from the [[Ural Mountains|Urals]] to [[East India|the eastern part of India]].<ref>More specifically, the ethnic groups Cavalli-Sforza said that were in the Northeast and East Asian cluster were the [[Koryaks|Koryak]], [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]], [[Chukchi people|Reindeer Chukchi]], [[Nganasan people|Nganasan]] [[Samoyedic peoples|Samoyed]], [[Tungusic peoples|Northern Tungus]], [[List of small-numbered indigenous peoples of Russia|Nentsy]], N. Chinese, [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]], [[Demographics of Bhutan|Bhutanese]], [[Ainu people|Ainu]], [[Mongols|Mongol]], [[Japanese people|Japanese]] and [[Koreans|Korean]]. |
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Moving south, the ethnic groups Cavalli-Sforza said that were in the Southeast Asian cluster were the [[Native Indonesians|Indonesian]], [[Demographics of Malaysia|Malaysian]], [[Taiwanese aborigines|Taiwan aborigines]], S. Chinese, [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]], [[Muong people|Muong]], [[Thai people|Thai]], [[Filipino people|Filipino]], [[Balinese people|Balinese]] and [[People of Nepal|Nepalese]].</ref> |
Moving south, the ethnic groups Cavalli-Sforza said that were in the Southeast Asian cluster were the [[Native Indonesians|Indonesian]], [[Demographics of Malaysia|Malaysian]], [[Taiwanese aborigines|Taiwan aborigines]], S. Chinese, [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]], [[Muong people|Muong]], [[Thai people|Thai]], [[Filipino people|Filipino]], [[Balinese people|Balinese]] and [[People of Nepal|Nepalese]].</ref> |
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Other studies also show that S. Chinese, Vietnamese and Tai peoples were found intermediate between the N. Chinese or other Northeast Asians and Southeast Asian.<ref name="naturestudy">Table from "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture". Nature (journal, 16 September 2004 issue)</ref><ref name="EJH">Table from " A spatial analysis of genetic structure of human populations in China reveals distinct difference between maternal and paternal lineages". European Journal of Human Genetics (journal, 23 January 2008 issue)</ref> {{cite web |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations/ |title=Reference populations}} |
Other studies also show that S. Chinese, Vietnamese and Tai peoples were found intermediate between the N. Chinese or other Northeast Asians and Southeast Asian.<ref name="naturestudy">Table from "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture". Nature (journal, 16 September 2004 issue)</ref><ref name="EJH">Table from " A spatial analysis of genetic structure of human populations in China reveals distinct difference between maternal and paternal lineages". European Journal of Human Genetics (journal, 23 January 2008 issue)</ref> {{cite web |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations/ |title=Reference populations}} |
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{{nihongo|Atsushi Tajima|田嶋敦}} et al. of [[Graduate University for Advanced Studies]], [[Hayama, Kanagawa]], [[Japan]], said that there is evidence for four separate populations, carrying distinct sets of non-recombining [[Y chromosome]] lineages, within the traditional Mongoloid category: North Asians, Han Chinese, Japanese/Koreans, and Southeast Asians.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Tajima A |author2=PAN I.-H |author3=Fucharoen G |author4=Fucharoen S |author5=Matsuo M |author6=Tokunaga K |author7=Juji T |author8=Hayami M |author9=Omoto K |author10=Horai S | |
{{nihongo|Atsushi Tajima|田嶋敦}} et al. of [[Graduate University for Advanced Studies]], [[Hayama, Kanagawa]], [[Japan]], said that there is evidence for four separate populations, carrying distinct sets of non-recombining [[Y chromosome]] lineages, within the traditional Mongoloid category: North Asians, Han Chinese, Japanese/Koreans, and Southeast Asians.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Tajima A |author2=PAN I.-H |author3=Fucharoen G |author4=Fucharoen S |author5=Matsuo M |author6=Tokunaga K |author7=Juji T |author8=Hayami M |author9=Omoto K |author10=Horai S |year=2002 |title=Three major lineages of Asian Y chromosomes: implications for the peopling of east and southeast Asia |url= |journal=Human Genetics |volume=110 |issue=1 |pages=80–88 |doi=10.1007/s00439-001-0651-9 |pmid=11810301}}</ref> |
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{{nihongo|Satoshi Horai|宝来聡}} of the Japanese [[National Institute of Genetics]], said that phylogenetic analysis indicated that there are two distinct groups of Mongoloids – one which early on diverged from Negroids and another that diverged from Caucasoids later. Horai said that Mongoloid distribution corresponds to [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], [[Oceania]], [[Southeast Asia]], [[east Asia]], and [[Siberia]].<ref name="HoraiHayasaka1990" /> |
{{nihongo|Satoshi Horai|宝来聡}} of the Japanese [[National Institute of Genetics]], said that phylogenetic analysis indicated that there are two distinct groups of Mongoloids – one which early on diverged from Negroids and another that diverged from Caucasoids later. Horai said that Mongoloid distribution corresponds to [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], [[Oceania]], [[Southeast Asia]], [[east Asia]], and [[Siberia]].<ref name="HoraiHayasaka1990" /> |
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A study conducted by the [[Human Genome Organisation|HUGO]] Pan-Asian SNP Consortium in 2009 used [[principal components analysis]], which makes no prior population assumptions, on genetic data sampled from a large number of points across Asia. They said that East Asian and South-East Asian populations clustered together, and suggested a common origin for these populations. At the same time they observed a broad discontinuity between this cluster and South Asia, commenting most of the Indian populations showed evidence of shared ancestry with European populations. The study said that genetic ancestry is strongly correlated with linguistic affiliations as well as geography.<ref name=HUGO-Asia>[http://www.humpopgenfudan.cn/p/A/A1.pdf Mapping Human Genetic Diversity in Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522034534/http://www.humpopgenfudan.cn/p/A/A1.pdf |date=2013-05-22 }}, The HUGO Pan-Asian SNP Consortium, 2009</ref> |
A study conducted by the [[Human Genome Organisation|HUGO]] Pan-Asian SNP Consortium in 2009 used [[principal components analysis]], which makes no prior population assumptions, on genetic data sampled from a large number of points across Asia. They said that East Asian and South-East Asian populations clustered together, and suggested a common origin for these populations. At the same time they observed a broad discontinuity between this cluster and South Asia, commenting most of the Indian populations showed evidence of shared ancestry with European populations. The study said that genetic ancestry is strongly correlated with linguistic affiliations as well as geography.<ref name=HUGO-Asia>[http://www.humpopgenfudan.cn/p/A/A1.pdf Mapping Human Genetic Diversity in Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522034534/http://www.humpopgenfudan.cn/p/A/A1.pdf |date=2013-05-22 }}, The HUGO Pan-Asian SNP Consortium, 2009</ref> |
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Scott W. Ballinger et al. of the Department of Biochemistry at [[Emory University]] said "Asian [[mtDNA]] lineages" originated in Southern China with the "Southern Mongoloid".<ref>{{cite journal | |
Scott W. Ballinger et al. of the Department of Biochemistry at [[Emory University]] said "Asian [[mtDNA]] lineages" originated in Southern China with the "Southern Mongoloid".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ballinger S.W. |year=1992 |title=Southeast Asian Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Reveals Genetic Continuity of Ancient Mongoloid Migrations |url= |journal=Genetics |volume=130 |issue= |pages=139–152}}</ref> |
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{{nihongo|Hiroki Oota|太田博樹}} et al. of the [[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]], [[Germany]], said that "Asian populations" have high [[mtDNA]] variation with [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] having the highest mtDNA diversity, but, overall, the genetic distance between "Asian populations" is small.<ref name="Oota2002" /> |
{{nihongo|Hiroki Oota|太田博樹}} et al. of the [[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]], [[Germany]], said that "Asian populations" have high [[mtDNA]] variation with [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] having the highest mtDNA diversity, but, overall, the genetic distance between "Asian populations" is small.<ref name="Oota2002" /> |
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Melissa L. Cann et al. of the Department of Biochemistry at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], said that early Asians did not mix with "Asian [[Homo]] and that the features of "ancient Asian forms" indicate that "Asian [[Homo erectus|erectus]]" was not ancestral to "[[Homo sapiens]]". Since modern-day "Asians" do not show the amount of [[mtDNA]] divergence expected had they mixed with [[Homo erectus]], Cann believes the expanding Homo sapiens from Africa replaced the Asian Homo erectus.<ref name="CannStonekingWilson1987" /> |
Melissa L. Cann et al. of the Department of Biochemistry at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], said that early Asians did not mix with "Asian [[Homo]] and that the features of "ancient Asian forms" indicate that "Asian [[Homo erectus|erectus]]" was not ancestral to "[[Homo sapiens]]". Since modern-day "Asians" do not show the amount of [[mtDNA]] divergence expected had they mixed with [[Homo erectus]], Cann believes the expanding Homo sapiens from Africa replaced the Asian Homo erectus.<ref name="CannStonekingWilson1987" /> |
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Douglas C. Wallace of the Department of Biochemistry at [[Emory University]] said that the [[Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|mtDNA of the indigenous peoples of the Americas]] is "clearly Asian in character", but the few founding females carried "rare Asian [[mtDNA]]s", causing a different frequency of mtDNA and a "dramatic [[founder effect]]".<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wallace D.C. |author2=Garrison K |author3=Knower W.C. | |
Douglas C. Wallace of the Department of Biochemistry at [[Emory University]] said that the [[Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|mtDNA of the indigenous peoples of the Americas]] is "clearly Asian in character", but the few founding females carried "rare Asian [[mtDNA]]s", causing a different frequency of mtDNA and a "dramatic [[founder effect]]".<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wallace D.C. |author2=Garrison K |author3=Knower W.C. |year=1985 |title=Dramatic Founder Effects in Amerindian Mitochondrial DNAs |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=68 |issue= 2|pages=149–155 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330680202 |pmid=2998196}}</ref> |
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The Austro-Asiatic groups of India are proto Asiatic groups, like the [[Munda people]]. |
The Austro-Asiatic groups of India are proto Asiatic groups, like the [[Munda people]]. |
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Shama Barnabas, B. Joshi and C.G. Suresh of the Division of Biochemical Sciences, National Chemical Laboratory, [[Pune]], [[India]], said that evidence for the original people of [[India]] who they refer to as the "proto-Asiatic element" spreading into Southeast Asia to become [[Southeast Asian]]s is shown by the [[mtDNA]] affinities between [[Indian people|Indians]] and [[East Asian]]s and [[Southeast Asian]]s in ''Dde''I 10394 site along with the associated Asian-specific ''Alu''I 10397 site.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Barnabas S. |author2=Joshi B. |author3=Suresh C. G. | |
Shama Barnabas, B. Joshi and C.G. Suresh of the Division of Biochemical Sciences, National Chemical Laboratory, [[Pune]], [[India]], said that evidence for the original people of [[India]] who they refer to as the "proto-Asiatic element" spreading into Southeast Asia to become [[Southeast Asian]]s is shown by the [[mtDNA]] affinities between [[Indian people|Indians]] and [[East Asian]]s and [[Southeast Asian]]s in ''Dde''I 10394 site along with the associated Asian-specific ''Alu''I 10397 site.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Barnabas S. |author2=Joshi B. |author3=Suresh C. G. |title=Indian-Asian Relationship: mtDNA Reveals More |url= |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=180–183 |doi=10.1007/s001140050699 |bibcode=2000NW.....87..180B|year=2000 }}</ref> |
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==Data tables== |
== Data tables == |
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===Genetic data tables=== |
=== Genetic data tables === |
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{{Nei1985Table1}} |
{{Nei1985Table1}} |
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{{CannStonekingWilson1987Table1}} |
{{CannStonekingWilson1987Table1}} |
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{{Oota2002Table2}} |
{{Oota2002Table2}} |
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===Anthropometric data tables=== |
=== Anthropometric data tables === |
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{{Blumenfeld2000Table1}} |
{{Blumenfeld2000Table1}} |
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{{PickeringBachman2009Table1}} |
{{PickeringBachman2009Table1}} |
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{{Stavrianos2012Table1}} |
{{Stavrianos2012Table1}} |
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==Criticism== |
== Criticism == |
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Amber N. Heard from the Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin has argued "Mongoloid" should be discontinued from forensic literature because Southeast Asians and Northeast Asians differ significantly in their frequency of combined non-metric cranial traits; Southeast Asians and Northeast Asians therefore should not be considered "Mongoloid", but separate ancestry categories.<ref>Heard, A. M. (2008) M.Sc. Forensic Science. "Non-metric assessment of Southeast and Northeast Asian ancestry in the forensic context". Michigan State University Thesis.</ref> |
Amber N. Heard from the Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin has argued "Mongoloid" should be discontinued from forensic literature because Southeast Asians and Northeast Asians differ significantly in their frequency of combined non-metric cranial traits; Southeast Asians and Northeast Asians therefore should not be considered "Mongoloid", but separate ancestry categories.<ref>Heard, A. M. (2008) M.Sc. Forensic Science. "Non-metric assessment of Southeast and Northeast Asian ancestry in the forensic context". Michigan State University Thesis.</ref> |
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The terminology of "Caucasoid", "Mongoloid", "Negroid" have also been criticized more generally as harking back to anthropological classifications unduly based on [[Typology (anthropology)|typology]] alone.<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Neil |first=Dennis |publisher=Palomar College |title=Biological Anthropology Terms |year= |
The terminology of "Caucasoid", "Mongoloid", "Negroid" have also been criticized more generally as harking back to anthropological classifications unduly based on [[Typology (anthropology)|typology]] alone.<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Neil |first=Dennis |publisher=Palomar College |title=Biological Anthropology Terms |year=2006 |date=May 13, 2007 |url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/pglossary.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/gill.html |title=Does Race Exist? A proponent's perspective |first=George W. |last=Gill |publisher=Pbs.org}}</ref> |
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==As a term for Down syndrome== |
== As a term for Down syndrome == |
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{{Main|Mongolian idiocy}} |
{{Main|Mongolian idiocy}} |
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"Mongoloid" has had a second usage, now generally avoided as highly offensive: until the late [[20th century]], people with [[Down syndrome]].<ref name="Smay and Armelagos" /><ref name="Lieberman" /><ref name="Templeton" /><ref name="Keevak" /> were often referred to as "Mongoloids", or in terms of "[[Mongolian idiocy]]" or "Mongolian imbecility". |
"Mongoloid" has had a second usage, now generally avoided as highly offensive: until the late [[20th century]], people with [[Down syndrome]].<ref name="Smay and Armelagos" /><ref name="Lieberman" /><ref name="Templeton" /><ref name="Keevak" /> were often referred to as "Mongoloids", or in terms of "[[Mongolian idiocy]]" or "Mongolian imbecility". |
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The term was motivated by the observation that people with Down syndrome often have [[epicanthic fold]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm |author=Ward, Connor O. John Langdon |title=Down the man and the message |year=2006 |publisher=Down-syndrome.info |access-date=2013-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902102759/http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm |archive-date=2006-09-02 |dead-url=yes |df= |
The term was motivated by the observation that people with Down syndrome often have [[epicanthic fold]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm |author=Ward, Connor O. John Langdon |title=Down the man and the message |year=2006 |publisher=Down-syndrome.info |access-date=2013-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902102759/http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm |archive-date=2006-09-02 |dead-url=yes |df=}}</ref> |
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Coined in 1908, the term remained in medical usage until the 1950s. In 1961, its use was deprecated by a group of genetic experts in an article in ''[[The Lancet]]'' due to its "misleading connotations". |
Coined in 1908, the term remained in medical usage until the 1950s. In 1961, its use was deprecated by a group of genetic experts in an article in ''[[The Lancet]]'' due to its "misleading connotations". |
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<ref>"The importance of this anomaly among Europeans and their descendants is not related to the segregation of genes derived from Asians; its appearance among members of Asian populations suggests such ambiguous designations as 'Mongol Mongoloid'; increasing participation of Chinese and Japanese in investigation of the condition imposes on them the use of an embarrassing term. We urge, therefore, that the expressions which imply a racial aspect of the condition be no longer used. Some of the undersigned are inclined to replace the term Mongolism by such designations as 'Langdon Down Anomaly', or 'Down's Syndrome or Anomaly', or 'Congenital Acromicria'. Several of us believe that this is an appropriate time to introduce the term 'Trisomy 21 Anomaly', which would include cases of simple Trisomy as well as translocations. It is hoped that agreement on a specific phrase will soon crystallise once the term 'Mongolism' has been abandoned." |
<ref>"The importance of this anomaly among Europeans and their descendants is not related to the segregation of genes derived from Asians; its appearance among members of Asian populations suggests such ambiguous designations as 'Mongol Mongoloid'; increasing participation of Chinese and Japanese in investigation of the condition imposes on them the use of an embarrassing term. We urge, therefore, that the expressions which imply a racial aspect of the condition be no longer used. Some of the undersigned are inclined to replace the term Mongolism by such designations as 'Langdon Down Anomaly', or 'Down's Syndrome or Anomaly', or 'Congenital Acromicria'. Several of us believe that this is an appropriate time to introduce the term 'Trisomy 21 Anomaly', which would include cases of simple Trisomy as well as translocations. It is hoped that agreement on a specific phrase will soon crystallise once the term 'Mongolism' has been abandoned." |
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Allen, G. Benda C.J. et al (1961). Lancet corr. 1, 775.</ref> |
Allen, G. Benda C.J. et al (1961). Lancet corr. 1, 775.</ref> |
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The term continued to be used as a [[pejorative]] in the second half of the 20th century, with shortened versions such as ''Mong'' in slang usage.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ricky Gervais, please stop using the word 'mong'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/joepublic/2011/oct/19/ricky-gervais-mong-twitter|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=26 May 2012|location=London|first=Nicola|last=Clark|date=October 19, 2011}}</ref> |
The term continued to be used as a [[pejorative]] in the second half of the 20th century, with shortened versions such as ''Mong'' in slang usage.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ricky Gervais, please stop using the word 'mong' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/joepublic/2011/oct/19/ricky-gervais-mong-twitter |publisher=The Guardian |accessdate=26 May 2012 |location=London |first=Nicola |last=Clark |date=October 19, 2011}}</ref> |
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By the end of the 20th-century, the pejorative connotations of the obsolete term for Down syndrome had in turn rubbed off on the term for the racial category. Thus, |
By the end of the 20th-century, the pejorative connotations of the obsolete term for Down syndrome had in turn rubbed off on the term for the racial category. Thus, |
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Chong Yah Lim in 2004 expressed his dislike for the term "Mongoloid" for the broad racial category due to its connotations of "demented physical and mental developments", suggesting the term "East Asian race" as a more "appropriately neutral, modern term".<ref name=Lim2004p3>Chong Yah Lim. ''Southeast Asia: The Long Road Ahead''. World Scientific, 2004 P. 3. ("A more appropriately neutral, modern term would thus be the East Asian race")</ref> |
Chong Yah Lim in 2004 expressed his dislike for the term "Mongoloid" for the broad racial category due to its connotations of "demented physical and mental developments", suggesting the term "East Asian race" as a more "appropriately neutral, modern term".<ref name=Lim2004p3>Chong Yah Lim. ''Southeast Asia: The Long Road Ahead''. World Scientific, 2004 P. 3. ("A more appropriately neutral, modern term would thus be the East Asian race")</ref> |
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==See also== |
== See also == |
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*[[Afro-Asians|Afro-Asian (mixed ancestry)]] |
* [[Afro-Asians|Afro-Asian (mixed ancestry)]] |
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*[[Asian people]] |
* [[Asian people]] |
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*[[Craniofacial anthropometry]] |
* [[Craniofacial anthropometry]] |
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*[[Eurasian (mixed ancestry)]] |
* [[Eurasian (mixed ancestry)]] |
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*[[Mestizo|Mestizo (mixed ancestry)]] |
* [[Mestizo|Mestizo (mixed ancestry)]] |
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*[[Mongols]] |
* [[Mongols]] |
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==References== |
== References == |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
{{Reflist|30em}} |
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==External links== |
== External links == |
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*{{Commons category-inline|Race}} |
* {{Commons category-inline|Race}} |
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*{{Wiktionary-inline}} |
* {{Wiktionary-inline}} |
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{{Historical definitions of race}} |
{{Historical definitions of race}} |