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{{short description|Open habitat vegetated primarily by non-woody plants}} |
{{short description|Open habitat vegetated primarily by non-woody plants}} |
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{{other uses|Meadow (disambiguation)|Meadows (disambiguation)}} |
{{other uses|Meadow (disambiguation)|Meadows (disambiguation)}} |
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[[File:Blumenwiese bei Obermaiselstein05.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.15|Wildflower meadow]] |
[[File:Blumenwiese bei Obermaiselstein05.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.15|Wildflower meadow]] |
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A '''meadow''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɛ|d|oʊ}} {{respell|MED|oh}}) is an open [[habitat]] |
A '''meadow''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɛ|d|oʊ}} {{respell|MED|oh}}) is an open [[habitat]] or field, [[vegetation|vegetated]] by [[grass]]es, [[herb]]s, and other non-[[woody plant]]s. [[Tree]]s or [[shrub]]s may sparsely populate meadows, as long as these areas maintain an open character. Meadows can occur naturally under favourable conditions, but are often artificially created from [[clearing (geography)|cleared]] shrub or [[woodland]] for the production of [[hay]], [[fodder]], or [[livestock]].<ref name=":6">{{cite journal |last=Eriksson |first=Ove |date=2020 |title=Origin and Development of Managed Meadows in Sweden: A Review |journal=Rural Landscapes: Society, Environment, History |volume=7 |issue=1 |doi=10.16993/rl.51 |issn=2002-0104 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Meadow habitats, as a group, are characterized as "semi-natural grasslands", meaning that they are largely composed of [[native species|species native]] to the region, with only limited human intervention. |
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[[File:Живой луг Битцы.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Living meadow, [[Bitsa Park]]]] |
[[File:Живой луг Битцы.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Living meadow, [[Bitsa Park]]]] |
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Meadows attract a multitude of [[wildlife]], and support [[flora]] and [[fauna]] that could not thrive in other habitats. They are [[ecology|ecologically]] important as they provide areas for animal [[courtship display]]s, [[nest|nesting]], food gathering, [[pollination|pollinating]] insects, and sometimes sheltering, if the vegetation is high enough. There are multiple types of meadows, including agricultural, transitional, and perpetual |
Meadows attract a multitude of [[wildlife]], and support [[flora]] and [[fauna]] that could not thrive in other habitats. They are [[ecology|ecologically]] important as they provide areas for animal [[courtship display]]s, [[nest|nesting]], food gathering, [[pollination|pollinating]] insects, and sometimes sheltering, if the vegetation is high enough. There are multiple types of meadows, including agricultural, transitional, and perpetual – each playing a unique and important part of the [[ecosystem]]. |
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Like [[climate change and ecosystems|other ecosystems]], meadows will experience increased [[stress (biology)|pressure]] (including on [[effects of climate change on plant biodiversity|their biodiversity]]) due to [[climate change]], especially as [[precipitation]] and weather conditions change. However, [[grassland]]s and meadows also have an important [[climate change mitigation]] potential as [[carbon sink]]s; deep-rooted grasses store a substantial amount of [[soil carbon|carbon in soil]]. |
Like [[climate change and ecosystems|other ecosystems]], meadows will experience increased [[stress (biology)|pressure]] (including on [[effects of climate change on plant biodiversity|their biodiversity]]) due to [[climate change]], especially as [[precipitation]] and weather conditions change. However, [[grassland]]s and meadows also have an important [[climate change mitigation]] potential as [[carbon sink]]s; deep-rooted grasses store a substantial amount of [[soil carbon|carbon in soil]]. |
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Especially in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]], the term meadow is commonly used in its original sense to mean a [[Hay|hay meadow]], signifying grassland [[mowing|mow]]n annually in the summer for making [[hay]]. Agricultural meadows are typically [[lowland]] or [[Upland pasture|upland]] fields upon which hay or pasture grasses grow from self-sown or hand-sown seed.<ref name="meadow" /> Traditional hay meadows were once common in rural Britain, but are now in decline. Ecologist Professor John Rodwell states that over the past century, England and Wales have lost about 97% of their hay meadows.<ref name="haymeadow">[[Rebecca Morelle]]: [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10381309#story_continues_1 Conservationists warn of hay meadow decline] BBC News Science & Environment, June 28, 2010. Retrieved June 18, 2013.</ref> Fewer than 15,000 [[hectare]]s of lowland meadows remain in the UK and most sites are relatively small and fragmented. 25% of the UK's meadows are found in [[Worcestershire]], with Foster's Green Meadow managed by the [[Worcestershire Wildlife Trust]] being a major site.<ref>James Hitchcock ''Fields of Gold'' Worcestershire Life May 2013 p75</ref> |
Especially in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]], the term meadow is commonly used in its original sense to mean a [[Hay|hay meadow]], signifying grassland [[mowing|mow]]n annually in the summer for making [[hay]]. Agricultural meadows are typically [[lowland]] or [[Upland pasture|upland]] fields upon which hay or pasture grasses grow from self-sown or hand-sown seed.<ref name="meadow" /> Traditional hay meadows were once common in rural Britain, but are now in decline. Ecologist Professor John Rodwell states that over the past century, England and Wales have lost about 97% of their hay meadows.<ref name="haymeadow">[[Rebecca Morelle]]: [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10381309#story_continues_1 Conservationists warn of hay meadow decline] BBC News Science & Environment, June 28, 2010. Retrieved June 18, 2013.</ref> Fewer than 15,000 [[hectare]]s of lowland meadows remain in the UK and most sites are relatively small and fragmented. 25% of the UK's meadows are found in [[Worcestershire]], with Foster's Green Meadow managed by the [[Worcestershire Wildlife Trust]] being a major site.<ref>James Hitchcock ''Fields of Gold'' Worcestershire Life May 2013 p75</ref> |
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A similar concept to the hay meadow is the [[pasture]], which differs from the meadow in that it is grazed through the summer, rather than being allowed to grow out and periodically be cut for hay.<ref name="meadow">[[s:The New International Encyclopædia/Meadow|Meadow]] The New International Encyclopedia, 1905. Retrieved June 18, 2013.</ref> A pasture can also refer to any land used for grazing, and in this wider sense the term refers not only to grass pasture but also to non-grassland habitats such as [[heathland]], [[moorland]] and [[wood pasture]].<ref>[[s:The New International Encyclopædia/Pasture|Pasture]] The New International Encyclopedia, 1905. Retrieved July 5, 2013.</ref> The term, [[grassland]], is used to describe both hay meadows and grass pastures.{{ |
A similar concept to the hay meadow is the [[pasture]], which differs from the meadow in that it is grazed through the summer, rather than being allowed to grow out and periodically be cut for hay.<ref name="meadow">[[s:The New International Encyclopædia/Meadow|Meadow]] The New International Encyclopedia, 1905. Retrieved June 18, 2013.</ref> A pasture can also refer to any land used for grazing, and in this wider sense the term refers not only to grass pasture but also to non-grassland habitats such as [[heathland]], [[moorland]] and [[wood pasture]].<ref>[[s:The New International Encyclopædia/Pasture|Pasture]] The New International Encyclopedia, 1905. Retrieved July 5, 2013.</ref> The term, [[grassland]], is used to describe both hay meadows and grass pastures.<ref>{{Citation |last=Rackham |first=Oliver |title=Land-Use Patterns, Historic |date=2013-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123847195000836 |work=Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition) |pages=569–582 |editor-last=Levin |editor-first=Simon A |access-date=2023-05-02 |place=Waltham |publisher=Academic Press |language=en |isbn=978-0-12-384720-1}}</ref> |
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The specific agricultural practices in relation to the meadow can take on various expressions. As mentioned, this could be hay production or providing food for grazing cattle and livestock but also to give room for [[orchards]] or [[honey]] production. Meadows are embedded and dependent on a complex web of socio-cultural conditions for their maintenance. Historically, they emerged to increase agricultural efficiency when the necessary tools became available. Today, agricultural practices have shifted and meadows have largely lost their original purpose. Yet, they are appreciated today for their aesthetics and ecological functions. Consequently, the European Union's [[Common Agricultural Policy]] subsidizes their management, mostly through grazing.<ref name=":6" /> |
The specific agricultural practices in relation to the meadow can take on various expressions. As mentioned, this could be hay production or providing food for grazing cattle and livestock but also to give room for [[orchards]] or [[honey]] production. Meadows are embedded and dependent on a complex web of socio-cultural conditions for their maintenance. Historically, they emerged to increase agricultural efficiency when the necessary tools became available. Today, agricultural practices have shifted and meadows have largely lost their original purpose. Yet, they are appreciated today for their aesthetics and ecological functions. Consequently, the European Union's [[Common Agricultural Policy]] subsidizes their management, mostly through grazing.<ref name=":6" /> |
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As [[extensive farming]] like grazing is diminishing in some parts of the world, the meadow is endangered as a habitat. A number of research projects attempt to restore natural meadow habitats by reintroducing natural, large grazers.<ref name=FREE/><ref name="Natural grazing" /><ref name=":3" /> These includes [[deer]], [[elk]], [[goat]], [[wild horse]], etc. depending on the location. A more exotic example with a wider scope is the European [[Tauros Programme]].{{Cn|date=February 2021}} |
As [[extensive farming]] like grazing is diminishing in some parts of the world, the meadow is endangered as a habitat. A number of research projects attempt to restore natural meadow habitats by reintroducing natural, large grazers.<ref name=FREE/><ref name="Natural grazing" /><ref name=":3" /> These includes [[deer]], [[elk]], [[goat]], [[wild horse]], etc. depending on the location. A more exotic example with a wider scope is the European [[Tauros Programme]].{{Cn|date=February 2021}} |
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Some environmental organization recommend converting [[lawn]]s to meadows by stopping or reducing mowing. They claim that meadows can better preserve [[biodiversity]], water, reduce the use of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web |last1=MCLENDON |first1=RUSSELL |title=Why flowering meadows are better than lawns |url=https://www.mnn.com/health/healthy-spaces/blogs/meadows-grasslands-biodiversity |website=Mother Nature Network |publisher=2018 NARRATIVE CONTENT GROUP |access-date=9 July 2018}}</ref> For example, in 2018 environmental organizations with the support of the Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs of England, concerned by the decline in the number of [[Bee|bees]] worldwide, in the first day of Bees' Needs Week 2018 ( |
Some environmental organization recommend converting [[lawn]]s to meadows by stopping or reducing mowing. They claim that meadows can better preserve [[biodiversity]], water, reduce the use of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web |last1=MCLENDON |first1=RUSSELL |title=Why flowering meadows are better than lawns |url=https://www.mnn.com/health/healthy-spaces/blogs/meadows-grasslands-biodiversity |website=Mother Nature Network |publisher=2018 NARRATIVE CONTENT GROUP |access-date=9 July 2018}}</ref> For example, in 2018 environmental organizations with the support of the Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs of England, concerned by the decline in the number of [[Bee|bees]] worldwide, in the first day of Bees' Needs Week 2018 (9–15 July) give some recommendation how to preserve bees. The recommendations include 1) growing flowers, shrubs, and trees, 2) letting the garden grow wild, 3) cutting grass less often, 4) leaving insect nest and hibernation spots alone, and 5) using careful consideration with pesticides.<ref name="Bees’ Needs Week 2018">{{cite web |title=Bees' Needs Week 2018 |url=https://www.bumblebeeconservation.org/bees-needs/ |website=Bumblebee Conservation Trust |publisher=Bumblebee Conservation Trust |access-date=9 July 2018}}</ref> |
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=== Impact of tourism === |
=== Impact of tourism === |
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==== Effects of changing precipitation patterns ==== |
==== Effects of changing precipitation patterns ==== |
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There is a variety of hydrological regimes for meadows, ranging from dry to humid, each yielding different plant communities adapted to the respective provider of water. A shift in precipitation patterns has very different effects, depending on the type of meadow. Meadows that are either dry or wet appear to be rather resilient to change, as a moderate increase or decrease in precipitation does not radically alter their character. Meanwhile, mesic meadows, with a moderate supply of water do change their character as it is easier to tip them into a different regime.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Debinski|first1=Diane M.|last2=Wickham|first2=Hadley|last3=Kindscher|first3=Kelly|last4=Caruthers|first4=Jennet C.|last5=Germino|first5=Matthew|date=2010|title=Montane meadow change during drought varies with background hydrologic regime and plant functional group|journal=Ecology|volume=91|issue=6|pages=1672–1681|doi=10.1890/09-0567.1|pmid=20583709|hdl=1808/16593|issn=0012-9658|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dry meadows in particular are threatened by the invasion of [[Shrub|shrubs]] and other woody plants and a decreasing prevalence of flowering [[Forb|forbs]], whereas hydric sites tend to lose woody species.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Climate Change Adaption Manual |
There is a variety of hydrological regimes for meadows, ranging from dry to humid, each yielding different plant communities adapted to the respective provider of water. A shift in precipitation patterns has very different effects, depending on the type of meadow. Meadows that are either dry or wet appear to be rather resilient to change, as a moderate increase or decrease in precipitation does not radically alter their character. Meanwhile, mesic meadows, with a moderate supply of water do change their character as it is easier to tip them into a different regime.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Debinski|first1=Diane M.|last2=Wickham|first2=Hadley|last3=Kindscher|first3=Kelly|last4=Caruthers|first4=Jennet C.|last5=Germino|first5=Matthew|date=2010|title=Montane meadow change during drought varies with background hydrologic regime and plant functional group|journal=Ecology|volume=91|issue=6|pages=1672–1681|doi=10.1890/09-0567.1|pmid=20583709|hdl=1808/16593|issn=0012-9658|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dry meadows in particular are threatened by the invasion of [[Shrub|shrubs]] and other woody plants and a decreasing prevalence of flowering [[Forb|forbs]], whereas hydric sites tend to lose woody species.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Climate Change Adaption Manual – Lowland meadow|url=http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/file/4632387250028544|last=Natural England, UK|website=Publications Natural England|access-date=10 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Climate Change Adaption Manual – Upland hay meadow|url=http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/file/5831116917309440|last=Natural England, UK|website=Publications Natural England|access-date=10 May 2020}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Due to the dryer upper soil layers, forbs with shallow roots have difficulties obtaining enough water. Woody plants in contrast with their lower-reaching root systems can still extract water stored in lower soil layers and are able to sustain themselves through longer drought periods with their stored water reserves. In the longer term, changing hydrologic regimes may also facilitate the establishment of [[invasive species]] that may be better adapted to the new conditions.<ref name=":0" /> The effects are already quite visible, an example is the substitution of Alpine meadows in the southern Himalayas through shrubland. Climate change appears to be an important driver of this process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brandt|first1=Jodi S.|last2=Haynes|first2=Michelle A.|last3=Kuemmerle|first3=Tobias|last4=Waller|first4=Donald M.|last5=Radeloff|first5=Volker C.|date=February 2013|title=Regime shift on the roof of the world: Alpine meadows converting to shrublands in the southern Himalayas|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=158|pages=116–127|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2012.07.026|issn=0006-3207}}</ref> Wetter winters in contrast might increase total biomass, but favour already competitive species.<ref name=":4" /> By harming specialised plants and promoting the prevalence of more generalist species, more unstable precipitation patterns could also reduce ecological biodiversity.<ref name=":4" /> |
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==== Effects of reduced snowpacks ==== |
==== Effects of reduced snowpacks ==== |