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While Maxentius built up Rome's defenses, Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, made his way to Gaul to confer with Constantine. Maximian offered to wed his younger daughter [[Fausta]] to him, and to elevate him to Augustan rank in Maxentius's secessionist regime. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius, and offer support to Maxentius's cause in Italy. Constantine accepted. In a double ceremony in Trier in the late summer of 307, Constantine married Fausta and was declared Augustus by Maximian. Constantine now gave Maxentius political recognition, but would remain neutral in Galerius's war against Maxentius.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 31; Lenski, 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, ''Emperor Constantine'', 15–16.</ref> |
While Maxentius built up Rome's defenses, Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, made his way to Gaul to confer with Constantine. Maximian offered to wed his younger daughter [[Fausta]] to him, and to elevate him to Augustan rank in Maxentius's secessionist regime. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius, and offer support to Maxentius's cause in Italy. Constantine accepted. In a double ceremony in Trier in the late summer of 307, Constantine married Fausta and was declared Augustus by Maximian. Constantine now gave Maxentius political recognition, but would remain neutral in Galerius's war against Maxentius.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 31; Lenski, 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, ''Emperor Constantine'', 15–16.</ref> |
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Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–8. He soon fell out with his son, and challenged his right to rule in the spring of 308 before an assembly of Roman soldiers. He spoke of Rome's sickly government, disparaged Maxentius for having weakened it, ripped the purple toga from Maxentius's shoulders, and waited for the soldiers to recognize him. The soldiers sided with Maxentius, and Maximian was forced to leave Italy in disgrace.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 32; Lenski, 64; Odahl, 89, 93.</ref> On [[November 11]] [[308]], Galerius called a general council at the military city of [[Carnuntum]] on the upper Danube to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to Caesar. [[Licinius]], a loyal military companion to Galerius, was appointed Augustus of the West.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 32–34; Elliott, 42–43; Lenski, 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, ''Emperor Constantine'', 17; Potter, 349–50; Treadgold, 29.</ref> In early 309 |
Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–8. He soon fell out with his son, and challenged his right to rule in the spring of 308 before an assembly of Roman soldiers. He spoke of Rome's sickly government, disparaged Maxentius for having weakened it, ripped the purple toga from Maxentius's shoulders, and waited for the soldiers to recognize him. The soldiers sided with Maxentius, and Maximian was forced to leave Italy in disgrace.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 32; Lenski, 64; Odahl, 89, 93.</ref> On [[November 11]] [[308]], Galerius called a general council at the military city of [[Carnuntum]] on the upper Danube to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to Caesar. [[Licinius]], a loyal military companion to Galerius, was appointed Augustus of the West.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 32–34; Elliott, 42–43; Lenski, 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, ''Emperor Constantine'', 17; Potter, 349–50; Treadgold, 29.</ref> In early 309 Maximian returned to the court of Constantine in Gaul, the only court that would still accept him.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 32.</ref> |
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==Rebellion against Constantine== |
==Rebellion against Constantine== |
Revision as of 19:26, 5 April 2008
Maximian | |||||
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Caesar then Augustus of the West | |||||
File:Maximian.gif | |||||
Reign | July 21[1] or July 25[2] 285 – 286 (as Caesar under Diocletian) March 1 286[3] – May 1 305 (as Augustus of the West, with Diocletian as Augustus of the East)[4] Late 306 – November 11 308 (declared himself Augustus)[5] 310 (declared himself Augustus)[6] | ||||
Predecessor | Numerian | ||||
Successor | Constantius Chlorus and Galerius | ||||
Spouse | Eutropia | ||||
Issue | Flavia Maximiana Theodora Maxentius Fausta | ||||
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Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius (ca. 250 – ca. July 310[8]), commonly referred to as Maximian, was Caesar (junior Roman Emperor) from July 285[1][2] and Augustus (senior Roman Emperor) from April 1 286[3] to May 1 305.[4] He shared the title of Augustus with his co-emperor and superior, Diocletian. Maximian established his residence at Trier, but spent most of his time on campaign. In the late summer of 285, he successfully campaigned against the Bagaudae in Gaul. From 285 to 288, he fought against Germanic tribes along the Rhine frontier. Together with Diocletian, he ran a scorched earth campaign deep into Alamanni territory in 288, temporarily relieving the Rhenish provinces from the threat of Germanic incursion.
The man he appointed to police the Channel shores, Carausius, rebelled in 286. Maximian was unsuccessful in his attempts to overturn Carausius's rule. His invasion fleet was destroyed by inclement weather in 289. Carausius's successor Allectus was ousted in 296 by Maximian's subordinate Constantius. During Constantius's campaign, Maximian held the Rhenish frontier. After Constantius's success, Maximian moved south to combat Moorish pirates in Iberia and Berber incursions in Mauretania. At the conclusion of these campaigns in 298, he departed for Italy, where he lived in comfort until 305. At Diocletian's behest, Maximian abdicated on May 1 305 in favor of Constantius, and retired to southern Italy.
In late 306, Maximian took the title of Augustus again, and aided his son Maxentius's rebellion in Italy. In April 307, he attempted to depose his son, but failed, and fled to the court of Constantius's successor Constantine in Trier. At the Council of Carnuntum in November 308, Diocletian and his successor Galerius forced Maximian to renounce his imperial claim. In early 310, he attempted to seize Constantine's throne while Constantine was on campaign on the Rhine. Few supported him, and he was captured by Constantine in Marseille. Maximian committed suicide in the summer of 310 on Constantine's orders. During Constantine's war with Maxentius, Maximian's image was purged from all public places. After Constantine ousted and killed Maxentius, his image was rehabilitated, and he was deified.
Early life
Early career
Maximian was born near Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) in the province of Pannonia, around 250, and was about six years younger than Diocletian.[9] Little is known about Maximian's parentage, and the only precise statement made in ancient sources is that his parents were shopkeepers near Sirmium.[10] Otherwise, there are only vague allusions to Illyricum as his patria,[11] to Maximian's Pannonian virtues,[12] and to his harsh upbringing along the war-torn Danube frontier.[13] Maximian joined the army, serving with Diocletian under the Emperors Aurelian (r. 270–275) and Probus (r. 276–282), during which time he was promoted up through the ranks. He probably participated in the Mesopotamian campaign of Carus in 283 and it is likely that he was present when Diocletian was elected emperor on November 20 284 at Nicomedia.[14] The early date of Maximian's appointment suggests that Diocletian had cultivated a relationship with Maximian long before granting him the Caesarship, and Maximian probably supported Diocletian during his campaign against Carinus (r. 283–285).[15] Some speculate that Maximian and Diocletian arranged their eventual roles before Diocletian's rise to power, but such speculation is impossible to prove or disprove.[16]
Personality
A rustic, Maximian was a man of great energy, firm aggressive character, and with a temperament that made him unlikely to rebel. These were characteristics that would appeal to Diocletian as he considered the appointment of Maximian to the imperial college. The fourth-century historian Aurelius Victor describes Maximian as "a colleague trustworthy in friendship, if somewhat boorish, and of great military talents".[17] His ambitions were limited to the sphere of military action, and he was unlikely to conflict with Diocletian in matters of politics. He was uneducated, and did not attempt to remedy that fact. Comparing his actions to Scipio Africanus's victories over Hannibal during the Second Punic War, the panegyrist of 289 goes on to suggest that Maximian has perhaps not heard of them.[18] The Christian rhetor Lactantius suggests that Maximian shared Diocletian's basic attitudes but was less puritanical in his tastes, and enjoyed the sensual prerogatives offered by his position as emperor.[19] Lactantius records some charges levelled against Maximian's character—that he defiled senators' daughters, and that wherever he travelled he took young virgins to satisfy his unending lust—but Lactantius's hostility towards the pagan emperors discourages giving them much credence.[20]
Family
Maximian had two children from his marriage with the Syrian Eutropia; Maxentius and Fausta. There is no direct evidence in the historical sources for their birthdates, and modern estimates of Maxentius's birth year have varied from circa 277 to circa 287, while most date Fausta's birth to circa 298. Barnes dates Maxentius's birth to circa 283, when Maximian was in Syria, and Fausta's birth to 289 or 290.[21] Theodora, the wife of Constantius Chlorus, is often declared a stepdaughter of Maximian in the ancient sources, and it has been postulated that she was the offspring from Eutropia's previous marriage to Afranius Hannibalianus.[22] The modern historian Timothy Barnes has challenged this view, declaring that the sources that call Theodora Maximian's stepdaughter all derive their information from the unreliable "Kaisergeschichte". A smaller number of more reliable sources call Theodora Maximian's full daughter.[23] Barnes postulates that Theodora was born no later than circa 275 to an unnamed earlier wife of Maximian, possibly of Hannibalianus's daughters from Tralles (Aydın, Turkey).[24]
Appointment to Caesar
At Mediolanum (Milan, Italy) in July 285, either on July 21[25] or July 25,[26] Diocletian proclaimed Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler.[27] Recent history had demonstrated to Diocletian that ruling alone was dangerous to the stability of the empire; the sole-emperors Aurelian and Probus had been easily removed from power in spite of their military prowess, leaving the empire in turmoil.[28] Conflict boiled in every province of the empire, from Gaul to Syria, from Egypt to the lower Danube. It was too much for a single person to control, and Diocletian needed a lieutenant.[29] Some suggest that less flattering reasons were also influential; it has been suggested that Diocletian thought himself a mediocre general, and in need of a man to do most of his fighting. Maximian fit this position well.[30]
The concept of dual rulership was nothing new to the Roman Empire. Augustus, the first emperor (r. 27 BC–AD 19), had shared power with his colleagues, and more formal offices of co-emperor had existed from Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) on.[31] Most recently, the emperor Carus and his sons had ruled together, albeit unsuccessfully. Diocletian was in a less comfortable position than most of his predecessors, as he had a daughter, Valeria, but no sons. His co-ruler had to be from outside his family and could not, therefore, be easily trusted.[32] Some historians state that Diocletian, like some emperors before him, adopted Maximian as his filius Augusti ("Augustan son") upon his appointment to the throne, though this argument has not been universally accepted.[33][34]
The relationship between the two rulers was quickly couched in religious terms. Circa 287 Diocletian assumed the title Iovius, and Maximian that of Herculius.[35] The titles were probably meant to convey certain characteristics of their associated leaders: Diocletian, in Jovian style, would take on the dominating roles of planning and commanding; Maximian, in Herculian mode, would take on the lesser, but still heroic, role of completing assigned tasks.[36] For all their religious connotations, however, the emperors were not meant to be "gods" in the tradition of the Imperial cult—although they may have been hailed as such in Imperial panegyrics. Instead, they were seen as the representatives of the gods, the tools effecting the gods's will on earth.[37] After his appointment, Maximian was assigned the government of the West and dispatched to fight the rebel Bagaudae in Gaul while Diocletian returned to the East.[38]
Early campaigns in Gaul and Germany
The Bagaudae are obscure figures and the uprising in 285 is their first appearance in the historical record.[39] The fourth-century historian Eutropius describes them as rural people, naming Amandus and Aelianus as their leaders, while Aurelius Victor calls them bandits.[40] Modern historians describe them as a disorganized mob whose principle armaments were axes and farm tools. It has been suggested that the rebels were not merely peasants, but combatants for Gallic political autonomy, or supporters of the recently deposed Carus (a native of Gallia Narbonensis, in what is now southern France). Were this the case, supporters of Amandus and Aelianus would in fact be defecting imperial troops, not brigands.[41] Despite being poorly equipped, poorly led, and badly trained, and not therefore much of a challenge to trained Roman legionaries, Diocletian certainly thought that the Bagaudae were enough of a threat to need an emperor to combat them.[42][43]
Maximian made his way to Gaul and fought the Bagaudae late in the summer of 285.[44] Details for the campaign are sparse, and when it is referenced in the historical sources it is only to extol Maximian's virtues and successes, never to provide tactical information. The 289 panegyric to Maximian states only that Maximian dealt with the rebels using a blend of harshness and leniency.[45] Because the campaign had been against the empire's own citizens most found it unpleasant to remember, and it was not recorded in any titles or official triumphs. The panegyrist says to Maximian "I pass quickly over this episode, for I see in your magnanimity you would rather forget this victory than celebrate it."[46] By the end of the year the scale of the revolt had been significantly reduced, and Maximian shifted the concentration of his forces to the Rhine frontier.[47] Stability on the Rhine, a condition missing for most of the third century, contributed to Maximian's success.[48]
Maximian did not eliminate the Bagaudae so quickly as to avoid provoking Germanic invasion, however. Two barbarian armies, the first of Burgundians and Alamanni, the second of Chaibones and Heruli, forded the Rhine and entered Gaul in the autumn of 285.[49] The first of these was left to die of disease and hunger, and Maximian intercepted and defeated the second.[50] He then established his headquarters on the Rhine in preparation for future conflict with Germanic tribes,[51] either at Moguntiacum (Mainz, Germany), Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany), or Colonia Agrippina (Cologne, Germany). The inability to pinpoint a precise location for Maximian's favored residence demonstrates the great amount of time he spent in transit.[52]
Carausius
Although most of Gaul was pacified, regions along either side of the English Channel still suffered from Frankish and Saxon piracy. The Emperors Probus and Carinus had begun work on fortifications along the so-called "Saxon Shore", but much was still left to be done.[53] Archaeological evidence from Dover and Boulogne indicates nothing that could be called a naval base, and therefore no real attempt to rid the region of pirates, in the fifteen years before 285.[54] In response to the continuing crisis, Maximian appointed Mausaeus Carausius, a Menapian from Germania Inferior (southern and western Netherlands) to command of the Channel, and instructed him to clear it of raiders.[55] Carausius performed his work competently, and was already capturing pirate ships in great numbers before 285 had finished.[56]
Reports soon came back to Maximian that Carausius had begun keeping the goods secured from the pirates for himself, refusing to relinquish them to either the population at large or the imperial treasury.[57] Carausius was confronting raiders only after plundering had finished, and in the aftermath large sums of wealth were left unaccounted for.[58] Maximian ordered that Carausius be arrested and executed, prompting Carausius to flee the continent. His support among the British was strong, and at least two British legions (II Augusta and XX Valeria Victrix) defected in his favor, as did some or all of a legion in the vicinity of Boulogne (probably XXX Ulpia Victrix).[59][60] Carausius quickly eliminated the remaining few loyalists in his camp and declared himself Augustus.[61]
There was little Maximian could do about the revolt. He was occupied on the continent with the Heruli and the Franks, and having given Carausius control of the coast he had no fleet of his own. Carausius meanwhile strengthened his position, enlarging his fleet, enlisting Frankish mercenaries, and ensuring his troops were paid well.[61] By the autumn of 286 Britain and much of northwestern Gaul had joined Carausius's secessionist state, and he soon had the entire Channel coast within his domain.[62][63] He declared himself the leader of an independent British state, an Imperium Britanniarum, and began printing currency of a markedly higher purity than that of Maximian and Diocletian.[61] This earned him the support of British and Gallic merchant classes and made Maximian's continental forces vulnerable to Carausius's influence and wealth.[64][65]
Maximian appointed Augustus
Spurred by the crisis with Carausius, Maximian took up the title of Augustus[66] on April 1 286.[3] No longer would there be only one Augustus in the contest between Britain and the Continent; now the two men were equals. In imperial propaganda, Maximian would become Diocletian's brother, a man more or less equal to his imperial sibling.[67] Maximian's appointment is unusual in that it was impossible for Diocletian to have been present to witness the event. It has suggested that Maximian usurped the title, and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war.[68] Although this suggestion is unpopular, it is clear that Diocletian meant for Maximian to act with a certain amount of independence.[69] Despite the great distance between the two, Diocletian still trusted Maximian enough to invest him with imperial powers, and Maximian still respected Diocletian enough to act in accordance with his partner's will.[70]
There would be no division within the Roman government as a result of there being two Augusti: imperial propaganda from 287 on insists on a singular and indivisible Rome, a patrimonium indivisum.[71] Imperial divisions were nothing more than a matter of convenience. Legal rulings were issued in both emperors' names, the same coins were issued in both parts of the empire, and imperial celebrations were held in the name of both emperors.[72] As the panegyrist of 289 declares to Maximian: "So it is that this great empire is a communal possession for both of you, without any discord, nor would we endure there to be any dispute between you, but plainly you hold the state in equal measure as once those two Heracleidae, the Spartan Kings, had done."[73] Diocletian sometimes issued commands to Maximian's province of Africa; Maximian could presumably do the same for Diocletian's territory. In most cases, the empire was simply wherever the emperor happened to be.[74]
Campaigns against Rhenish tribes
Campaigns in 286 and 287
Realizing that he could not immediately suppress the rogue commander, Maximian campaigned against tribes beyond the Rhine.[75] There are no clear dates for Maximian's campaigns on the Rhine, beyond a general period of 285 to 288.[76] The Rhenish tribes were probably greater threats to Gallic peace than Carausius in any case, and Carausius had Frankish allies in the region.[77] Maximian had many enemies along the Rhine, but these peoples were often in dispute amongst themselves.[78] During his reception of the consular fasces on January 1 287, Maximian was disturbed by news of a barbarian raid. Laying aside his toga and taking up his armor, Maximian marched against the barbarians and, although the barbarians were not entirely dispersed, celebrated a victory for this action when he returned to Gaul later in the year.[62]
Believing the Burgundian and Alemanni tribes living in the Moselle-Vosges region to be the greatest threat, Maximian campaigned in their territory. He used scorched earth tactics, laying waste to their territories and reducing their numbers through famine and disease. Soon after, Maximian campaigned against the weaker Heruli and Chaibones; tribes from the Elbe and Baltic now occupying the Low Countries. Maximian maneuvered them into one location and defeated them in a single battle, fighting in person, riding along the front of the battle line until the Germanic forces broke. Roman forces pursued the fleeing remnants of the tribal armies and destroyed them completely. Having weakened his enemies from starvation,[78] Maximian launched a great invasion across the Rhine.[79] He moved deep into Germanic territory, spreading destruction in the homelands of his enemies,[78] and demonstrating the force of Roman arms.[62] By the winter of 287 he had gained the advantage in the war, and Rhenish lands were free of Germanic tribesmen.[78]
Joint campaign against the Alamanni
The following spring, as Maximian made preparations for dealing with Carausius, Diocletian returned from the East.[80] The emperors met at some time in the year, but neither date nor place are known with certainty.[81] They probably agreed on a joint campaign against the Alamanni and a naval expedition against Carausius.[82] Maximian made a southern entry into Germany, at a point where the Rhine lies low, and carried out a surprise invasion of the Agri Decumates, a region between the upper Rhine and upper Danube deep within Alamanni territory. Meanwhile Diocletian invaded Germany via Raetia. Both emperors burned crops and food supplies as they went, destroying the Germans's means of sustenance.[83] Their actions resulted in large swathes of territory being added to the empire and allowed Maximian's build-up to proceed without further disturbance.[84] In the aftermath, towns along the Rhine were rebuilt, bridgeheads created on the eastern banks at such places as Mainz and Cologne, and a proper military frontier was established, comprising forts, roads, and fortified towns. A military highway through Tornacum (Tournai, Belgium), Bavacum (Bavay, France), Atuatuca Tungrorum (Tongeren, Belgium), Mosae Trajectum (Maastricht, Netherlands), and Cologne connected points along the frontier.[85]
Constantius, Gennobaudes, and resettlement
After the Alamannic campaign, Maximian appointed his praetorian prefect Flavius Constantius; husband of Maximian's daughter Theodora, to lead a campaign against the Franks allied with Carausius. These Franks controlled the Rhine estuaries, preventing attacks against Carausius by sea. Constantius moved up through their territory, wreaking havoc, and reaching the North Sea, causing the Franks to sue for peace. In the subsequent agreement Maximian allied himself with the deposed Frankish king Gennobaudes, reinstating him as king of the Franks.[62] In return, Maximian gained the patronage of Gennobaudes and, with lesser Frankish chiefs swearing loyalty to Gennobaudes, cemented Roman dominance in the region.[86]
Maximian also allowed a settlement of Frisians, Salian Franks, Chamavi and other tribes along a strip of Roman territory, either between the Rhine and Waal rivers from Noviomagus (Nijmegen, Netherlands) to Traiectum (Utrecht, Netherlands)[85] or near Trier.[62] These tribes were allowed to settle there only so long as they recognized Roman dominance in the region. Their presence, in providing a ready pool of manpower and preventing the settlement of other Frankish tribes, meant that Maximian had established a buffer along the northern Rhine, reducing the need to deploy troops in the region.[85]
Later campaigns in Britain and Gaul
Failed expedition against Carausius
By 289, Maximian was prepared to launch a naval invasion against Carausius's Britain. Whatever happened in the following year, the plan was not a success: whether it failed or was simply dropped is not known. The panegyrist addressing Maximian in 289 believes the campaign will be a great success; the panegyrist of 291 makes no mention of the event.[87] Constantius's panegyrist suggests that his fleet was lost to a storm,[88] but this might simply be the panegyrist's attempt to play down the embarrassment of defeat.[89] Diocletian broke off a tour of the Eastern provinces soon thereafter, perhaps after receiving news of Maximian's failure.[90] He returned with haste to the West, reaching Emesa by May 10 290,[91] and Sirmium on the Danube by July 1 290.[92]
Diocletian met Maximian in Milan during the winter of 290–91, either in late December 290 or January 291.[93] The meeting was undertaken with a sense of solemn pageantry, and much of the emperors' time was spent making public appearances. A deputation from the Roman Senate met with the emperors, renewing that body's infrequent contact with the imperial office.[94] People gathered in crowds to witness the emperors descend on the city.[95] It has been surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian's continuing support for his faltering colleague. Matters of politics and war were discussed in secret,[96] and it is possible that expansion of the imperial college to include four emperors (the Tetrarchy), was discussed as well.[97] The emperors would not meet again until 303.[98]
Following Maximian's failed attempt at forming an invasion fleet in 289, an uneasy cease-fire with Carausius began. Maximian did not attempt to overturn Carausius's rule in Britain or on the continent, although the emperors still refused to grant the secessionist state formal legitimacy. For his part, Carausius did not expand his territories beyond the Continental coast of Gaul.[99] Diocletian would not long tolerate such an affront to his dignity, however. Faced with Carausius's secession and further challenges on the Egyptian, Syrian, and Danubian borders, he realized that two emperors were insufficient to manage the empire.[100] On March 1 293 at Milan, Maximian appointed Constantius to the office of Caesar.[101] On either the same day or a month later, Diocletian would do the same for Galerius, thus establishing the "tetrarchy", or "rule of four".[102] Constantius was made to understand that he must succeed where Maximian had failed: he needed to defeat Carausius.[103]
Campaign against Allectus
Constantius fulfilled his duties quickly and efficiently, forcing the expulsion of all Carausian from the continent in 293. As a result, Carausius was assassinated the same year, to be replaced by his treasurer, Allectus.[104] Constantius marched up the coast again, to the estuaries of the Rhine and Scheldt, where he engaged Carausius's Frankish allies once more. He won a victory and took the title Germanicus maximus.[105] Lacking a fleet, Constantius spent the following years preparing for the invasion of Britain.[106] On receiving news of the invasion plans Maximian, who had remained in Italy since the appointment of Constantius, returned to Gaul in the summer of 296 to defend the Rhenish frontiers against Carausius's allies while Constantius launched his invasion of Britain.[107][108] In the ensuing campaign Allectus was killed in battle, and Constantius marched on to Londinium (London, United Kingdom), restoring Roman control of Britain.[109] The island's inhabitants greeted him as a liberator.[110]
Campaigns in North Africa
With Constantius's victorious return, Maximian was able to focus on the conflict in Mauretania (Northwest Africa).[111] As Roman authority weakened over the course of the third century, nomadic Berber tribes had harassed settlements in the region with increasingly severe consequences. In 289, the Governor of Mauretania Caesariensis (roughly modern Algeria) earned the region a temporary respite by moving a small army against the Bavares and Quinquegentiani, but the raiders returned in the 290s. In 296, Maximian put together an army, drawing in Praetorian cohorts, troops from Aquileian, Egyptian, and Danubian legions, Gallic and German auxiliaries, and Thracian recruits.[112] He advanced through Spain in the autumn of 296,[113] and may have defended the region against raiding Moors,[114] before crossing the Strait of Gibraltar into Mauretania Tingitana (roughly modern Morocco) to police the area for Frankish pirates.[112]
By March 297, Maximian had begun a bloody offensive against the Berbers. The campaign was lengthy, and Maximian spent the winter of 297–98 resting in Carthage before returning to the field.[115] Not content to simply return them to homelands in the Atlas Mountains from which they could continue to wage war, Maximian pressed on into Berber territory. The terrain was unfavorable, and the Berbers were skilled at guerrilla warfare, but Maximian pressed on. Apparently wishing to inflict as much punishment as possible on the tribes, he devastated previously secure land, killed as many as he could, and forced the remainder back into the Sahara.[112] His campaign was concluded by the spring of the following year, and on March 10 298, he made a triumphal entry into Carthage.[116] Inscriptions there record the people's thanks for Maximian, hailing him, in the same way Constantius had been on his entry to London, as redditor lucis aeternae, "restorer of the eternal light".[112] Maximian returned to Italy in 299 to celebrate another triumph in Rome.[117]
Leisure and retirement
After his Mauretanian campaign, Maximian lived a life of leisure in the north of Italy. He spent most of his time at palaces in Milan and Aquilea, leaving the tasks of war to his subordinate Constantius.[118] Maximian was more aggressive in his relationship with the Senate than Constantius, and is alleged to have terrorized the institution, to the point of falsely charging and subsequently executing senators.[119] There is some corroboration for this: the prefect of Rome in 301/2 was disgraced and executed. Constantius, by contrast, kept up good relations with the senatorial aristocracy, and spent his time in active defense of the empire. He took up arms against the Franks in 300 or 301, and continued to campaign against Germanic tribes on the Upper Rhine in 302–304 while Maximian was at rest in Italy.[120]
Maximian was only disturbed from his rest in Aquileia and Milan to attend Diocletian's vicennalia, the twenty year anniversary of his reign, in Rome in 303. Some evidence suggests that it was on this occasion that Diocletian exacted a promise from Maximian that they would retire together, leaving their thrones as Augusti to the Caesars Constantius and Galerius.[121] Presumably, it was expected that Maximian's son Maxentius and Constantius's son Constantine, children raised in Nicomedia together, would become the new Caesars. Had the date of the abdication been set at the meeting as 305, it would have given Maximian one more moment of glory as officiator over the Secular Games scheduled for 304. Maximian might not have wished to retire, but as Diocletian had Maxentius under his authority in Nicomedia, there was little resistance to the plan.[122]
On May 1, 305, Diocletian and Maximian retired together in separate ceremonies in Milan and Nicomedia. The plan was not entirely to Maximian's liking: perhaps because of the influencing hand of Galerius, the arranged progression saw Severus and Maximinus rise to the office of Caesar, not Maxentius. The two men had long careers in the military, and were close to Galerius: Maximinus was his nephew, and Severus had been his colleague in the army.[123] Maximian would quickly sour to the new tetrarchy, which saw Galerius assume the dominant position Diocletian once held. Although he led the ceremony that proclaimed Licinius Caesar, he was sufficiently dissatisfied with the new system to assist his son's rebellion against it within two years.[124] Diocletian retired to his homeland, to the expansive palace he had built in Dalmatia near the administrative center of Salona on the Adriatic. Maximian retired to villas in Campania or Lucania, where he lived a life of ease and luxury.[125] They were far from the political centers of the empire, but Diocletian and Maximian were close enough to remain in regular contact with each other.[126]
Maxentius's rebellion
After Constantius's death on July 25 306, Constantine assumed the title of Augusts, an action which displeased Galerius who offered Constantine the title of Caesar instead. Constantine accepted, and the title of Augustus went to Severus instead.[127] Maxentius was jealous of Constantine's power and on October 28 306, he persuaded a cohort of imperial guardsmen to declare him emperor. Uncomfortable with sole leadership, Maxentius sent a set of purple robes to Maximian, and saluted him as "Augustus for the second time".[128] Maximian would rule as a theoretical equal to Maxentius, but with less real power and a lower official rank.[129] Galerius refused to recognize Maxentius, and sent Severus against him. The fact that many of Severus' soldiers had served under Maximian, along with bribes offered to the troops by Maxentius, resulted in most of Severus' army defecting to Maxentius. Severus fled to Ravenna, which Maximian then put under siege. With the city strongly fortified, Maximian offered terms, which Severus accepted, resulting in his seizure and removal from power. Maximian brought him under guard to a public villa in southern Rome, where he was kept as a hostage. Galerius led a second force against Maxentius in the autumn of 307, but his forces again failed to take Rome, and he was forced to retreat north with his army mostly intact.[130]
While Maxentius built up Rome's defenses, Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, made his way to Gaul to confer with Constantine. Maximian offered to wed his younger daughter Fausta to him, and to elevate him to Augustan rank in Maxentius's secessionist regime. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius, and offer support to Maxentius's cause in Italy. Constantine accepted. In a double ceremony in Trier in the late summer of 307, Constantine married Fausta and was declared Augustus by Maximian. Constantine now gave Maxentius political recognition, but would remain neutral in Galerius's war against Maxentius.[131]
Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–8. He soon fell out with his son, and challenged his right to rule in the spring of 308 before an assembly of Roman soldiers. He spoke of Rome's sickly government, disparaged Maxentius for having weakened it, ripped the purple toga from Maxentius's shoulders, and waited for the soldiers to recognize him. The soldiers sided with Maxentius, and Maximian was forced to leave Italy in disgrace.[132] On November 11 308, Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum on the upper Danube to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to Caesar. Licinius, a loyal military companion to Galerius, was appointed Augustus of the West.[133] In early 309 Maximian returned to the court of Constantine in Gaul, the only court that would still accept him.[134]
Rebellion against Constantine
In 310, Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was on campaign against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. In Arles, Maximian announced that Constantine was dead, and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was compelled to leave. Constantine soon heard of the rebellion, abandoned his campaign against the Franks, and marched his army up the Rhine. He moved quickly to southern Gaul, where he approached the fleeing Maximian at Massilia (Marseille). Massilia was better capable of withstanding a long siege than Arles, but it made little difference: the loyal citizens of Massilia opened the rear gates of the city to Constantine. Maximian was captured, reproved for his crimes, and stripped of his title for the third and last time. Constantine granted Maximian some initial clemency, but his suicide was strongly encouraged. Maximian hanged himself in July 310.[135]
In spite of the rupture in their relations, Maxentius presented himself as his father's devoted son after his suicide.[136] He began minting coins bearing his father's deified image and proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death.[137] Constantine initially presented Maximian's death as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, Constantine was spreading another narrative. After Constantine pardoned him, Maximian had planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine. Constantine put a eunuch in bed in his place. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch, and was offered the chance to hang himself. Maximian accepted.[138] In addition to the propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image.[139]
Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge on October 28 312. Maxentius died, and Italy came under Constantine's rule.[140] Eutropia swore on oath that Maxentius was not Maximian's son, and Maximian's memory was rehabilitated. He was consecrated as a god again, probably in 317, because his apotheosis under Maxentius had been rendered null and void. He began appearing on Constantine's coinage as divus, or divine, by 318, together with the deified Constantius and Claudius Gothicus.[141] The three were hailed as Constantine's forbears. They were called "the best of emperors".[142] Through his daughters Fausta and Flavia, Maximian was grandfather or great-grandfather to every reigning emperor from 337 to 363.[143]
See also
- Saints Sergius and Bacchus, officers of Maximian's army who were executed for being Christians
Notes
- ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 4.
- ^ a b Potter, 280–81.
- ^ a b c Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6–7; Potter, 282; Southern, 141–42. The chronology of Maximian's appointment to Augustus is somewhat uncertain (Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Southern, 142). It is sometimes suggested that Maximian was appointed Augustus from July 285, and never appointed Caesar. This suggestion has not received much support (Potter, 281; Southern, 142; following De Casearibus 39.17).
- ^ a b Barnes, New Empire, 4.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32–34; Barnes, New Empire, 13; Elliott, 42–43; Lenski, 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 349–50; Treadgold, 29.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 13.
- ^ For full titulature, see: Barnes, New Empire, 17–29.
- ^ a b c Barnes, New Empire, 32.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 32; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 30.
- ^ Epitome de Caesaribus 40.10, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 32.
- ^ Victor, Liber de Caesaribus 39.26, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 32.
- ^ Panegrici Latini 10(2).2.2ff, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 32.
- ^ Panegrici Latini 10(2).2.4, quoted in Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 44–45.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 32–33; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 30.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Williams, 43–44.
- ^ Williams, 43–44.
- ^ Victor, Liber de Caesaribus 39, quoted in Williams, 44.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 10(2), quoted in Williams, 44.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 13.
- ^ Lactantius, DMP 8, quoted in Williams, 44.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 34.
- ^ Aurelius Victor, de Caesaribus 39.25; Eutropius, Breviaria 9.22; Jerome, Chronicle 225g; Epitome de Caesaribus 39.2, 40.12, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 33.
- ^ Origo Constantini 2; Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 2.16a, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 33. See also Panegyrici Latini 10(2)11.4.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 33–34.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 4.
- ^ Potter, 280–81.
- ^ Bleckmann; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40.
- ^ Potter, 280.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 30; Southern, 136.
- ^ Williams, 45.
- ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40.
- ^ Potter, 280; Southern, 136; Williams, 43.
- ^ Southern, 136.
- ^ Odahl, 42–43; Southern, 136; Williams, 45.
- ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Liebeschuetz, Continuity and Change, 235–52, 240–43; Odahl, 43–44; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 32–33.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 11–12; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Odahl, 43; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 32–33, 39, 42–52; Southern, 136–37; Williams, 58–59.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 11.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Southern, 137; Williams, 45–46.
- ^ Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 29.
- ^ Eutropius,, Brev. 9.20; Aurelius Victor, de Caesaribus, 39.17, quoted in Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 29–30.
- ^ Potter, 281–82.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 10; Southern, 137; Williams, 45–46.
- ^ Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 30.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 57.
- ^ Southern, 137.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 10(2), quoted in Williams, 46; Southern, 137.
- ^ Southern, 138; Williams, 46.
- ^ Southern, 137–38.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 57; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 31.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6.
- ^ Williams, 46.
- ^ Potter, 282–83. Potter and Barnes (New Empire, 56) favor Trier; Williams (Diocletian, 46) favors Mainz.
- ^ Southern, 138; Williams, 46.
- ^ Potter, 284.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 57.
- ^ Southern, 138; Williams, 46–47.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6–7; Potter, 283–84; Southern, 137–41; Williams, 47.
- ^ Southern, 139; Williams, 47.
- ^ Southern, 139–40; Williams, 47.
- ^ Potter, 284; Williams, 47. Most of the information for the legions under Carausius's control comes from his coinage. Strangely, Legio VI Victrix from Eboracum (York, United Kingdom), which, for geographical regions, should have been included in the legions Carausius had control over, generally is not (Southern, 332). The Panegyrici Latini 8(4)12.1 admits of one continental legion joining him, which is probably the XXX Ulpia Victrix (Potter, 650).
- ^ a b c Williams, 47.
- ^ a b c d e Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Southern, 140.
- ^ Potter, 284; Williams, 61–62.
- ^ Williams, 48.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bleckmann; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Potter, 282; Southern, 141–42; Williams, 48.
- ^ Williams, 48.
- ^ Potter, 282, 649. Diocletian would have been somewhere between Byzantium (Istanbul, Turkey), where he is attested for March 22 286 and Tiberias, where he is attested from May 31 286 through August 31 (Barnes, New Empire, 50–51; Potter, 282, 649).
- ^ Potter, 282, 649.
- ^ Potter, 282; Williams, 49.
- ^ Potter, 283; Williams, 49, 65.
- ^ Potter, 283; Williams, 49, 65.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 10(2)9.4, quoted in Potter, 283.
- ^ Potter, 283.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40.
- ^ Southern, 142. Barnes's New Empire records five dates for the period: the first, February 10 286 at Milan (Codex Justinianus 8.53(54).6; Fragmenta Vaticana 282); June 21 286 at Mainz (Fragmenta Vaticana 271); January 1 287 Trier or Cologne or Mainz (date of consular assumption, Panegyrici Latini 10(2).6.2 ff.); and 287, his "expedition across the Rhine" (Panegyrici Latini 10(2).7.1ff.) (Barnes, New Empire, 57).
- ^ Southern, 141; Williams, 50.
- ^ a b c d Williams, 50.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 57; Williams, 50.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Southern, 142–43; Williams, 50.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 57; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 31.
- ^ Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 31; Southern, 142–43; Williams, 50. Barnes (Constantine and Eusebius, 7) dates the meeting to after the campaign against the Alamanni.
- ^ Southern, 142–43; Williams, 50.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Southern, 143; Williams, 50.
- ^ a b c Williams, 50–51.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Williams, 51.
- ^ Southern, 143.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5)12.2; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7, 288; Potter, 284–85, 650; Southern, 143; Williams, 55.
- ^ Southern, 143; Williams, 55.
- ^ Potter, 285; Southern, 144.
- ^ Codex Justinianus 9.41.9; Barnes, New Empire, 51; Potter, 285, 650.
- ^ Codex Justinianus 6.30.6; Barnes, New Empire, 52; Potter, 285, 650.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8; Potter, 285.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 11(3)2.4, 8.1, 11.3–4, 12.2; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8, 288; Potter, 285, 650.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 11(3)10, quoted in Williams, 57.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8; Potter, 285, 288; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 70.
- ^ Potter, 285; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 69.
- ^ Potter, 285.
- ^ Williams, 55–56, 62.
- ^ Williams, 62–64.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9; Barnes, New Empire, 4, 36–37; Potter, 288; Southern, 146; Williams, 64–65.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9; Barnes, New Empire, 4, 38; Potter, 288; Southern, 146; Williams, 64–65.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8, 15; Williams, 71.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 15; Potter, 288; Southern, 149–50; Williams, 71–72.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 15–16; Barnes, New Empire, 255.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 15–16; Southern, 150.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 58–59.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 59; Southern, 150; Williams, 73.
- ^ Southern, 150.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Williams, 74.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Southern, 150; Williams, 75.
- ^ a b c d Williams, 75.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 59.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Barnes, New Empire, 59.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 59; Williams, 75.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Barnes, New Empire, 59.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Barnes, New Empire, 56.
- ^ Lactantius, DMP 8.4; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)15.16; Lactantius DMP 20.4; Potter, 340; Southern, 152, 336.
- ^ Potter, 340.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25–27; Williams, 191.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25–27; Potter, 341–42.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27; Southern, 152.
- ^ Southern, 152.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27–28; Barnes, New Empire, 5; Lenski, 61–62; Odahl, 78–79.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 30.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 30–31; Elliott, 41–42; Lenski, 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–49.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 31; Lenski, 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32; Lenski, 64; Odahl, 89, 93.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32–34; Elliott, 42–43; Lenski, 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 349–50; Treadgold, 29.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 34–35; Elliott, 43; Lenski, 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 352.
- ^ Elliott, 43; Lenski, 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 20.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 34; Elliott, 45; Lenski, 68.
- ^ Lactantius, DMP 30.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 40–41, 305.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Lenski, 68.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42–44.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 47; Barnes, New Empire, 35.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 47.
- ^ Barnes, New Empire, 265–66.
References
- Barnes, Timothy D. Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0674165311
- Barnes, Timothy D. The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982. ISBN 0783722214
- Bowman, Alan K., Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron. The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-30199-8
- Corcoran, Simon. The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. ISBN 019815304X
- Corcoran, Simon. "Before Constantine." In The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, edited by Noel Lenski, 35–58. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-81838-9 Paperback ISBN 0-521-52157-2
- DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Constantius I Chlorus (305–306 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1996a). Accessed March 8, 2008.
- DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Galerius (305–311 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1996b). Accessed March 8, 2008.
- DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Maximianus Herculius (286–305 A.D)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997). Accessed March 8, 2008.
- Elliott, T. G. The Christianity of Constantine the Great. Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press, 1996. ISBN 0-940866-59-5
- Lenski, Noel. "The Reign of Constantine." In The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, edited by Noel Lenski, 59–90. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-81838-9 Paperback ISBN 0-521-52157-2
- Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. Continuity and Change in Roman Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-19-814822-4.
- Mackay, Christopher S. "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian." Classical Philology 94:2 (1999): 198–209.
- Mathisen, Ralph W. "Diocletian (284–305 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997). Accessed February 16, 2008.
- Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-17485-6 Paperback ISBN 0-415-38655-1
- Pohlsander, Hans. The Emperor Constantine. London & New York: Routledge, 2004a. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-31937-4 Paperback ISBN 0-415-31938-2
- Pohlsander, Hans. "Constantine I (306 - 337 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (2004b). Accessed December 16, 2007.
- Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge, 2005. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-10057-7 Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5
- Rees, Roger. Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric: AD 289–307. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-924918-0
- Rees, Roger. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7486-1661-6
- Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. New York: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-23944-3
- Williams, Stephen. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery. New York: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0-415-91827-8
External links
- A Detailed Chronology of the Tetrarchy until 324 AD
- Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. .