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{{Short description|Narrative from chapter 2 of Matthew}} |
{{Short description|Narrative from chapter 2 of Matthew}} |
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{{For|paintings of this event|Massacre of the Innocents# |
{{For|paintings of this event|Massacre of the Innocents#Gallery}} |
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{{Redirect|Holy Innocents|churches dedicated to this group|Holy Innocents Church (disambiguation){{!}}Holy Innocents Church}} |
{{Redirect|Holy Innocents|churches dedicated to this group|Holy Innocents Church (disambiguation){{!}}Holy Innocents Church}} |
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{{pp|small=yes}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}} |
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{{Infobox saint |
{{Infobox saint |
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| name = Holy Innocents |
| name = Holy Innocents |
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| image = 0 La Vierge à l'Enfant entourée des saints Innocents - Louvre - (2).JPG |
| image = 0 La Vierge à l'Enfant entourée des saints Innocents - Louvre - (2).JPG |
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| alt |
| alt= |
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| caption = [[The Virgin and Child Surrounded by the Holy Innocents]] |
| caption = ''[[The Virgin and Child Surrounded by the Holy Innocents]]'' by [[Peter Paul Rubens]] |
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| titles = |
| titles = First [[Martyrs]] |
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| birth_date = Various, presumably close to the birth of Jesus |
| birth_date = Various, presumably close to the birth of Jesus |
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| birth_place = [[Bethlehem]], [[Judea]] |
| birth_place = [[Bethlehem]], [[Judea]] |
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| death_date = {{c.|7–2 BC}} |
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| home_town = |
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| residence = |
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| death_date = c. 7–2 BC |
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| death_place = [[Bethlehem]], [[Judea]] (martyred by [[King Herod the Great]]) |
| death_place = [[Bethlehem]], [[Judea]] (martyred by [[King Herod the Great]]) |
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| death_cause = [[Infanticide]] |
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| venerated_in = {{plainlist| |
| venerated_in = {{plainlist| |
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*[[Catholic Church]] |
*[[Catholic Church]] |
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*[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] |
*[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] |
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*[[Oriental Orthodoxy]] |
*[[Oriental Orthodoxy]] |
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*[[ |
*[[Lutheranism]] |
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*[[ |
*[[Anglicanism]] |
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}} |
}} |
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| beatified_date |
| beatified_date= |
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| beatified_place |
| beatified_place= |
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| beatified_by |
| beatified_by= |
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| canonized_date |
| canonized_date= [[Pre-Congregation]] |
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| canonized_place |
| canonized_place= |
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| canonized_by |
| canonized_by= |
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| major_shrine |
| major_shrine= |
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| feast_day = {{plainlist| |
| feast_day = {{plainlist| |
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* 27 December (West |
* 27 December ([[West Syriac]]) |
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* 28 December (Catholic Church, Lutheran Church, Anglican Communion) |
* 28 December (Catholic Church, Lutheran Church, Anglican Communion) |
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* 29 December (Eastern Orthodoxy) |
* 29 December (Eastern Orthodoxy) |
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* 10 January (East |
* 10 January ([[East Syriac]]) |
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}} |
}} |
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| attributes = [[Martyr's palm]] |
| attributes = {{ubl|[[Martyr's palm]]|[[Crown of martyrdom]]}} |
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| patronage={{plainlist| |
| patronage ={{plainlist| |
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*Foundlings |
*Foundlings |
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*Babies |
*Babies |
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*Children's choirs<ref name=catholic.org /> |
*Children's choirs<ref name=catholic.org /> |
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}} |
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*[[Anti-abortion]] movement{{sfn|Anon|2015|p=131}} }} |
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| issues |
| issues= |
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| suppressed_date |
| suppressed_date= |
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| suppressed_by |
| suppressed_by= |
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| influences |
| influences= |
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| influenced |
| influenced= |
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| tradition |
| tradition= |
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| major_works |
| major_works= |
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}} |
}} |
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{{Gospel Jesus|Early life}} |
{{Gospel Jesus|Early life}} |
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The '''Massacre of the Innocents''' is the incident in the [[Nativity of Jesus|nativity narrative]] of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] (2:16–18) in which [[Herod the Great]], [[Kings of Judah|king of Judea]], orders the execution of all male children two years old and under in the vicinity of [[Bethlehem]]. The Catholic Church regards them as the first [[Christian martyrs]], and their feast{{snd}}[[Holy Innocents' Day]] (or the [[Feast of the Holy Innocents]]){{snd}} is celebrated on 28 December.{{sfn|Clarke|2003|p=22}} A majority of Herod biographers, and "probably a majority of biblical scholars," hold the event to be myth, legend, or folklore.{{sfn|Maier|1998|p=170-171}} |
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The '''Massacre''' (or '''Slaughter''') '''of the Innocents''' is a biblical story recounted in the [[Nativity of Jesus|Nativity narrative]] of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] ([[Matthew 2:16|2:16]]–[[Matthew 2:18|18]]) in which [[Herod the Great]], king of [[Judea#Roman period|Judea]], orders the execution of all male children who are two years old and under in the vicinity of [[Bethlehem]].<ref name=myths/> "Most New Testament scholars do not regard the stories of the magi, the massacre of the innocents, and the flight to Egypt as historical,{{sup|136}} so in this sense they are myth. But they are also mythical in the sense of conveying sacred truths."<ref name=":0">[https://books.google.com/books?id=jF70DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA218 George, Arthur. ''The Mythology of America's Seasonal Holidays: The Dance of the Horae", Springer International Publishing, 2020, p. 218]{{ISBN|978-3-030-46916-0}}</ref> Some Christians venerate the '''Holy Innocents''' as the first [[Christian martyrs]],{{sfn|Clarke|2003|p=22}} but modern scholarship finds no evidence that it happened outside the passages in Matthew.{{sfn|Maier|1998|pp=170–171}} |
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== Biblical narrative == |
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The [[Biblical Magi|Magi]] visit Jerusalem to seek guidance as to where the king of the Jews has been born; King Herod directs them to Bethlehem and asks them to return to him and report, but they are warned in a dream and do not do so. The massacre is reported in [[Gospel of Matthew]]: |
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{{quote|When Herod realized that he had been outwitted by the Magi, he was furious, and he gave orders to kill all the boys in Bethlehem and its vicinity who were two years old and under, in accordance with the time he had learned from the Magi.|source={{bibleref|Matthew|2:16}} }} |
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The '''Feast of the Holy Innocents''', also known as '''Childermas''', is celebrated in the [[Western Christianity|Western Christian Churches]] on 28 December, the [[Twelve Days of Christmas|fourth day]] of [[Christmastide]]. In [[Eastern Christianity]], the feast is celebrated on [[Massacre of the Innocents#Feast_day|various dates]], depending on the denomination.<ref name="Crump2022"/> |
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This is followed by a reference to and quotation from the [[Book of Jeremiah]] ([[Jeremiah 31:15]]): "Then what was said through the prophet Jeremiah was fulfilled: A voice is heard in [[Ramah in Benjamin|Ramah]], weeping and great mourning, Rachel weeping for her children and refusing to be comforted, because they are no more." (Matthew 2:17-18). The relevance of this to the massacre is not immediately apparent, as Jeremiah's next verses go on to speak of hope and restoration.{{sfn|Clarke|2003|p=23}} |
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==Biblical narrative== |
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== History and theology == |
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The [[Gospel of Matthew]] tells how the [[Biblical Magi|Magi]] visit [[Jerusalem]] to seek guidance as to where the king of the Jews has been born; King Herod directs them to Bethlehem and asks them to return to him and report, but they are warned in a dream that Herod wishes to find the child and kill him, and do not do so. Matthew continues: |
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{{Main|Matthew 2}} |
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{{blockquote|When Herod realized that he had been outwitted by the Magi, he was furious, and he gave orders to kill all the boys in Bethlehem and its vicinity who were two years old and under, in accordance with the time he had learned from the Magi.|Matthew 2:16<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|2:16}}</ref>}} |
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The story of the massacre is found in no gospel other than Matthew, nor in the surviving works of [[Nicolaus of Damascus]] (who was a personal friend of Herod the Great), and the historian [[Josephus]] makes no mention of it in his ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', despite recording many of Herod's misdeeds including the murder of three of his own sons.{{sfn|Clarke|2003|p=22}} A majority of Herod biographers, and "probably a majority of biblical scholars," accordingly hold the event to be myth, legend or folklore inspired by Herod's reputation.{{sfn|Maier|1998|p=170-171}}{{sfn|Magness|2021|p=126}} |
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This is followed by a reference to and quotation from the [[Book of Jeremiah]] ([[Jeremiah 31:15]]) (Jeremiah 31:14 in the Hebrew Bible): "Then what was said through the prophet Jeremiah was fulfilled: A voice is heard in [[Ramah in Benjamin|Ramah]], weeping and great mourning, [[Rachel]] weeping for her children and refusing to be comforted, because they are no more." ([[Matthew 2:17]]–[[Matthew 2:18|18]]). The relevance of this to the massacre is not immediately apparent, as Jeremiah's next verses go on to speak of hope and restoration.{{sfn|Clarke|2003|p=23}} |
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The author appears to have modelled the episode on the biblical story of [[Pharaohs in the Bible|Pharaoh]]'s attempt to kill the Israelite children in the [[Book of Exodus]], as told in an expanded version that current in the 1st century.{{sfn|Lincoln|2013|p=44}} In that expanded story, Pharaoh kills the Hebrew children after his scribes warn him of the impending birth of the threat to his crown (i.e., Moses), but Moses' father and mother are warned in a dream that the child's life is in danger and act to save him.{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=11}} Later in life, after Moses has to flee, like Jesus, and returns when those who sought his death are themselves dead.{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=11}} The story of the massacre of the innocents thus plays a part in Matthew's wider nativity story, in which the proclamation of the coming of the Messiah (his birth) is followed by his rejection by the Jews (Herod and his scribes and the people of Jerusalem) and his later acceptance by the gentiles (the [[Biblical Magi|Magi]]).{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=13}} |
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==History and theology== |
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Against this majority opinion some argue for the historicity of the event. [[R. T. France]], while acknowledging that the massacre is "perhaps the aspect [of Matthew's infancy narrative] most often rejected as legendary" {{sfn|France|2007|p=82}} and that the story is similar to that of Moses, believes that "it would have given rise to this narrative without historical basis."{{sfn|France|2007|p=82-83}} [[Everett Ferguson]] argues that the story makes sense in the context of Herod's reign of terror in the last few years of his rule,{{sfn|Ferguson|2003|p=390}} and the number of infants in Bethlehem that would have been killed{{snd}} no more than a dozen or so{{snd}} may have been too insignificant to be recorded by Josephus, who could not be aware of every incident far in the past when he wrote it.{{sfn|Maier|1998|p=179, 186}} |
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{{Main|Nativity of Jesus#Historical analysis}} |
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The account of the massacre of the innocents in Matthew is the second invocation of the story in the Bible, and draws on its Jewish roots from the narrative of Moses' escape from Pharaoh's edict in [[The Exodus]]. Mainstream scholars do not accept the historicity of the Matthew account.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=myths>{{cite book |pages=118–120 |title=How the Gospels Became History{{snd}}Jesus and Mediterranean Myths |first=M. David |last=Litwa |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2019 |chapter=Chapter 8: Child in Danger, Child of Wonder |isbn= 9780300249484}}</ref>{{sfn|Magness|2021|p=126}} Many view the discussion of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than chronological timelines.<ref name=Wiarda75 >''Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, ''People'', and Theology'' by Timothy Wiarda 2010 {{ISBN|0-8054-4843-8}} pp. 75–78</ref><ref name="Jesus p. 89">''Jesus, the Christ: Contemporary Perspectives'' by Brennan R. Hill 2004 {{ISBN|1-58595-303-2}} p. 89</ref><ref name="Luke' p. 72">''The Gospel of Luke'' by Timothy Johnson 1992 {{ISBN|0-8146-5805-9}} p. 72</ref><ref name="Recovering Jesus p. 111">''Recovering Jesus: the witness of the New Testament'' Thomas R. Yoder Neufeld 2007 {{ISBN|1-58743-202-1}} p. 111</ref> |
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==Numbers== |
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The story of the massacre is found in no gospel other than Matthew, nor is it mentioned in the surviving works of [[Nicolaus of Damascus]] (who was a personal friend of Herod the Great), nor in [[Josephus]]'s ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', despite his recording many of Herod's misdeeds, including the murder of three of his own sons.{{sfn|Clarke|2003|p=22}} The early 5th-century account of [[Macrobius]]—that "on hearing that the son of Herod, king of the Jews, had been slain when Herod ordered that all boys in Syria under the age of two be killed, [Augustus] said, 'It's better to be Herod's pig than his son'"—has been discounted as extra-biblical evidence for the event due to its later authorship, possible influence by the gospel narrative, and the confused nature of the account.{{sfn|Maier|1998|p=187}} In view of the lack of independent confirmation that the event ever occurred, the most likely explanation for the story is that it is folklore inspired by Herod's reputation.{{sfn|Magness|2021|p=126}} |
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Byzantine liturgy estimated 14,000 Holy Innocents, while an early Syrian list of saints put the number at 64,000. [[Copt]]ic sources raised this to 144,000 and placed the event on 29 December.{{sfn|Mina|1907|pp=300-}} The ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' (1907–12) suggested that probably only between six and twenty children were killed in the town, with a dozen or so more in the surrounding areas.{{efn|{{harvnb|Holweck|1910}} states "The Greek Liturgy asserts that Herod killed 14,000 boys (''ton hagion id chiliadon Nepion''), the Syrians speak of 64,000, many medieval authors of 144,000, according to Apocalypse 14:3. Writers who accept the historicity of the episode reduce the number considerably, since Bethlehem was a rather small town. Joseph Knabenbauer brings it down to fifteen or twenty (''Evang. S. Matt.'', I, 104), August Bisping to ten or twelve (''Evang. S. Matt.''), [[Lorenz Kellner]] to about six (''Christus und seine Apostel'', Freiburg, 1908)".}} |
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The author appears to have modeled the episode on the biblical story of [[Pharaohs in the Bible|Pharaoh]]'s attempt to kill the Israelite children in the [[Book of Exodus]], as told in an expanded version that was current in the 1st century.{{sfn|Lincoln|2013|p=44}} In that expanded story, Pharaoh kills the Hebrew children after his scribes warn him of the impending birth of the threat to his crown (i.e., [[Moses]]), but Moses' father and mother are warned in a dream that the child's life is in danger and act to save him.{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=11}} Later in life, after Moses has to flee, like Jesus, he returns when those who sought his death are themselves dead.{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=11}} |
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== In Christian art == |
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Medieval [[liturgical drama]] recounted Biblical events, including Herod's slaughter of the innocents. ''The Pageant of the Shearmen and Tailors'', performed in Coventry, England, included a haunting song about the episode, now known as the [[Coventry Carol]]. The ''[[Ordo Rachelis]]'' tradition of four plays includes the Flight into Egypt, Herod's succession by [[Herod Archelaus|Archelaus]], the return from Egypt, as well as the Massacre all centred on Rachel weeping in fulfillment of Jeremiah's prophecy. These events were likewise in one of the medieval [[N-Town Plays]].{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} |
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==Numbers== |
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The "[[Coventry Carol]]" is a [[Christmas carol]] dating from the 16th century. The carol was performed in [[Coventry]] in [[England]] as part of a [[mystery play]] called ''[[Coventry Mystery Plays|The Pageant of the Shearmen and Tailors]]''. The play depicts the [[Christmas]] story from chapter two in the [[Gospel of Matthew]]. The carol refers to the Massacre of the Innocents, in which Herod ordered all male infants two years old and under in [[Bethlehem]] to be killed.<ref name=covcar /> The lyrics of this haunting carol represent a mother's lament for her doomed child. It is the only carol that has survived from this play. The author is unknown. The oldest known text was written down by Robert Croo in 1534, and the oldest known printing of the melody dates from 1591.{{sfn|Studwell|1995|p=15}} The carol is traditionally sung [[a cappella]]. |
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The Greek liturgy asserts 14,000 Holy Innocents, while an early Syrian list of saints asserts 64,000. [[Copt]]ic sources assert 144,000 and that it took place on 29 December.{{sfn|Mina|1907|pp=300-}} The ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' of 1907–1912, recognizing that Bethlehem was too small a town to provide such numbers, reduced the victims to between six and twenty children in the town, with a dozen or so more in the surrounding areas.{{efn|{{harvnb|Holweck|1910}} states "The Greek Liturgy asserts that Herod killed 14,000 boys ({{transliteration|el|ton hagion id chiliadon Nepion}}), the Syrians speak of 64,000, many medieval authors of 144,000, according to Apocalypse 14:3. Writers who accept the historicity of the episode reduce the number considerably, since Bethlehem was a rather small town. Joseph Knabenbauer brings it down to fifteen or twenty (''Evang. S. Matt.'', I, 104), August Bisping to ten or twelve (''Evang. S. Matt.''), [[Lorenz Kellner]] to about six ({{lang|de|Christus und seine Apostel}}, Freiburg, 1908)".}} |
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==In Christian art== |
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The 17th Century [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[Christmas song]] ''[[O Kerstnacht, schoner dan de dagen]]'', while beginning with a reference to [[Nativity of Jesus|Christmas Night]], is about the Massacre of the Innocents. The Dutch [[progressive rock]] band [[Focus (band)|Focus]] recorded in 1974 the first two verses of the song for their album ''[[Hamburger Concerto]]''. |
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Medieval [[liturgical drama]] recounted Biblical events, including Herod's slaughter of the innocents. ''The Pageant of the Shearmen and Tailors'', performed in Coventry, England, included a haunting song about the episode now known as the [[Coventry Carol]]. The ''[[Ordo Rachelis]]'' tradition of four plays includes the Flight into Egypt, Herod's succession by [[Herod Archelaus|Archelaus]], the return from Egypt, as well as the Massacre, all centered on Rachel weeping in fulfillment of Jeremiah's prophecy. These events were likewise in one of the medieval [[N-Town Plays]].{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} |
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The "[[Coventry Carol]]" is a [[Christmas carol]] dating from the 16th century. The carol was performed in [[Coventry]] in [[England]] as part of a [[mystery play]] called ''[[Coventry Mystery Plays|The Pageant of the Shearmen and Tailors]]''. The play depicts the [[Christmas]] story from chapter two in the [[Gospel of Matthew]]. The carol refers to the Massacre of the Innocents, in which Herod ordered all male infants two years old and under in [[Bethlehem]] to be killed.<ref name=covcar/> The lyrics of this haunting carol represent a mother's lament for her doomed child. The author is unknown. The oldest known text was written down by Robert Croo in 1534, and the melody dates from 1591.{{sfn|Studwell|1995|p=15}} The carol is traditionally sung [[a cappella]].{{fact|date=September 2023}} |
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The theme of the "Massacre of the Innocents" has provided artists of many nationalities with opportunities to compose complicated depictions of massed bodies in violent action. It was an alternative to the ''Flight into Egypt'' in cycles of the [[Life of the Virgin]]. It decreased in popularity in [[Gothic art]], but revived in the larger works of the [[Renaissance art|Renaissance]], when artists took inspiration for their "Massacres" from Roman reliefs of the battle of the [[Lapith]]s and [[Centaur]]s to the extent that they showed the figures heroically nude.<ref name="Getty">{{cite web |url=http://www.getty.edu/art/collections/objects/o448.html |title=Getty Collection |publisher=Getty.edu |date=2009-05-07 |access-date=2012-06-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051205094214/http://www.getty.edu/art/collections/objects/o448.html |archive-date=2005-12-05 }}</ref> The horrific subject matter of the Massacre of the Innocents also provided a comparison of ancient brutalities with the brutalities of the [[early modern period]], during the period of religious wars that followed the Reformation{{snd}} [[Massacre of the Innocents (Bruegel)|Bruegel's versions]] show the soldiers carrying banners with the [[Habsburg]] double-headed eagle (often used at the time for Ancient Roman soldiers).{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} |
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The 17th century [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[Christmas song]] ''[[O Kerstnacht, schoner dan de dagen]]'', while beginning with a reference to [[Nativity of Jesus|Christmas Night]], is about the Massacre of the Innocents. In 1974, the Dutch [[progressive rock]] band [[Focus (band)|Focus]] recorded the first two verses of the song for their album ''[[Hamburger Concerto]]''.{{fact|date=September 2023}} |
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The 1590 version by [[Cornelis van Haarlem]] also seems to reflect the violence of the [[Dutch Revolt]]. [[Guido Reni]]'s early (1611) ''[[Massacre of the Innocents (Guido Reni)|Massacre of the Innocents]]'', in an unusual vertical format, is at Bologna.<ref name="WGA">{{cite web|url=http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/r/reni/1/innocent.html |title=Reni's painting at the Web Gallery of Art |publisher=Wga.hu |access-date=2012-06-15}}</ref> The Flemish painter [[Peter Paul Rubens]] painted the theme more than once. One version, now in Munich, was engraved and reproduced as a painting as far away as colonial Peru.<ref name="Spanish Colonial">The ''Massacre of the Innocents'' in Cuzco Cathedral is clearly influenced by Rubens. See ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20050306042252/http://www.codart.nl/Downloads/Courants/courant7.pdf CODART Courant]'', Dec 2003, 12. (2.5 MB pdf download)</ref> Another, his grand ''[[Massacre of the Innocents (Rubens)|Massacre of the Innocents]]'' is now at the [[Art Gallery of Ontario]] in [[Toronto]], Ontario. The French painter [[Nicolas Poussin]] painted ''[[The Massacre of the Innocents (Poussin)|The Massacre of the Innocents]]'' (1634) at the height of the [[Thirty Years' War]].{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} |
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The theme of the "Massacre of the Innocents" has provided artists of many nationalities with opportunities to compose complicated depictions of massed bodies in violent action. It was an alternative to the ''Flight into Egypt'' in cycles of the [[Life of the Virgin]]. It decreased in popularity in [[Gothic art]], but revived in the larger works of the [[Renaissance art|Renaissance]], when artists took inspiration for their "Massacres" from Roman reliefs of the battle of the [[Lapith]]s and [[Centaur]]s to the extent that they showed the figures heroically nude.<ref name=Getty>{{cite web |url=http://www.getty.edu/art/collections/objects/o448.html |title=Getty Collection |publisher=Getty.edu |date=7 May 2009 |access-date=15 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051205094214/http://www.getty.edu/art/collections/objects/o448.html |archive-date=5 December 2005 }}</ref> The horrific subject matter of the Massacre of the Innocents also provided a comparison of ancient brutalities with the brutalities of the [[early modern period]], during the period of religious wars that followed the Reformation{{snd}} [[Massacre of the Innocents (Bruegel)|Bruegel's versions]] show the soldiers carrying banners with the [[Habsburg]] double-headed eagle.<ref>[http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2005/old-master-paintings-evening-sale-l05033/lot.23.html A winter landscape with the Massacre of the Innocents, Sotheby's, 7 December 2005]</ref> |
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''The Childermass'', after a traditional name for the [[#Feast day|Feast of the Holy Innocents]], is the opening novel of [[Wyndham Lewis]]'s trilogy ''The Human Age''. In the novel ''[[The Fall (Albert Camus novel)|The Fall]]'' (''La Chute'') by [[Albert Camus]], the incident is argued by the main character to be the reason why Jesus chose to let himself be crucified—as he escaped the punishment intended for him while many others died, he felt responsible and died in guilt. A similar interpretation is given in [[José Saramago]]'s controversial ''[[The Gospel According to Jesus Christ]]'', but there attributed to Joseph, Jesus' stepfather, rather than to Jesus himself. As depicted by Saramago, Joseph knew of Herod's intention to massacre the children of Bethlehem, but failed to warn the townspeople and chose only to save his own child. Guilt-ridden ever after, Joseph finally expiates his sin by letting himself be crucified (an event not narrated in the New Testament).{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} |
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The 1590 version by [[Cornelis van Haarlem]] also seems to reflect the violence of the [[Dutch Revolt]]. [[Guido Reni]]'s early (1611) ''[[Massacre of the Innocents (Guido Reni)|Massacre of the Innocents]]'', in an unusual vertical format, is at Bologna.<ref name=WGA>{{cite web|url=http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/r/reni/1/innocent.html |title=Reni's painting at the Web Gallery of Art |publisher=Wga.hu |access-date=15 June 2012}}</ref> The Flemish painter [[Peter Paul Rubens]] painted the theme more than once. One version, now in Munich, was engraved and reproduced as a painting as far away as colonial Peru.<ref name=Peru>The ''Massacre of the Innocents'' in Cuzco Cathedral is clearly influenced by Rubens. See ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20050306042252/http://www.codart.nl/Downloads/Courants/courant7.pdf CODART Courant]'', December 2003, 12. (2.5 MB pdf download)</ref> |
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The song "Long Way Around The Sea", from the 1999 [[Christmas (Low EP)|Christmas]] EP by the indie-rock band [[Low (band)|Low]], tells the story from the perspective of the magi during their journey from Herod to the newborn Jesus, and the warning from the angel not to return. |
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===Paintings=== |
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The Massacre is the opening plot used in the 2006 film ''[[The Nativity Story]]'' (2016).{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} It is also dramatized in season 1 of the television miniseries ''[[Jesus of Nazareth (miniseries)|Jesus of Nazareth]]'' (1977). |
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The Cornish poet [[Charles Causley]] used the subject for his poem ''The Innocents' Song'', which as a folk song has been performed by [[Show of Hands]] with music by [[Johnny Coppin]] (on their album ''[[Witness (Show of Hands album)|Witness]]''); by Keith Kendrick and Sylvia Needham; and by Keith Kendrick and Lynne Heraud (as ''Herod'' on their Album ''Stars in my Crown'').{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} |
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=== Paintings === |
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* [[Massacre of the Innocents (Bruegel)|''Massacre of the Innocents'' by the Bruegels]]. Several versions of ''The Massacre of the Innocents'' were painted by [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]] (c. 1565–67) and his son [[Pieter Brueghel the Younger]] (into the 17th century). |
* [[Massacre of the Innocents (Bruegel)|''Massacre of the Innocents'' by the Bruegels]]. Several versions of ''The Massacre of the Innocents'' were painted by [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]] (c. 1565–67) and his son [[Pieter Brueghel the Younger]] (into the 17th century). |
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* ''[[Massacre of the Innocents (Reni)|Massacre of the Innocents]]'' by [[Guido Reni]], created in 1611 for the [[Basilica of San Domenico]] in [[Bologna]], but now in the [[Pinacoteca Nazionale di Bologna|Pinacoteca Nazionale]] in that city |
* ''[[Massacre of the Innocents (Reni)|Massacre of the Innocents]]'' by [[Guido Reni]], created in 1611 for the [[Basilica of San Domenico]] in [[Bologna]], but now in the [[Pinacoteca Nazionale di Bologna|Pinacoteca Nazionale]] in that city |
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* [[Massacre of the Innocents (Rubens)|Two versions]] by [[Peter Paul Rubens]], painted in 1611–1612 and 1636–1638 |
* [[Massacre of the Innocents (Rubens)|Two versions]] by [[Peter Paul Rubens]], painted in 1611–1612 and 1636–1638 |
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* ''[[Massacre of the Innocents ( |
* ''[[The Massacre of the Innocents (Poussin)|The Massacre of the Innocents]]'' by [[Nicolas Poussin]], painted between 1625 and 1632 |
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* ''[[Massacre of the Innocents (Matteo di Giovanni)|Massacre of the Innocents]]'' by [[Matteo di Giovanni]]{{primary-inline|date=September 2023}} |
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=== |
===Music=== |
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The communion motet for the Feast of the Holy Innocents is the text from Matthew 2:18 (citing Jeremiah 31:15) ''Vox in Rama''. This was set polyphonically by a number of composers of the [[Renaissance music|renaissance]] and [[Baroque music|baroque]], including [[Jacob Clemens non Papa]], [[Giaches de Wert]], and [[Heinrich Schütz]] (in German). |
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* [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]], ''Caedes sanctorum innocentium,'' H.411, Oratorio for soloists, chorus, 2 violins and continuo (1683–85) |
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[[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]] composed an oratorio, {{lang|la|Caedes sanctorum innocentium}}, H.411, for soloists, chorus, two violins, and continuo (1683–1685). |
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== Feast day<!--'Holy Innocents' Day', 'Holy Innocents Day', 'Feast of the Holy Innocents', 'Childermas', and 'Children's Mass' redirect here--> == |
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The commemoration of the massacre of the Holy Innocents, traditionally regarded as the first Christian [[martyr]]s, if unknowingly so,{{sfn|Smith|Cheetham|1875|pp=839-}}{{efn|[[Irenaeus]] (''Adv. Haer.'' iii.16.4) and [[Cyprian]] (''Epistle'' 56)}} first appears as a feast of the [[Western church]] in the [[Leonine Sacramentary]], dating from about 485. The earliest commemorations were connected with the [[Epiphany (holiday)|Feast of the Epiphany]], 6 January: [[Prudentius]] mentions the Innocents in his hymn on the Epiphany. [[Pope Leo the Great|Leo]] in his homilies on the Epiphany speaks of the Innocents. [[Fulgentius of Ruspe]] (6th century) gives a homily ''De Epiphania, deque Innocentum nece et muneribus magorum'' ("On Epiphany, and on the murder of the Innocents and the gifts of the Magi").{{efn|Prudentius, Leo, and Fulgentius are noted in {{harvnb|Smith|Cheetham|1875|pp=839ff.}} }} |
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==Feast day<!--'Holy Innocents' Day', 'Holy Innocents Day', 'Feast of the Holy Innocents', 'Childermas', and 'Children's Mass' redirect here-->== |
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Today, the date of '''Holy Innocents' Day'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->, also called the '''Feast of the Holy Innocents'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> or '''Childermas'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> or '''Children's Mass'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->, varies. It is 27 December for West Syrians ([[Syriac Orthodox Church]], [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]], and [[Maronite Church]]) and 10 January for East Syrians ([[Chaldean Catholic Church|Chaldeans]] and [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]]), while [[December 28|28 December]] is the [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|date]] in the [[Church of England]] ([[Festival (Anglicanism)|Festival]]),<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=2021-04-10|website=The Church of England|language=en}}</ref> the [[Lutheran Church]] and the [[Roman Rite]] of the [[Catholic Church]]. In these latter [[Western Christianity|Western Christian]] denominations, Childermas is the [[Twelve Days of Christmas|fourth day]] of [[Christmastide]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/liturgicalyear/overviews/seasons/christmas/christmas_days4.cfm|title=Day Four: December 28, Feast of the Holy Innocents|publisher=Catholic Culture|language=en|access-date=27 December 2015}}</ref> The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] celebrates the feast on 29 December.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oca.org/saints/lives/2021/11/19/103326-prophet-obadiah-abdia|title=Lives of the Saints|first1=All|last1=troparia|first2=kontakia · All lives of|last2=saints|website=www.oca.org}}</ref> |
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===Dates by denomination=== |
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Today, the date of '''Holy Innocents' Day'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->, also called the '''Feast of the Holy Innocents''',<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> or '''Childermas'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> or '''Children's Mass'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->,{{clarify|reason=Which name is used by which denomination? What do the Orthodox use?|date=December 2022}} varies. |
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* 27 December for West Syrians ([[Syriac Orthodox Church]], [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]], and [[Maronite Church]]) |
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* 28 December in the [[Church of England]] ([[Festival (Anglicanism)|Festival]]),<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=10 April 2021|website=The Church of England|language=en}}</ref> the [[Lutheran Church]], and the [[Roman Rite]] of the [[Catholic Church]], with these [[Western Christianity|Western Christian]] denominations celebrating Childermas as the [[Twelve Days of Christmas|fourth day]] of [[Christmastide]]<ref>{{cite web |title= Day Four: December 28, Feast of the Holy Innocents |publisher= Catholic Culture |url= http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/liturgicalyear/overviews/seasons/christmas/christmas_days4.cfm |access-date=27 December 2015}}</ref> |
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* 29 December for the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oca.org/saints/lives/2021/11/19/103326-prophet-obadiah-abdia|title=Lives of the Saints|first1=All|last1=troparia|first2=kontakia · All lives of|last2=saints|website=www.oca.org}}</ref> |
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* 10 January for East Syrians ([[Chaldean Catholic Church|Chaldeans]] and [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]]) |
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===Beginnings=== |
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The commemoration of the massacre of the Holy Innocents, traditionally regarded as the first Christian [[martyr]]s, if unknowingly so,{{sfn|Smith|Cheetham|1875|pp=839–}}{{efn|[[Irenaeus]] (''Adv. Haer.'' iii.16.4) and [[Cyprian]] (''Epistle'' 56)}} first appears as a feast of the [[Western church]] in the [[Leonine Sacramentary]], dating from about 485. The earliest commemorations{{clarify|reason=Whose? Entire early Christianity, early Western, early Eastern Orthodox use? Once clarified: pls. adapt the section heading accordingly.|date=December 2022}} were connected with the [[Epiphany (holiday)|Feast of the Epiphany]], 6 January: [[Prudentius]] mentions the Innocents in his hymn on the Epiphany. [[Pope Leo the Great|Leo]] in his homilies on the Epiphany speaks of the Innocents. [[Fulgentius of Ruspe]] (6th century) gives a homily {{lang|la|De Epiphania, deque Innocentum nece et muneribus magorum}} ("On Epiphany, and on the murder of the Innocents and the gifts of the Magi").{{efn|Prudentius, Leo, and Fulgentius are noted in {{harvnb|Smith|Cheetham|1875|pp=839ff.}} }} |
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===Catholic medieval traditions=== |
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From the time of [[Charlemagne]], [[Sicarius of Brantôme|Sicarius of Bethlehem]] was venerated at [[Brantôme, Dordogne]] as one of the purported victims of the Massacre.{{sfn|Wasyliw|2008|p=46}} |
From the time of [[Charlemagne]], [[Sicarius of Brantôme|Sicarius of Bethlehem]] was venerated at [[Brantôme, Dordogne]] as one of the purported victims of the Massacre.{{sfn|Wasyliw|2008|p=46}} |
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In the [[Middle Ages]], especially north of the [[Alps]], the day was a festival of inversion involving [[role reversal]] between children and adults such as teachers and priests, with [[boy bishop]]s presiding over some church services.{{sfn|Holweck|1910}} Bonnie Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens suggest that this was a Christianized version of the Roman annual feast of the [[Saturnalia]] (when even slaves played "masters" for a day). In some regions, such as medieval England and France, it was said to be an unlucky day when no new project should be started.{{sfn|Blackburn|Holford-Strevens|1999|pp=537–538}} |
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In the Roman Rite, the 1960 [[Code of Rubrics]] prescribed the use of the red vestments for martyrs in place of the violet vestments previously prescribed on the feast of the Holy Innocents. The feast continued to outrank the [[Sunday within the Octave of Christmas]] until the 1969 [[motu proprio]] ''[[Mysterii Paschalis]]'' replaced this Sunday with the feast of the [[Holy Family]]. |
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There was a medieval custom of refraining where possible from work on the day of the week on which the feast of "Innocents Day" had fallen for the whole of the following year until the next Innocents Day. [[Philippe de Commynes]], the minister of King [[Louis XI of France]], tells in his memoirs how the king observed this custom, and describes the trepidation he felt when he had to inform the king of an emergency on the day.{{sfn|de Commynes|1972|pp=253–254}} |
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In the [[Middle Ages]], especially north of the [[Alps]], the day was a festival of inversion involving [[role reversal]] between children and adults such as teachers and priests, with [[boy bishop]]s presiding over some church services.{{sfn|Holweck|1910}} Bonnie Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens suggest that this was a Christianized version of the Roman annual feast of the [[Saturnalia]] (when even slaves played "masters" for a day). In some regions, such as medieval England and France, it was said to be an unlucky day, when no new project should be started.{{sfn|Blackburn|Holford-Strevens|1999|pp=537-538}} |
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===Contemporary traditions in Western Christianity=== |
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There was a medieval custom of refraining where possible from work on the day of the week on which the feast of "Innocents Day" had fallen for the whole of the following year until the next Innocents Day. [[Philippe de Commynes]], the minister of King [[Louis XI of France]] tells in his memoirs how the king observed this custom, and describes the trepidation he felt when he had to inform the king of an emergency on the day.{{sfn|de Commynes|1972|pp=253–254}} |
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In denominations of [[Western Christianity]], such as Catholicism and Lutheranism, some Christians attend [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] on Childermas to remember the [[Christian martyr|martyrdom]] of the Holy Innocents.<ref name="Crump2022">{{cite book |last1=Crump |first1=William D. |title=The Christmas Encyclopedia, 4th ed. |date=16 December 2022 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-8790-2 |language=en|page=263}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Feast of the Holy Innocents |url=https://www.lcmmadison.org/2020/12/28/feast-of-the-holy-innocents/ |publisher=Lutheran Campus Ministry in Madison |access-date=29 December 2023 |language=English |date=28 December 2020}}</ref> |
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In England, the memorial is referred to as Childermas or Children's Mass in which "Children are given a blessing; they sing in the choir and take on other special roles in the church service."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pennoyer |first1=Greg |last2=Bevis |first2=Beth |title=God With Us: God With Us: Rediscovering the Meaning of Christmas |date=1 September 2015 |edition=Reader's |publisher=Paraclete Press |isbn=978-1-61261-819-7 |language=en}}</ref> |
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In [[Spain]], [[Hispanic America]], and the [[Philippines]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=B. A.|first=Seattle Pacific University|title=It's No Joke: Dec. 28 Is for Pranks in Spanish-Speaking Countries|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/spains-equivalent-of-april-fools-day-3971893|access-date=2021-03-30|website=ThoughtCo|language=en}}</ref> December 28 is still a day for [[practical joke|pranks]], [[April Fools' Day#Comparable prank days|equivalent to April Fool's Day]] in many countries. Pranks (''bromas'') are also known as ''inocentadas'' and their victims are called ''inocentes''; alternatively, the pranksters are the "inocentes" and the victims should not be angry at them, since they could not have committed any ''[[sin]]''. One of the more famous of these traditions is the annual "[[Els Enfarinats]]" festival of [[Ibi, Spain|Ibi]] in [[Alicante|Alacant]], where the ''inocentadas'' dress up in full military dress and incite a flour fight.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12087635 BBC News] report of the 2010 festival.</ref> |
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In [[Spain]], [[Hispanic America]], and the [[Philippines]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=B. A.|first=Seattle Pacific University|title=It's No Joke: Dec. 28 Is for Pranks in Spanish-Speaking Countries|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/spains-equivalent-of-april-fools-day-3971893|access-date=30 March 2021|website=ThoughtCo|language=en}}</ref> 28 December is still a day for [[practical joke|pranks]], [[April Fools' Day#Comparable prank days|equivalent to April Fool's Day]] in many countries. Pranks ({{lang|es|bromas}}) are also known as {{lang|es|inocentadas}} and their victims are called {{lang|es|inocentes}}; alternatively, the pranksters are the {{lang|es|inocentes}} and the victims should not be angry at them, since they could not have committed any [[sin]]. One of the more famous of these traditions is the annual "[[Els Enfarinats]]" festival of [[Ibi, Spain|Ibi]] in [[Alicante|Alacant]], where the {{lang|es|inocentes}} dress up in full military dress and incite a flour fight.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12087635 BBC News] report of the 2010 festival.</ref> |
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In [[Trinidad and Tobago]], Roman Catholic children have their toys blessed at a Mass.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsday.co.tt/news/0,188495.html |title="Feast of Holy Innocents", ''Trinity and Tobago Newsday'', December 30, 2103 |publisher=Newsday.co.tt |date=2013-12-30 |access-date=2018-04-16}}</ref> |
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In [[Trinidad and Tobago]], Catholic children have their toys blessed at a Mass.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsday.co.tt/news/0,188495.html |title="Feast of Holy Innocents", ''Trinity and Tobago Newsday'', December 30, 2103 |publisher=Newsday.co.tt |date=30 December 2013 |access-date=16 April 2018}}</ref> |
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== Gallery == |
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===Roman Rite before and after 1955=== |
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In the Roman Rite prior to 1955, a unique feature of this feast was the use of liturgical elements ordinarily ascribed to penitential days—including violet vestments, the omission of the [[Gloria in excelsis Deo|Gloria]], and the substitution of a Tract in place of the Alleluia—unless the feast fell on Sunday, in which case the rubrics required the feast to be celebrated as on its octave day, with red vestments, Gloria, and Alleluia. The octave of this feast was suppressed by [[Pope Pius XII]] in 1955, with the feast now celebrated using the features formerly ascribed to its octave day, a practice reinforced by the 1960 [[Code of Rubrics]]. |
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==Gallery== |
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<gallery mode="packed" heights="165" style="line-height:130%"> |
<gallery mode="packed" heights="165" style="line-height:130%"> |
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File:BnF MS Gr510 folio 137 recto - detail - Herod orders the Massacre of the Innocents; the Flight of Elizabeth; the martyrdom of Zachariah.jpg|Herod orders the Massacre of the Innocents; the Flight of Elizabeth; the martyrdom of Zachariah (illumination from a 9th-century manuscript) |
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File:Kerald (Meister des Codex Egberti) 001.jpg|10th-century [[illuminated manuscript]] |
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File:Giotto di Bondone - No. 21 Scenes from the Life of Christ - 5. Massacre of the Innocents - .jpg|[[Giotto]], ''Massacre of the Innocents'' |
File:Giotto di Bondone - No. 21 Scenes from the Life of Christ - 5. Massacre of the Innocents - .jpg|[[Giotto]], ''Massacre of the Innocents'' |
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File:Nürnberg St. Lorenz Dreikönigsaltar Kindermord 01.jpg|Panel from Dreikönigsaltar by [[Hans Pleydenwurff]] 1460-1465 |
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File:Matteo di Giovanni 002.jpg|''The Massacre of the Innocents at Bethlehem'', by [[Matteo di Giovanni]] |
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File:Pieter Bruegel the Elder - Massacre of the Innocents - Google Art Project.jpg|[[Pieter Brueghel the Elder]], ''[[Massacre of the Innocents (Bruegel)|Massacre of the Innocents]]'' |
File:Pieter Bruegel the Elder - Massacre of the Innocents - Google Art Project.jpg|[[Pieter Brueghel the Elder]], ''[[Massacre of the Innocents (Bruegel)|Massacre of the Innocents]]'' |
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File:Cornelis van Haarlem - Bethlehemse kindermoord.jpg|[[Cornelis van Haarlem]], ''Massacre of the Innocents'', 1590, [[Rijksmuseum]] |
File:Cornelis van Haarlem - Bethlehemse kindermoord.jpg|[[Cornelis van Haarlem]], ''Massacre of the Innocents'', 1590, [[Rijksmuseum]] |
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File:Jacopo Tintoretto - The Massacre of the Innocents - WGA22591.jpg|[[Jacopo Tintoretto]], ''Massacre of the Innocents'' |
File:Jacopo Tintoretto - The Massacre of the Innocents - WGA22591.jpg|[[Jacopo Tintoretto]], ''Massacre of the Innocents'' |
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File:1824 Navez Das Massaker der Unschuldigen anagoria.JPG|[[François-Joseph Navez]], ''The massacre of the innocents'', 1824 |
File:1824 Navez Das Massaker der Unschuldigen anagoria.JPG|[[François-Joseph Navez]], ''The massacre of the innocents'', 1824 |
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File:William Holman Hunt - The Triumph of the Innocents - Google Art Project.jpg|''Triumph of the Innocents'' by [[William Holman Hunt]] |
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File:Faroe stamp 405 the scream form ramah.jpg|''The scream from Ramah'', 2001 stamp of the [[Faroe Islands]] |
File:Faroe stamp 405 the scream form ramah.jpg|''The scream from Ramah'', 2001 stamp of the [[Faroe Islands]] |
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File:Matteo di Giovanni 002.jpg|''The Massacre of the Innocents at Bethlehem'', by [[Matteo di Giovanni]] |
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File:William Holman Hunt - The Triumph of the Innocents - Google Art Project.jpg|''Triumph of the Innocents'' by [[William Holman Hunt]] |
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File:Kerald (Meister des Codex Egberti) 001.jpg|thumb|10th-century [[illuminated manuscript]] |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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== |
==See also== |
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* [[Chapel of the Milk Grotto]] |
* [[Chapel of the Milk Grotto]] |
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* [[Church of the Nativity#Tombs|Church of the Nativity § Tombs]] |
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* [[Coventry Carol]] |
* [[Coventry Carol]] |
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* [[Flight into Egypt]] |
* [[Flight into Egypt]] |
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* [[Star of Bethlehem]] |
* [[Star of Bethlehem]] |
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== |
==Notes== |
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{{Notelist}} |
{{Notelist}} |
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== |
==References== |
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=== |
===Citations === |
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{{Reflist|refs= |
{{Reflist|refs= |
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<ref name=catholic.org>{{cite web |url=https://www.catholic.org/saints/patron.php |title=Patron Saints A-Z |website=catholic.org}}</ref> |
<ref name=catholic.org>{{cite web |url=https://www.catholic.org/saints/patron.php |title=Patron Saints A-Z |website=catholic.org}}</ref> |
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}} |
}} |
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=== |
===Sources=== |
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{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}} |
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}} |
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*{{cite book|author=Anon|title=Catholicism All-in-One For Dummies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=US7vCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT131|date=2015|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-119-08470-9}} |
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*{{cite book|last1=Blackburn|first1=Bonnie J. |last2=Holford-Strevens|first2=Leofranc |title=The Oxford Companion to the Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ApWLQgAACAAJ&pg=PA537|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-214231-3}} |
*{{cite book|last1=Blackburn|first1=Bonnie J. |last2=Holford-Strevens|first2=Leofranc |title=The Oxford Companion to the Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ApWLQgAACAAJ&pg=PA537|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-214231-3}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Brown|first=Raymond Edward |title=An Adult Christ at Christmas: Essays on the Three Biblical Christmas Stories|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co8Mh-GliPIC&pg=PA10|year=1978|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-0997-2}} |
* {{cite book|last=Brown|first=Raymond Edward |title=An Adult Christ at Christmas: Essays on the Three Biblical Christmas Stories|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co8Mh-GliPIC&pg=PA10|year=1978|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-0997-2}} |
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*{{cite book|last=de Commynes|first=Philippe |author-link=Philippe de Commynes|title=Memoirs: The Reign of Louis XI, 1461-83|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LrkMAQAAMAAJ|year=1972|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-044264-9}} |
*{{cite book|last=de Commynes|first=Philippe |author-link=Philippe de Commynes|title=Memoirs: The Reign of Louis XI, 1461-83|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LrkMAQAAMAAJ|year=1972|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-044264-9}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Everett |year=2003 |title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3tuKkxU4-ncC |isbn=978-0-8028-2221-5}} |
* {{Cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Everett |year=2003 |title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3tuKkxU4-ncC |isbn=978-0-8028-2221-5}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=France |first=R. T. |year=2007 |title=The Gospel of Matthew |publisher=Eerdmans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ruP6J_XPCEC |isbn=978-0-8028-2501-8}} |
* {{Cite book |last=France |first=R. T. |year=2007 |title=The Gospel of Matthew |publisher=Eerdmans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ruP6J_XPCEC&pg=PA83 |isbn=978-0-8028-2501-8}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Grant |first=Michael |year=1971 |title=Herod the Great |publisher=American Heritage Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWGFAAAAIAAJ&q=myth |isbn=978-0-07-024073-5}} |
* {{cite book |last=Grant |first=Michael |year=1971 |title=Herod the Great |publisher=American Heritage Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWGFAAAAIAAJ&q=myth |isbn=978-0-07-024073-5}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Harrington |first=Daniel |year=1991 |title=The Gospel of Matthew |publisher=Liturgical Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bNf13S3k2w0C |isbn=978-0-8146-5803-1}} |
* {{Cite book |last=Harrington |first=Daniel |year=1991 |title=The Gospel of Matthew |publisher=Liturgical Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bNf13S3k2w0C |isbn=978-0-8146-5803-1}} |
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*{{cite CE1913|wstitle=Holy Innocents|first=Frederick George |last=Holweck|volume=7}} |
*{{cite CE1913|wstitle=Holy Innocents|first=Frederick George |last=Holweck|volume=7}} |
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*{{cite book |author=James |translator-last=Walker |translator-first=Alexander |year=2019 |title=The Protoevangelium of James: Greek and English Texts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDq-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |publisher=Dalcassian}} |
*{{cite book |author=James |translator-last=Walker |translator-first=Alexander |year=2019 |title=The Protoevangelium of James: Greek and English Texts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDq-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |publisher=Dalcassian|isbn=978-1960069023 }} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Lincoln |first=Andrew |year=2013 |title=Born of a Virgin?: Reconceiving Jesus in the Bible, Tradition, and Theology |publisher=Eerdmans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=deNgAQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-8028-6925-8}} |
* {{Cite book |last=Lincoln |first=Andrew |year=2013 |title=Born of a Virgin?: Reconceiving Jesus in the Bible, Tradition, and Theology |publisher=Eerdmans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=deNgAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 |isbn=978-0-8028-6925-8}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Macrobius |first=Ambrosius Theodosius |date=1848 |title=Saturnalia |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Macrobius/Saturnalia/2*.html |volume=Book II |chapter=Chapter IV:11}} |
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* {{cite book | last=Magness | first=Jodi | title=Masada: From Jewish Revolt to Modern Myth | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2021 | isbn=978-0-691-21677-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KR4OEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 | page=126}} |
* {{cite book | last=Magness | first=Jodi | title=Masada: From Jewish Revolt to Modern Myth | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2021 | isbn=978-0-691-21677-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KR4OEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 | page=126}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Maier |first=Paul L. |year=1998 |chapter=Herod and the Infants of Bethlehem |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mWnYvI5RdLMC&q=Herod+and+the+Infants+of+Bethlehem&pg=PA169 |editor1-last=Summers |editor1-first=Ray |editor2-last=Vardaman |editor2-first=Jerry |title=Chronos, Kairos, Christos II: Chronological, Nativity, and Religious Studies in Memory of Ray Summers |publisher=Mercer University Press |isbn=978-0-86554-582-3}} |
* {{Cite book |last=Maier |first=Paul L. |author-link=Paul L. Maier |year=1998 |chapter=Herod and the Infants of Bethlehem |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mWnYvI5RdLMC&q=Herod+and+the+Infants+of+Bethlehem&pg=PA169 |editor1-last=Summers |editor1-first=Ray |editor2-last=Vardaman |editor2-first=Jerry |title=Chronos, Kairos, Christos II: Chronological, Nativity, and Religious Studies in Memory of Ray Summers |publisher=Mercer University Press |isbn=978-0-86554-582-3}} |
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* {{Cite web |url=https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/112333/jewish/Nimrod-and-Abraham.htm |title=Nimrod and Abraham – The Two Rivals – Jewish History |last=Mindel |first=Nissan |author-link=Nissan Mindel |website=[[Chabad.org]] |publisher=[[Kehot Publication Society]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529223952/https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/112333/jewish/Nimrod-and-Abraham.htm |archive-date=2018-05-29}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Mina |first= évêque de Pchati |translator-last=Porcher |translator-first=E. |date=1907 |chapter=Histoire d'Isaac, patriarche Jacobite d'Alexandrie de 686 à 689 |title=Patrologia orientalis |url=https://archive.org/details/patrologiaorient11pariuoft |volume=11|publisher= Paris Firmin-Didot }} |
*{{cite book |last=Mina |first= évêque de Pchati |translator-last=Porcher |translator-first=E. |date=1907 |chapter=Histoire d'Isaac, patriarche Jacobite d'Alexandrie de 686 à 689 |title=Patrologia orientalis |url=https://archive.org/details/patrologiaorient11pariuoft |volume=11|publisher= Paris Firmin-Didot }} |
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*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofchri01smit/page/549 |title=A dictionary of Christian antiquities: Comprising the History, Institutions, and Antiquities of the Christian Church, from the Time of the Apostles to the Age of Charlemagne|first1=William|last1=Smith|author1-link=William Smith (lexicographer)|first2=Samuel |last2=Cheetham |author2-link=Samuel Cheetham (priest) |publisher=J. Murray|year=1875|volume= |
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofchri01smit/page/549 |title=A dictionary of Christian antiquities: Comprising the History, Institutions, and Antiquities of the Christian Church, from the Time of the Apostles to the Age of Charlemagne|first1=William|last1=Smith|author1-link=William Smith (lexicographer)|first2=Samuel |last2=Cheetham |author2-link=Samuel Cheetham (priest) |publisher=J. Murray|year=1875|volume=11}} |
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*{{Cite journal |title=Rachel's Cry for Her Children: Matthew's Treatment of the Infanticide by Herod |journal=The Catholic Biblical Quarterly |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43728232 |last=Park |first=Eugene Eung-Chun |issue=3 |volume=75 |pages=473–485 |year=2013 |issn=0008-7912 |jstor=43728232}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Studwell|first=William Emmett |title=The Christmas Carol Reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AfTZAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=Haworth |isbn=978-1-56023-872-0}} |
*{{cite book|last=Studwell|first=William Emmett |title=The Christmas Carol Reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AfTZAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=Haworth |isbn=978-1-56023-872-0}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Vermes |first=Geza |year=2006 |title=The Nativity: History and Legend |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J00OOo-3RqEC |publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin UK]] |isbn=978-0-14-191261-5}} |
* {{Cite book |last=Vermes |first=Geza |year=2006 |title=The Nativity: History and Legend |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J00OOo-3RqEC |publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin UK]] |isbn=978-0-14-191261-5}} |
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Revision as of 00:37, 18 May 2024
Holy Innocents | |
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Born | Various, presumably close to the birth of Jesus Bethlehem, Judea |
Died | c. 7–2 BC Bethlehem, Judea (martyred by King Herod the Great) |
Cause of death | Infanticide |
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The Massacre (or Slaughter) of the Innocents is a biblical story recounted in the Nativity narrative of the Gospel of Matthew (2:16–18) in which Herod the Great, king of Judea, orders the execution of all male children who are two years old and under in the vicinity of Bethlehem.[2] "Most New Testament scholars do not regard the stories of the magi, the massacre of the innocents, and the flight to Egypt as historical,136 so in this sense they are myth. But they are also mythical in the sense of conveying sacred truths."[3] Some Christians venerate the Holy Innocents as the first Christian martyrs,[4] but modern scholarship finds no evidence that it happened outside the passages in Matthew.[5]
The Feast of the Holy Innocents, also known as Childermas, is celebrated in the Western Christian Churches on 28 December, the fourth day of Christmastide. In Eastern Christianity, the feast is celebrated on various dates, depending on the denomination.[6]
Biblical narrative
The Gospel of Matthew tells how the Magi visit Jerusalem to seek guidance as to where the king of the Jews has been born; King Herod directs them to Bethlehem and asks them to return to him and report, but they are warned in a dream that Herod wishes to find the child and kill him, and do not do so. Matthew continues:
When Herod realized that he had been outwitted by the Magi, he was furious, and he gave orders to kill all the boys in Bethlehem and its vicinity who were two years old and under, in accordance with the time he had learned from the Magi.
— Matthew 2:16[7]
This is followed by a reference to and quotation from the Book of Jeremiah (Jeremiah 31:15) (Jeremiah 31:14 in the Hebrew Bible): "Then what was said through the prophet Jeremiah was fulfilled: A voice is heard in Ramah, weeping and great mourning, Rachel weeping for her children and refusing to be comforted, because they are no more." (Matthew 2:17–18). The relevance of this to the massacre is not immediately apparent, as Jeremiah's next verses go on to speak of hope and restoration.[8]
History and theology
The account of the massacre of the innocents in Matthew is the second invocation of the story in the Bible, and draws on its Jewish roots from the narrative of Moses' escape from Pharaoh's edict in The Exodus. Mainstream scholars do not accept the historicity of the Matthew account.[3][2][9] Many view the discussion of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than chronological timelines.[10][11][12][13]
The story of the massacre is found in no gospel other than Matthew, nor is it mentioned in the surviving works of Nicolaus of Damascus (who was a personal friend of Herod the Great), nor in Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews, despite his recording many of Herod's misdeeds, including the murder of three of his own sons.[4] The early 5th-century account of Macrobius—that "on hearing that the son of Herod, king of the Jews, had been slain when Herod ordered that all boys in Syria under the age of two be killed, [Augustus] said, 'It's better to be Herod's pig than his son'"—has been discounted as extra-biblical evidence for the event due to its later authorship, possible influence by the gospel narrative, and the confused nature of the account.[14] In view of the lack of independent confirmation that the event ever occurred, the most likely explanation for the story is that it is folklore inspired by Herod's reputation.[9]
The author appears to have modeled the episode on the biblical story of Pharaoh's attempt to kill the Israelite children in the Book of Exodus, as told in an expanded version that was current in the 1st century.[15] In that expanded story, Pharaoh kills the Hebrew children after his scribes warn him of the impending birth of the threat to his crown (i.e., Moses), but Moses' father and mother are warned in a dream that the child's life is in danger and act to save him.[16] Later in life, after Moses has to flee, like Jesus, he returns when those who sought his death are themselves dead.[16]
Numbers
The Greek liturgy asserts 14,000 Holy Innocents, while an early Syrian list of saints asserts 64,000. Coptic sources assert 144,000 and that it took place on 29 December.[17] The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1907–1912, recognizing that Bethlehem was too small a town to provide such numbers, reduced the victims to between six and twenty children in the town, with a dozen or so more in the surrounding areas.[a]
In Christian art
Medieval liturgical drama recounted Biblical events, including Herod's slaughter of the innocents. The Pageant of the Shearmen and Tailors, performed in Coventry, England, included a haunting song about the episode now known as the Coventry Carol. The Ordo Rachelis tradition of four plays includes the Flight into Egypt, Herod's succession by Archelaus, the return from Egypt, as well as the Massacre, all centered on Rachel weeping in fulfillment of Jeremiah's prophecy. These events were likewise in one of the medieval N-Town Plays.[citation needed]
The "Coventry Carol" is a Christmas carol dating from the 16th century. The carol was performed in Coventry in England as part of a mystery play called The Pageant of the Shearmen and Tailors. The play depicts the Christmas story from chapter two in the Gospel of Matthew. The carol refers to the Massacre of the Innocents, in which Herod ordered all male infants two years old and under in Bethlehem to be killed.[18] The lyrics of this haunting carol represent a mother's lament for her doomed child. The author is unknown. The oldest known text was written down by Robert Croo in 1534, and the melody dates from 1591.[19] The carol is traditionally sung a cappella.[citation needed]
The 17th century Dutch Christmas song O Kerstnacht, schoner dan de dagen, while beginning with a reference to Christmas Night, is about the Massacre of the Innocents. In 1974, the Dutch progressive rock band Focus recorded the first two verses of the song for their album Hamburger Concerto.[citation needed]
The theme of the "Massacre of the Innocents" has provided artists of many nationalities with opportunities to compose complicated depictions of massed bodies in violent action. It was an alternative to the Flight into Egypt in cycles of the Life of the Virgin. It decreased in popularity in Gothic art, but revived in the larger works of the Renaissance, when artists took inspiration for their "Massacres" from Roman reliefs of the battle of the Lapiths and Centaurs to the extent that they showed the figures heroically nude.[20] The horrific subject matter of the Massacre of the Innocents also provided a comparison of ancient brutalities with the brutalities of the early modern period, during the period of religious wars that followed the Reformation – Bruegel's versions show the soldiers carrying banners with the Habsburg double-headed eagle.[21]
The 1590 version by Cornelis van Haarlem also seems to reflect the violence of the Dutch Revolt. Guido Reni's early (1611) Massacre of the Innocents, in an unusual vertical format, is at Bologna.[22] The Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens painted the theme more than once. One version, now in Munich, was engraved and reproduced as a painting as far away as colonial Peru.[23]
Paintings
- Massacre of the Innocents by the Bruegels. Several versions of The Massacre of the Innocents were painted by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (c. 1565–67) and his son Pieter Brueghel the Younger (into the 17th century).
- Massacre of the Innocents by Guido Reni, created in 1611 for the Basilica of San Domenico in Bologna, but now in the Pinacoteca Nazionale in that city
- Two versions by Peter Paul Rubens, painted in 1611–1612 and 1636–1638
- The Massacre of the Innocents by Nicolas Poussin, painted between 1625 and 1632
- Massacre of the Innocents by Matteo di Giovanni[non-primary source needed]
Music
The communion motet for the Feast of the Holy Innocents is the text from Matthew 2:18 (citing Jeremiah 31:15) Vox in Rama. This was set polyphonically by a number of composers of the renaissance and baroque, including Jacob Clemens non Papa, Giaches de Wert, and Heinrich Schütz (in German).
Marc-Antoine Charpentier composed an oratorio, Caedes sanctorum innocentium, H.411, for soloists, chorus, two violins, and continuo (1683–1685).
Feast day
Dates by denomination
Today, the date of Holy Innocents' Day, also called the Feast of the Holy Innocents, or Childermas or Children's Mass,[clarification needed] varies.
- 27 December for West Syrians (Syriac Orthodox Church, Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, and Maronite Church)
- 28 December in the Church of England (Festival),[24] the Lutheran Church, and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, with these Western Christian denominations celebrating Childermas as the fourth day of Christmastide[25]
- 29 December for the Eastern Orthodox Church[26]
- 10 January for East Syrians (Chaldeans and Syro-Malabar Catholic Church)
Beginnings
The commemoration of the massacre of the Holy Innocents, traditionally regarded as the first Christian martyrs, if unknowingly so,[27][b] first appears as a feast of the Western church in the Leonine Sacramentary, dating from about 485. The earliest commemorations[clarification needed] were connected with the Feast of the Epiphany, 6 January: Prudentius mentions the Innocents in his hymn on the Epiphany. Leo in his homilies on the Epiphany speaks of the Innocents. Fulgentius of Ruspe (6th century) gives a homily De Epiphania, deque Innocentum nece et muneribus magorum ("On Epiphany, and on the murder of the Innocents and the gifts of the Magi").[c]
Catholic medieval traditions
From the time of Charlemagne, Sicarius of Bethlehem was venerated at Brantôme, Dordogne as one of the purported victims of the Massacre.[28]
In the Middle Ages, especially north of the Alps, the day was a festival of inversion involving role reversal between children and adults such as teachers and priests, with boy bishops presiding over some church services.[29] Bonnie Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens suggest that this was a Christianized version of the Roman annual feast of the Saturnalia (when even slaves played "masters" for a day). In some regions, such as medieval England and France, it was said to be an unlucky day when no new project should be started.[30]
There was a medieval custom of refraining where possible from work on the day of the week on which the feast of "Innocents Day" had fallen for the whole of the following year until the next Innocents Day. Philippe de Commynes, the minister of King Louis XI of France, tells in his memoirs how the king observed this custom, and describes the trepidation he felt when he had to inform the king of an emergency on the day.[31]
Contemporary traditions in Western Christianity
In denominations of Western Christianity, such as Catholicism and Lutheranism, some Christians attend Mass on Childermas to remember the martyrdom of the Holy Innocents.[6][32]
In England, the memorial is referred to as Childermas or Children's Mass in which "Children are given a blessing; they sing in the choir and take on other special roles in the church service."[33]
In Spain, Hispanic America, and the Philippines,[34] 28 December is still a day for pranks, equivalent to April Fool's Day in many countries. Pranks (bromas) are also known as inocentadas and their victims are called inocentes; alternatively, the pranksters are the inocentes and the victims should not be angry at them, since they could not have committed any sin. One of the more famous of these traditions is the annual "Els Enfarinats" festival of Ibi in Alacant, where the inocentes dress up in full military dress and incite a flour fight.[35]
In Trinidad and Tobago, Catholic children have their toys blessed at a Mass.[36]
Roman Rite before and after 1955
In the Roman Rite prior to 1955, a unique feature of this feast was the use of liturgical elements ordinarily ascribed to penitential days—including violet vestments, the omission of the Gloria, and the substitution of a Tract in place of the Alleluia—unless the feast fell on Sunday, in which case the rubrics required the feast to be celebrated as on its octave day, with red vestments, Gloria, and Alleluia. The octave of this feast was suppressed by Pope Pius XII in 1955, with the feast now celebrated using the features formerly ascribed to its octave day, a practice reinforced by the 1960 Code of Rubrics.
Gallery
-
Herod orders the Massacre of the Innocents; the Flight of Elizabeth; the martyrdom of Zachariah (illumination from a 9th-century manuscript)
-
10th-century illuminated manuscript
-
Giotto, Massacre of the Innocents
-
Panel from Dreikönigsaltar by Hans Pleydenwurff 1460-1465
-
The Massacre of the Innocents at Bethlehem, by Matteo di Giovanni
-
Cornelis van Haarlem, Massacre of the Innocents, 1590, Rijksmuseum
-
Rubens, Massacre of the Innocents, 1610–11, Toronto
-
Jacopo Tintoretto, Massacre of the Innocents
-
François-Joseph Navez, The massacre of the innocents, 1824
-
Triumph of the Innocents by William Holman Hunt
-
The scream from Ramah, 2001 stamp of the Faroe Islands
See also
- Chapel of the Milk Grotto
- Church of the Nativity § Tombs
- Coventry Carol
- Flight into Egypt
- Jesus and Messianic prophecy § Jeremiah 31:15
- Star of Bethlehem
Notes
- ^ Holweck 1910 states "The Greek Liturgy asserts that Herod killed 14,000 boys (ton hagion id chiliadon Nepion), the Syrians speak of 64,000, many medieval authors of 144,000, according to Apocalypse 14:3. Writers who accept the historicity of the episode reduce the number considerably, since Bethlehem was a rather small town. Joseph Knabenbauer brings it down to fifteen or twenty (Evang. S. Matt., I, 104), August Bisping to ten or twelve (Evang. S. Matt.), Lorenz Kellner to about six (Christus und seine Apostel, Freiburg, 1908)".
- ^ Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. iii.16.4) and Cyprian (Epistle 56)
- ^ Prudentius, Leo, and Fulgentius are noted in Smith & Cheetham 1875, pp. 839ff.
References
Citations
- ^ "Patron Saints A-Z". catholic.org.
- ^ a b Litwa, M. David (2019). "Chapter 8: Child in Danger, Child of Wonder". How the Gospels Became History – Jesus and Mediterranean Myths. Yale University Press. pp. 118–120. ISBN 9780300249484.
- ^ a b George, Arthur. The Mythology of America's Seasonal Holidays: The Dance of the Horae", Springer International Publishing, 2020, p. 218ISBN 978-3-030-46916-0
- ^ a b Clarke 2003, p. 22.
- ^ Maier 1998, pp. 170–171.
- ^ a b Crump, William D. (16 December 2022). The Christmas Encyclopedia, 4th ed. McFarland. p. 263. ISBN 978-1-4766-8790-2.
- ^ Matthew 2:16
- ^ Clarke 2003, p. 23.
- ^ a b Magness 2021, p. 126.
- ^ Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology by Timothy Wiarda 2010 ISBN 0-8054-4843-8 pp. 75–78
- ^ Jesus, the Christ: Contemporary Perspectives by Brennan R. Hill 2004 ISBN 1-58595-303-2 p. 89
- ^ The Gospel of Luke by Timothy Johnson 1992 ISBN 0-8146-5805-9 p. 72
- ^ Recovering Jesus: the witness of the New Testament Thomas R. Yoder Neufeld 2007 ISBN 1-58743-202-1 p. 111
- ^ Maier 1998, p. 187.
- ^ Lincoln 2013, p. 44.
- ^ a b Brown 1978, p. 11.
- ^ Mina 1907, pp. 300-.
- ^ "The Coventry Carol".
The version from Bramley and Stainer (1878)
- ^ Studwell 1995, p. 15.
- ^ "Getty Collection". Getty.edu. 7 May 2009. Archived from the original on 5 December 2005. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
- ^ A winter landscape with the Massacre of the Innocents, Sotheby's, 7 December 2005
- ^ "Reni's painting at the Web Gallery of Art". Wga.hu. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
- ^ The Massacre of the Innocents in Cuzco Cathedral is clearly influenced by Rubens. See CODART Courant, December 2003, 12. (2.5 MB pdf download)
- ^ "The Calendar". The Church of England. Retrieved 10 April 2021.
- ^ "Day Four: December 28, Feast of the Holy Innocents". Catholic Culture. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
- ^ troparia, All; saints, kontakia · All lives of. "Lives of the Saints". www.oca.org.
- ^ Smith & Cheetham 1875, pp. 839–.
- ^ Wasyliw 2008, p. 46.
- ^ Holweck 1910.
- ^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 1999, pp. 537–538.
- ^ de Commynes 1972, pp. 253–254.
- ^ "Feast of the Holy Innocents". Lutheran Campus Ministry in Madison. 28 December 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
- ^ Pennoyer, Greg; Bevis, Beth (1 September 2015). God With Us: God With Us: Rediscovering the Meaning of Christmas (Reader's ed.). Paraclete Press. ISBN 978-1-61261-819-7.
- ^ B. A., Seattle Pacific University. "It's No Joke: Dec. 28 Is for Pranks in Spanish-Speaking Countries". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
- ^ BBC News report of the 2010 festival.
- ^ ""Feast of Holy Innocents", Trinity and Tobago Newsday, December 30, 2103". Newsday.co.tt. 30 December 2013. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
Sources
- Blackburn, Bonnie J.; Holford-Strevens, Leofranc (1999). The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-214231-3.
- Brown, Raymond Edward (1978). An Adult Christ at Christmas: Essays on the Three Biblical Christmas Stories. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-0997-2.
- Clarke, Howard (2003). The Gospel of Matthew and Its Readers: A Historical Introduction to the First Gospel. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-11061-0.
- de Commynes, Philippe (1972). Memoirs: The Reign of Louis XI, 1461-83. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044264-9.
- Ferguson, Everett (2003). Backgrounds of Early Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2221-5.
- France, R. T. (2007). The Gospel of Matthew. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-2501-8.
- Grant, Michael (1971). Herod the Great. American Heritage Press. ISBN 978-0-07-024073-5.
- Harrington, Daniel (1991). The Gospel of Matthew. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5803-1.
- Holweck, Frederick George (1910). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company. . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).
- James (2019). The Protoevangelium of James: Greek and English Texts. Translated by Walker, Alexander. Dalcassian. ISBN 978-1960069023.
- Lincoln, Andrew (2013). Born of a Virgin?: Reconceiving Jesus in the Bible, Tradition, and Theology. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-6925-8.
- Magness, Jodi (2021). Masada: From Jewish Revolt to Modern Myth. Princeton University Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-691-21677-5.
- Maier, Paul L. (1998). "Herod and the Infants of Bethlehem". In Summers, Ray; Vardaman, Jerry (eds.). Chronos, Kairos, Christos II: Chronological, Nativity, and Religious Studies in Memory of Ray Summers. Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-86554-582-3.
- Mina, évêque de Pchati (1907). "Histoire d'Isaac, patriarche Jacobite d'Alexandrie de 686 à 689". Patrologia orientalis. Vol. 11. Translated by Porcher, E. Paris Firmin-Didot.
- Smith, William; Cheetham, Samuel (1875). A dictionary of Christian antiquities: Comprising the History, Institutions, and Antiquities of the Christian Church, from the Time of the Apostles to the Age of Charlemagne. Vol. 11. J. Murray.
- Park, Eugene Eung-Chun (2013). "Rachel's Cry for Her Children: Matthew's Treatment of the Infanticide by Herod". The Catholic Biblical Quarterly. 75 (3): 473–485. ISSN 0008-7912. JSTOR 43728232.
- Studwell, William Emmett (1995). The Christmas Carol Reader. Haworth. ISBN 978-1-56023-872-0.
- Vermes, Geza (2006). The Nativity: History and Legend. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-14-191261-5.
- Wasyliw, Patricia Healy (2008). Martyrdom, Murder, and Magic: Child Saints and Their Cults in Medieval Europe. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-2764-5.