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{{AFI}} |
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{{Short description|Male adult human}} |
{{Short description|Male adult human}} |
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{{Other uses}} |
{{Other uses}} |
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[[File:Outdoors-man-portrait (cropped).jpg|alt=A man with a beard, wearing a checkered shirt, with his arms crossed.|thumb|A man]]<!--PLEASE NOTE: This image was selected following extensive discussion at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Man/sandbox, along with additional discussion on this article's talk page. Please do not remove or replace without talk page consensus. Thank you.--> |
[[File:Outdoors-man-portrait (cropped).jpg|alt=A man with a beard, wearing a checkered shirt, with his arms crossed.|thumb|A man]]<!--PLEASE NOTE: This image was selected following extensive discussion at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Man/sandbox, along with additional discussion on this article's talk page. Please do not remove or replace without talk page consensus. Thank you.--> |
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A '''man''' is an [[adult]] [[male]] [[human]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning of "man" in English |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/man |access-date=18 August 2021 |website=dictionary.cambridge.org |publisher=[[Cambridge Dictionary]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of "man" |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/man |access-date=18 August 2021 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |language=en}}</ref> Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a [[boy]] (a male [[child]] or [[adolescent]]). |
A '''man''' ({{plural form}}: '''men''') is an [[adult]] [[male]] [[human]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meaning of "man" in English |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/man |access-date=18 August 2021 |website=dictionary.cambridge.org |publisher=[[Cambridge Dictionary]] |language=en |archive-date=6 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106000222/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/man |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of "man" |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/man |access-date=18 August 2021 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |language=en |archive-date=9 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309135059/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/man |url-status=live }}</ref> Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a [[boy]] (a male [[child]] or [[adolescent]]). |
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Like most other male [[mammal]]s, a man's [[genome]] usually inherits an [[X chromosome|X chromosome]] from the mother and a [[Y chromosome|Y chromosome]] from the father. [[Sex differentiation]] of the male fetus is governed by the [[SRY]] gene on the Y chromosome. During puberty, hormones which stimulate androgen production result in the development of [[secondary sexual characteristic]]s, thus exhibiting greater differences between the sexes. These include greater muscle mass, the growth of facial hair and a lower body fat composition. Male anatomy is distinguished from female anatomy by the [[male reproductive system]], which includes the [[penis]], [[testicle]]s, [[sperm duct]], [[Prostate|prostate gland]] and the [[epididymis]], and by [[secondary sex characteristic]]s, including a narrower pelvis, narrower hips, and smaller [[breast]]s. |
Like most other male [[mammal]]s, a man's [[genome]] usually inherits an [[X chromosome|X chromosome]] from the mother and a [[Y chromosome|Y chromosome]] from the father. [[Sex differentiation]] of the male fetus is governed by the [[SRY]] gene on the Y chromosome. During puberty, hormones which stimulate androgen production result in the development of [[secondary sexual characteristic]]s, thus exhibiting greater differences between the sexes. These include greater muscle mass, the growth of facial hair and a lower body fat composition. Male anatomy is distinguished from female anatomy by the [[male reproductive system]], which includes the [[penis]], [[testicle]]s, [[sperm duct]], [[Prostate|prostate gland]] and the [[epididymis]], and by [[secondary sex characteristic]]s, including a narrower pelvis, narrower hips, and smaller [[breast]]s. |
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==Etymology== |
==Etymology== |
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{{Further|Man (word)|boy|father|husband|son|godparent|gentleman|widower|}} |
{{Further|Man (word)|boy|father|husband|son|godparent|gentleman|widower|}} |
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The English term "man" is derived from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root ''*man-'' (see [[Sanskrit]]/[[Avestan]] ''manu-'', [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] ''mǫž'' "man, male").<ref>''American Heritage Dictionary'', Appendix I: Indo-European Roots. [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE295.html man-1] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060519035935/http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE295.html|date=19 May 2006 }}. Accessed 22 July 2007.</ref> More directly, the word derives from [[Old English]] ''[[wikt:mann#Old English|mann]]''. The Old English form primarily meant "person" or "human being" and referred to men, women, and children alike. The Old English word for "man" as distinct from "woman" or "child" was ''[[wikt:wer#Old English|wer]]''. ''Mann'' only came to mean "man" in Middle English, replacing ''wer'', which survives today only in the compounds "[[werewolf]]" (from Old English ''[[wikt:werwulf#Old English|werwulf]]'', literally "man-wolf"), and "[[wergild]]", literally "man-payment".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rauer |first1=Christine |title=Mann and Gender in Old English Prose: A Pilot Study |journal=Neophilologus |date=January 2017 |volume=101 |issue=1 |pages=139–158 |doi=10.1007/s11061-016-9489-1|hdl=10023/8978 |s2cid=55817181 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Etymology, origin and meaning of man |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/man |access-date=2023-03-14 |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Etymology, origin and meaning of wergeld |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/wergeld |access-date=2022-06-05 |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en}}</ref> |
The English term "man" is derived from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root ''*man-'' (see [[Sanskrit]]/[[Avestan]] ''manu-'', [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] ''mǫž'' "man, male").<ref>''American Heritage Dictionary'', Appendix I: Indo-European Roots. [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE295.html man-1] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060519035935/http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE295.html|date=19 May 2006 }}. Accessed 22 July 2007.</ref> More directly, the word derives from [[Old English]] ''[[wikt:mann#Old English|mann]]''. The Old English form primarily meant "person" or "human being" and referred to men, women, and children alike. The Old English word for "man" as distinct from "woman" or "child" was ''[[wikt:wer#Old English|wer]]''. ''Mann'' only came to mean "man" in Middle English, replacing ''wer'', which survives today only in the compounds "[[werewolf]]" (from Old English ''[[wikt:werwulf#Old English|werwulf]]'', literally "man-wolf"), and "[[wergild]]", literally "man-payment".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rauer |first1=Christine |title=Mann and Gender in Old English Prose: A Pilot Study |journal=Neophilologus |date=January 2017 |volume=101 |issue=1 |pages=139–158 |doi=10.1007/s11061-016-9489-1|hdl=10023/8978 |s2cid=55817181 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Etymology, origin and meaning of man |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/man |access-date=2023-03-14 |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en |archive-date=14 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814201349/https://www.etymonline.com/word/man |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Etymology, origin and meaning of wergeld |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/wergeld |access-date=2022-06-05 |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en |archive-date=5 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605152905/https://www.etymonline.com/word/wergeld |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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== Biology == <!-- Please don't rename to "...sex" as there is a link from "woman" here. Biology and sex is redundant here, whereas this section does discuss gender in paragraph 5 --> |
== Biology == <!-- Please don't rename to "...sex" as there is a link from "woman" here. Biology and sex is redundant here, whereas this section does discuss gender in paragraph 5 --> |
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{{Main|Sex differences in humans}} |
{{Main|Sex differences in humans}} |
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[[File:NHGRI human male karyotype.png|alt=Karyotype of a human male.|thumb|[[Karyogram]] of a human male using [[Giemsa]] staining. Human males typically possess an [[Sex determination and differentiation (human)|XY combination]].]] |
[[File:NHGRI human male karyotype.png|alt=Karyotype of a human male.|thumb|[[Karyogram]] of a human male using [[Giemsa]] staining. Human males typically possess an [[Sex determination and differentiation (human)|XY combination]].]] |
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In humans, sperm cells carry either an [[X chromosome|X]] or a [[Y chromosome|Y]] sex chromosome. If a sperm cell carrying a [[Y chromosome]] fertilizes the female [[ova|ovum]], the offspring will have a male karyotype (XY). The [[SRY]] gene is typically found on the Y chromosome and causes the development of the testes, which in turn govern other aspects of [[sex differentiation|male sex differentiation]]. Sex differentiation in males proceeds in a testes-dependent way while female differentiation is not gonad dependent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rey |first1=Rodolfo |last2=Josso |first2=Nathalie |last3=Racine |first3=Chrystèle |date=2000 |title=Sexual Differentiation |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279001/ |journal=Endotext |publisher=MDText.com, Inc. |pmid=25905232 |quote= |
In humans, sperm cells carry either an [[X chromosome|X]] or a [[Y chromosome|Y]] sex chromosome. If a sperm cell carrying a [[Y chromosome]] fertilizes the female [[ova|ovum]], the offspring will have a male karyotype (XY). The [[SRY]] gene is typically found on the Y chromosome and causes the development of the testes, which in turn govern other aspects of [[sex differentiation|male sex differentiation]]. Sex differentiation in males proceeds in a testes-dependent way while female differentiation is not gonad dependent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rey |first1=Rodolfo |last2=Josso |first2=Nathalie |last3=Racine |first3=Chrystèle |date=2000 |title=Sexual Differentiation |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279001/ |journal=Endotext |publisher=MDText.com, Inc. |pmid=25905232 |quote=Irrespective of their chromosomal constitution, when the gonadal primordia differentiate into testes, all internal and external genitalia develop following the male pathway. When no testes are present, the genitalia develop along the female pathway. The existence of ovaries has no effect on fetal differentiation of the genitalia. The paramount importance of testicular differentiation for fetal sex development has prompted the use of the expression "sex determination" to refer to the differentiation of the bipotential or primitive gonads into testes. |access-date=6 December 2021 |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808130515/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279001/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Primary sex characteristics (or sex organs) are characteristics that are present at birth and are integral to the reproductive process. For men, primary sex characteristics include the [[penis]] and [[testicle]]s. |
Primary sex characteristics (or sex organs) are characteristics that are present at birth and are integral to the reproductive process. For men, primary sex characteristics include the [[penis]] and [[testicle]]s. |
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[[Image:Anterior view of human female and male, with labels 2.png|thumb|Photograph of an adult male human (''right''), with an adult female for comparison. Note that the [[pubic hair]] of both models is removed. |alt=Photograph of an adult male human, with an adult female for comparison. Note that the [[pubic hair]] of both models is removed.]] |
[[Image:Anterior view of human female and male, with labels 2.png|thumb|Photograph of an adult male human (''right''), with an adult female for comparison. Note that the [[pubic hair]] of both models is removed. |alt=Photograph of an adult male human, with an adult female for comparison. Note that the [[pubic hair]] of both models is removed.]] |
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Secondary sex characteristics are features that appear during [[puberty]] in [[human]]s.<ref name="Melmed">{{cite book |vauthors=Melmed S, Polonsky KS, Larsen PR, Kronenberg HM|title=Williams Textbook of Endocrinology E-Book|publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]]|isbn=978-1437736007|year=2011|page=1054|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbg1QOAObicC&pg=PA1054}}</ref><ref name="Pack">{{cite book |vauthors=Pack PE|title=CliffsNotes AP Biology |edition=5th|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|isbn=978-0544784178|year=2016|page=219|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GsalDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219}}</ref> Such features are especially evident in the [[sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]] [[phenotypic trait]]s that distinguish between the sexes, but—unlike the primary sex characteristics—are not directly part of the [[reproductive system]].<ref name="Bjorklund">{{cite book |vauthors=Bjorklund DF, Blasi CH|title=Child and Adolescent Development: An Integrated Approach|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|isbn=978-1133168379|year=2011|pages=152–153|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTQIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA152}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://sciencing.com/primary-secondary-sexual-characteristics-8557301.html|title=Primary & Secondary Sexual Characteristics|work=Sciencing.com|date=30 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Reproduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m4RlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|year=2018|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-12-815145-7|page=103}}</ref> Secondary sexual characteristics that are specific to men include: |
Secondary sex characteristics are features that appear during [[puberty]] in [[human]]s.<ref name="Melmed">{{cite book |vauthors=Melmed S, Polonsky KS, Larsen PR, Kronenberg HM|title=Williams Textbook of Endocrinology E-Book|publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]]|isbn=978-1437736007|year=2011|page=1054|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbg1QOAObicC&pg=PA1054}}</ref><ref name="Pack">{{cite book |vauthors=Pack PE|title=CliffsNotes AP Biology |edition=5th|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|isbn=978-0544784178|year=2016|page=219|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GsalDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219}}</ref> Such features are especially evident in the [[sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]] [[phenotypic trait]]s that distinguish between the sexes, but—unlike the primary sex characteristics—are not directly part of the [[reproductive system]].<ref name="Bjorklund">{{cite book |vauthors=Bjorklund DF, Blasi CH|title=Child and Adolescent Development: An Integrated Approach|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|isbn=978-1133168379|year=2011|pages=152–153|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTQIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA152}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://sciencing.com/primary-secondary-sexual-characteristics-8557301.html|title=Primary & Secondary Sexual Characteristics|work=Sciencing.com|date=30 April 2018|access-date=13 October 2019|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803171707/https://sciencing.com/primary-secondary-sexual-characteristics-8557301.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Reproduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m4RlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|year=2018|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-12-815145-7|page=103|access-date=13 October 2019|archive-date=20 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120071956/https://books.google.com/books?id=m4RlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|url-status=live}}</ref> Secondary sexual characteristics that are specific to men include: |
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* Broadened shoulders;<ref name="auto2">{{cite book|last=Berger|first=Kathleen Stassen|title=The Developing Person Through the Life Span|url=https://archive.org/details/developingperson00berg_0|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=Worth Publishers|isbn=978-0-7167-5706-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/developingperson00berg_0/page/349 349]}}</ref> |
* Broadened shoulders;<ref name="auto2">{{cite book|last=Berger|first=Kathleen Stassen|title=The Developing Person Through the Life Span|url=https://archive.org/details/developingperson00berg_0|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=Worth Publishers|isbn=978-0-7167-5706-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/developingperson00berg_0/page/349 349]}}</ref> |
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* Increased body hair; |
* Increased body hair; |
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* A voice that is significantly deeper than the voice of a child or a woman.<ref name="auto"/> |
* A voice that is significantly deeper than the voice of a child or a woman.<ref name="auto"/> |
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Men weigh more than women.<ref name="Robert- McComb">{{cite book|last1=Robert-McComb |first1=Jacalyn |last2=Norman |first2=Reid L.|last3= |
Men weigh more than women.<ref name="Robert- McComb">{{cite book |last1=Robert-McComb |first1=Jacalyn |last2=Norman |first2=Reid L. |last3=Zumwalt |first3=Mimi |title=The Active Female: Health Issues Throughout the Lifespan |date=2014 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |isbn=978-1461488842 |pages=223–238 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mUjABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA223 |access-date=19 November 2022 |archive-date=31 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731025804/https://books.google.com/books?id=mUjABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA223 |url-status=live }}</ref> On average, men are taller than women by about 10%.<ref name="Robert- McComb"/> On average, men have a larger waist in comparison to their hips (see [[waist–hip ratio]]) than women. In women, the index and ring fingers tend to be either more similar in size or their index finger is slightly longer than their ring finger, whereas men's ring finger tends to be longer.<ref name="Halpern">{{cite book |last=Halpern |first=Diane F. |title=Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities |edition=4th |date=2013 |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |isbn=978-1136722837 |page=188 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ocl5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 |access-date=19 November 2022 |archive-date=31 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731025807/https://books.google.com/books?id=ocl5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===Reproductive system=== |
===Reproductive system=== |
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The male reproductive system includes external and internal genitalia. The male external genitalia consist of the [[human penis|penis]], the male urethra, and the scrotum, while the male internal genitalia consist of the testes, the prostate, the epididymis, the seminal vesicle, the vas deferens, the ejaculatory duct, and the bulbourethral gland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=33684|title=Definition of Male genitalia|website=MedicineNet|access-date=13 October 2019|archive-date=6 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106152900/https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=33684|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
The male reproductive system includes external and internal genitalia. The male external genitalia consist of the [[human penis|penis]], the male urethra, and the scrotum, while the male internal genitalia consist of the testes, the prostate, the epididymis, the seminal vesicle, the vas deferens, the ejaculatory duct, and the bulbourethral gland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=33684|title=Definition of Male genitalia|website=MedicineNet|access-date=13 October 2019|archive-date=6 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106152900/https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=33684|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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The male reproductive system's function is to produce [[semen]], which carries [[spermatozoon|sperm]] and thus [[DNA|genetic information]] that can unite with an egg within a woman. Since sperm that enters a woman's [[uterus]] and then [[fallopian tube]]s goes on to [[Fertilisation|fertilize]] an egg which develops into a [[fetus]] or child, the male reproductive system plays no necessary role during the [[gestation]]. The study of male reproduction and associated organs is called [[andrology]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clement |first1=Pierre |last2=Giuliano |first2=François |date=2015 |title=Anatomy and physiology of genital organs |
The male reproductive system's function is to produce [[semen]], which carries [[spermatozoon|sperm]] and thus [[DNA|genetic information]] that can unite with an egg within a woman. Since sperm that enters a woman's [[uterus]] and then [[fallopian tube]]s goes on to [[Fertilisation|fertilize]] an egg which develops into a [[fetus]] or child, the male reproductive system plays no necessary role during the [[gestation]]. The study of male reproduction and associated organs is called [[andrology]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clement |first1=Pierre |last2=Giuliano |first2=François |date=2015 |title=Anatomy and physiology of genital organs – men |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26003237/ |journal=Handbook of Clinical Neurology |volume=130 |pages=19–37 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-63247-0.00003-1 |issn=0072-9752 |pmid=26003237|isbn=978-0444632470 }}</ref> |
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===Sex hormones=== |
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Testosterone stimulates the development of the [[Wolffian duct]]s, the penis, and closure of the [[labioscrotal folds]] into the scrotum. Another significant hormone in sexual differentiation is the [[anti-Müllerian hormone]], which inhibits the development of the [[Müllerian duct]]s. For males during puberty, testosterone, along with [[gonadotropin]]s released by the [[pituitary gland]], stimulates [[spermatogenesis]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=H. Maurice |title=Basic Medical Endocrinology |publisher=Elsevier |year=2009 |isbn=978-0123739759 |edition=4th |pages=239–256}}</ref> |
Testosterone stimulates the development of the [[Wolffian duct]]s, the penis, and closure of the [[labioscrotal folds]] into the scrotum. Another significant hormone in sexual differentiation is the [[anti-Müllerian hormone]], which inhibits the development of the [[Müllerian duct]]s. For males during puberty, testosterone, along with [[gonadotropin]]s released by the [[pituitary gland]], stimulates [[spermatogenesis]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=H. Maurice |title=Basic Medical Endocrinology |publisher=Elsevier |year=2009 |isbn=978-0123739759 |edition=4th |pages=239–256}}</ref> |
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===Health=== |
===Health=== |
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{{Further|Gender disparities in health|Men's health}} |
{{Further|Gender disparities in health|Men's health}} |
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While a majority of the global health gender disparities is weighted against women, there are situations in which men tend to fare poorer. One such instance is [[armed conflicts]], where men are often the immediate victims. A study of conflicts in 13 countries from 1955 to 2002 found that 81% of all violent [[war]] deaths were male.<ref name="World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development">{{cite report|author=The World Bank|date=2012 |title=World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development |publisher=The World Bank |location=Washington, DC }}</ref> Apart from armed conflicts, areas with high incidence of violence, such as regions controlled by [[drug cartels]], also see men experiencing higher mortality rates.<ref>[http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/htus8008.pdf "Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980–2008"] [[United States Department of Justice]] (2010) p. 10</ref> This stems from social beliefs that associate ideals of [[masculinity]] with aggressive, confrontational behavior.<ref name="The Street Is My Home: Youth and Violence in Caracas">{{cite book |last=Márquez |first=Patricia |title=The Street Is My Home: Youth and Violence in Caracas |url=https://archive.org/details/streetismyhomeyo0000marq |url-access=registration |year=1999 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA}}</ref> Lastly, sudden and drastic changes in economic environments and the loss of [[social safety net]]s, in particular social subsidies and food stamps, have also been linked to higher levels of [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] consumption and [[psychological stress]] among men, leading to a spike in male mortality rates. This is because such situations often makes it harder for men to provide for their family, a task that has been long regarded as the "essence of masculinity."<ref name="Autopsy on an Empire: Understanding Mortality in Russia and the Former Soviet Union">{{cite journal |last1=Brainerd |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Cutler |first2=David |title=Autopsy on an Empire: Understanding Mortality in Russia and the Former Soviet Union |year=2005 |publisher=William Davidson Institute |location=Ann Arbor, MI}}</ref> A retrospective analyses of people infected with the common cold found that doctors underrate the symptoms of men, and are more willing to attribute symptoms and illness to women than men.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sue | first1 = Kyle | year = 2017 | title = The science behind 'man flu.' | journal = BMJ | volume = 359 | page = j5560 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.j5560 | pmid = 29229663 | s2cid = 3381640 | url = http://press.psprings.co.uk/bmj/december/manflu.pdf | access-date = 11 January 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171208203826/http://press.psprings.co.uk/bmj/december/manflu.pdf | archive-date = 8 December 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Women live longer than men in all countries, and across all age groups, for which reliable records exist.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Austad | first1 = S.N.A | last2 = Bartke | first2 = A.A. | year = 2016 | title = Sex Differences in Longevity and in Responses to Anti-Aging Interventions: A Mini-Review | journal = Gerontology | volume = 62 | issue = 1| pages = 40–46 | doi = 10.1159/000381472 | pmid = 25968226 | url = https://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/381472 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In the United States, men are less healthy than women across all social classes. Non-white men are especially unhealthy. Men are over-represented in dangerous occupations and represent a majority of on the job deaths. Further, medical doctors provide men with less service, less advice, and spend less time with men than they do with women per medical encounter.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Williams | first1 = David R. | date = May 2003 | title = The Health of Men: Structured Inequalities and Opportunities | journal = Am J Public Health | volume = 93 | issue = 5| pages = 724–731 | pmc=1447828 | pmid=12721133 | doi=10.2105/ajph.93.5.724}}</ref> |
While a majority of the global health gender disparities is weighted against women, there are situations in which men tend to fare poorer. One such instance is [[armed conflicts]], where men are often the immediate victims. A study of conflicts in 13 countries from 1955 to 2002 found that 81% of all violent [[war]] deaths were male.<ref name="World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development">{{cite report|author=The World Bank|date=2012 |title=World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development |publisher=The World Bank |location=Washington, DC }}</ref> Apart from armed conflicts, areas with high incidence of violence, such as regions controlled by [[drug cartels]], also see men experiencing higher mortality rates.<ref>[http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/htus8008.pdf "Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980–2008"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120202335/https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/htus8008.pdf |date=20 November 2019 }} [[United States Department of Justice]] (2010) p. 10</ref> This stems from social beliefs that associate ideals of [[masculinity]] with aggressive, confrontational behavior.<ref name="The Street Is My Home: Youth and Violence in Caracas">{{cite book |last=Márquez |first=Patricia |title=The Street Is My Home: Youth and Violence in Caracas |url=https://archive.org/details/streetismyhomeyo0000marq |url-access=registration |year=1999 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA}}</ref> Lastly, sudden and drastic changes in economic environments and the loss of [[social safety net]]s, in particular social subsidies and food stamps, have also been linked to higher levels of [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] consumption and [[psychological stress]] among men, leading to a spike in male mortality rates. This is because such situations often makes it harder for men to provide for their family, a task that has been long regarded as the "essence of masculinity."<ref name="Autopsy on an Empire: Understanding Mortality in Russia and the Former Soviet Union">{{cite journal |last1=Brainerd |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Cutler |first2=David |title=Autopsy on an Empire: Understanding Mortality in Russia and the Former Soviet Union |year=2005 |publisher=William Davidson Institute |location=Ann Arbor, MI}}</ref> A retrospective analyses of people infected with the common cold found that doctors underrate the symptoms of men, and are more willing to attribute symptoms and illness to women than men.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sue | first1 = Kyle | year = 2017 | title = The science behind 'man flu.' | journal = BMJ | volume = 359 | page = j5560 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.j5560 | pmid = 29229663 | s2cid = 3381640 | url = http://press.psprings.co.uk/bmj/december/manflu.pdf | access-date = 11 January 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171208203826/http://press.psprings.co.uk/bmj/december/manflu.pdf | archive-date = 8 December 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Women live longer than men in all countries, and across all age groups, for which reliable records exist.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Austad | first1 = S.N.A | last2 = Bartke | first2 = A.A. | year = 2016 | title = Sex Differences in Longevity and in Responses to Anti-Aging Interventions: A Mini-Review | journal = Gerontology | volume = 62 | issue = 1 | pages = 40–46 | doi = 10.1159/000381472 | pmid = 25968226 | url = https://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/381472 | doi-access = free | access-date = 31 May 2022 | archive-date = 24 October 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211024110651/https://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/381472 | url-status = live }}</ref> In the United States, men are less healthy than women across all social classes. Non-white men are especially unhealthy. Men are over-represented in dangerous occupations and represent a majority of on the job deaths. Further, medical doctors provide men with less service, less advice, and spend less time with men than they do with women per medical encounter.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Williams | first1 = David R. | date = May 2003 | title = The Health of Men: Structured Inequalities and Opportunities | journal = Am J Public Health | volume = 93 | issue = 5| pages = 724–731 | pmc=1447828 | pmid=12721133 | doi=10.2105/ajph.93.5.724}}</ref> |
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== Sexuality and gender == |
== Sexuality and gender == |
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{{Further|Human male sexuality|Trans man}} |
{{Further|Human male sexuality|Trans man}} |
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Male sexuality and attraction are variable, and a man's sexual behavior can be affected by many factors, including [[evolutionary psychology|evolved predispositions]], [[personality]], [[parenting|upbringing]], and [[culture]]. While the majority of men are [[heterosexual]], significant minorities are [[homosexual]] or [[bisexual]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bailey|first1=J. Michael|last2=Vasey|first2=Paul|last3=Diamond|first3=Lisa|author4-link=Marc Breedlove|last4=Breedlove|first4=S. Marc|last5=Vilain|first5=Eric|last6=Epprecht|first6=Marc|title=Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|date=2016|volume=17|issue=2|pages=45–101|doi=10.1177/1529100616637616|pmid=27113562|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301639075|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
Male sexuality and attraction are variable, and a man's sexual behavior can be affected by many factors, including [[evolutionary psychology|evolved predispositions]], [[personality]], [[parenting|upbringing]], and [[culture]]. While the majority of men are [[heterosexual]], significant minorities are [[homosexual]] or [[bisexual]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bailey|first1=J. Michael|last2=Vasey|first2=Paul|last3=Diamond|first3=Lisa|author4-link=Marc Breedlove|last4=Breedlove|first4=S. Marc|last5=Vilain|first5=Eric|last6=Epprecht|first6=Marc|title=Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|date=2016|volume=17|issue=2|pages=45–101|doi=10.1177/1529100616637616|pmid=27113562|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301639075|doi-access=free|access-date=21 December 2019|archive-date=2 December 2019|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20191202204542/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301639075_Sexual_Orientation_Controversy_and_Science|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Most cultures use a [[gender binary]] in which man is one of the two genders, the other being [[woman]].<ref name="Nadal-re-binary">Kevin L. Nadal, ''The Sage Encyclopedia of Psychology and Gender'' (2017, {{ISBN|978-1-4833-8427-6}}), p. 401: "Most cultures currently construct their societies based on the understanding of gender binary—the two gender categorizations (male and female). Such societies divide their population based on biological sex assigned to individuals at birth to begin the process of gender socialization."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sigelman |first1=Carol K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2M1DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA385 |title=Life-Span Human Development |last2=Rider |first2=Elizabeth A. |date= |
Most cultures use a [[gender binary]] in which man is one of the two genders, the other being [[woman]].<ref name="Nadal-re-binary">Kevin L. Nadal, ''The Sage Encyclopedia of Psychology and Gender'' (2017, {{ISBN|978-1-4833-8427-6}}), p. 401: "Most cultures currently construct their societies based on the understanding of gender binary—the two gender categorizations (male and female). Such societies divide their population based on biological sex assigned to individuals at birth to begin the process of gender socialization."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sigelman |first1=Carol K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2M1DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA385 |title=Life-Span Human Development |last2=Rider |first2=Elizabeth A. |date=2017 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-337-51606-8 |page=385 |language=en |access-date=4 August 2021 |archive-date=21 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721050224/https://books.google.com/books?id=M2M1DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA385 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Maddux |first1=James E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-ChDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1028 |title=Psychopathology: Foundations for a Contemporary Understanding |last2=Winstead |first2=Barbara A. |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-64787-1 |language=en |access-date=4 August 2021 |archive-date=21 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721050212/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-ChDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1028 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[Trans men]] have a male [[gender identity]] that does not align with their [[female]] [[sex assignment]] at birth and may undergo masculinizing [[hormone replacement therapy]] and/or [[sex reassignment surgery]],<ref name="whatare">{{cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/topics/transgender.html|title=what are Answers to Your Questions About Transgender Individuals and Gender Identity|publisher=[[American Psychological Association|APA]]|access-date=26 January 2015}}</ref> while [[intersex]] men may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of male biology.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Intersex? Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://interactadvocates.org/faq/ |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=interACT: Advocates for Intersex Youth |language=en-US}}</ref> A 2016 systemic review estimated that 0.256% of people self-identify as female-to-male transgender.<ref name="Collin2016">{{Cite journal|last1=Collin|first1=Lindsay|last2=Reisner|first2=Sari L.|last3=Tangpricha|first3=Vin|last4=Goodman|first4=Michael|date=2016|title=Prevalence of Transgender Depends on the "Case" Definition: A Systematic Review|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|language=en|volume=13|issue=4|pages=613–626|doi=10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.02.001|pmc=4823815|pmid=27045261}}</ref> A 2017 survey of 80,929 Minnesota students found that roughly twice as many female-assigned adolescents self-identified as transgender, compared to adolescents with a male sex assignment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goodman|first1=Michael|last2=Adams|first2=Noah|last3=Corneil|first3=Trevor|last4=Kreukels|first4=Baudewijntje|last5=Motmans|first5=Joz|last6=Coleman|first6=Eli|date=1 June 2019|title=Size and Distribution of Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Populations: A Narrative Review|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889852919300015|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|series=Transgender Medicine|language=en|volume=48|issue=2|pages=303–321|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2019.01.001|pmid=31027541|s2cid=135439779|issn=0889-8529}}</ref> |
[[Trans men]] have a male [[gender identity]] that does not align with their [[female]] [[sex assignment]] at birth and may undergo masculinizing [[hormone replacement therapy]] and/or [[sex reassignment surgery]],<ref name="whatare">{{cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/topics/transgender.html|title=what are Answers to Your Questions About Transgender Individuals and Gender Identity|publisher=[[American Psychological Association|APA]]|access-date=26 January 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907185309/http://www.apa.org/topics/transgender.html|url-status=live}}</ref> while [[intersex]] men may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of male biology.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Intersex? Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://interactadvocates.org/faq/ |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=interACT: Advocates for Intersex Youth |language=en-US |archive-date=31 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201231200008/https://interactadvocates.org/faq/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2016 systemic review estimated that 0.256% of people self-identify as female-to-male transgender.<ref name="Collin2016">{{Cite journal|last1=Collin|first1=Lindsay|last2=Reisner|first2=Sari L.|last3=Tangpricha|first3=Vin|last4=Goodman|first4=Michael|date=2016|title=Prevalence of Transgender Depends on the "Case" Definition: A Systematic Review|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|language=en|volume=13|issue=4|pages=613–626|doi=10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.02.001|pmc=4823815|pmid=27045261}}</ref> A 2017 survey of 80,929 Minnesota students found that roughly twice as many female-assigned adolescents self-identified as transgender, compared to adolescents with a male sex assignment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goodman|first1=Michael|last2=Adams|first2=Noah|last3=Corneil|first3=Trevor|last4=Kreukels|first4=Baudewijntje|last5=Motmans|first5=Joz|last6=Coleman|first6=Eli|date=1 June 2019|title=Size and Distribution of Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Populations: A Narrative Review|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889852919300015|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|series=Transgender Medicine|language=en|volume=48|issue=2|pages=303–321|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2019.01.001|pmid=31027541|s2cid=135439779|issn=0889-8529}}</ref> |
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== Social role == |
== Social role == |
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[[File:'David' by Michelangelo Fir JBU005 denoised.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Michelangelo]]'s ''[[David (Michelangelo)|David]]'' is the [[Renaissance art|classical]] image of youthful male beauty in [[Western art]].]] |
[[File:'David' by Michelangelo Fir JBU005 denoised.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Michelangelo]]'s ''[[David (Michelangelo)|David]]'' is the [[Renaissance art|classical]] image of youthful male beauty in [[Western art]].]] |
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Masculinity (also sometimes called ''manhood'' or ''manliness'') is the set of personality traits and attributes associated with boys and men. Although masculinity is [[gender constructs|socially constructed]],<ref name=shehan>{{cite book |last1=Shehan |first1=Constance L. |title=Gale Researcher Guide for: The Continuing Significance of Gender |date=2018 |publisher=Gale, Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1535861175 |pages=1–5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_F1DwAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> some research indicates that some behaviors considered masculine are biologically influenced.<ref name="books.google.com">Social vs biological citations: |
Masculinity (also sometimes called ''manhood'' or ''manliness'') is the set of personality traits and attributes associated with boys and men. Although masculinity is [[gender constructs|socially constructed]],<ref name=shehan>{{cite book |last1=Shehan |first1=Constance L. |title=Gale Researcher Guide for: The Continuing Significance of Gender |date=2018 |publisher=Gale, Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1535861175 |pages=1–5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_F1DwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=25 December 2019 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119211639/https://books.google.com/books?id=F_F1DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> some research indicates that some behaviors considered masculine are biologically influenced.<ref name="books.google.com">Social vs biological citations: |
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* {{cite book |last1=Shehan |first1=Constance L. |title=Gale Researcher Guide for: The Continuing Significance of Gender |date=2018 |publisher=Gale, Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1535861175 |pages=1–5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_F1DwAAQBAJ |language=en}} |
* {{cite book |last1=Shehan |first1=Constance L. |title=Gale Researcher Guide for: The Continuing Significance of Gender |date=2018 |publisher=Gale, Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1535861175 |pages=1–5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_F1DwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=25 December 2019 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119211639/https://books.google.com/books?id=F_F1DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Hale |last2=Finn |first2=Stephen E. |title=Masculinity and Femininity in the MMPI-2 and MMPI-A |date=2010 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-0-8166-2444-7 |pages=5–13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KLPlmr9T7MC&q=%22what+masculinity+and+femininity+are%22 }} |
* {{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Hale |last2=Finn |first2=Stephen E. |title=Masculinity and Femininity in the MMPI-2 and MMPI-A |date=2010 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-0-8166-2444-7 |pages=5–13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KLPlmr9T7MC&q=%22what+masculinity+and+femininity+are%22 |access-date=27 May 2021 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119211639/https://books.google.com/books?id=5KLPlmr9T7MC&q=%22what+masculinity+and+femininity+are%22 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Lippa |first1=Richard A. |title=Gender, Nature, and Nurture |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135604257 |edition=2nd |pages=153–154, 218–225 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R6OPAgAAQBAJ&q=%22biology+contributes%22+%22masculinity+and+femininity%22}} |
* {{cite book |last1=Lippa |first1=Richard A. |title=Gender, Nature, and Nurture |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135604257 |edition=2nd |pages=153–154, 218–225 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R6OPAgAAQBAJ&q=%22biology+contributes%22+%22masculinity+and+femininity%22 |access-date=27 May 2021 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119211640/https://books.google.com/books?id=R6OPAgAAQBAJ&q=%22biology+contributes%22+%22masculinity+and+femininity%22 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Wharton |first=Amy S. |title=The Sociology of Gender: An Introduction to Theory and Research |date=2005 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-40-514343-1 |pages=29–31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SOTqzUeqmNMC&q=%22+biological+or+genetic+contributions%22}}</ref> To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate.<ref name="books.google.com"/> It is [[Sex and gender distinction|distinct]] from the definition of the [[Male|biological male sex]], as both males and females can exhibit masculine traits.<ref>Male vs Masculine/Feminine: |
* {{cite book |last=Wharton |first=Amy S. |title=The Sociology of Gender: An Introduction to Theory and Research |date=2005 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-40-514343-1 |pages=29–31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SOTqzUeqmNMC&q=%22+biological+or+genetic+contributions%22 |access-date=27 May 2021 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119211640/https://books.google.com/books?id=SOTqzUeqmNMC&q=%22+biological+or+genetic+contributions%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate.<ref name="books.google.com"/> It is [[Sex and gender distinction|distinct]] from the definition of the [[Male|biological male sex]], as both males and females can exhibit masculine traits.<ref>Male vs Masculine/Feminine: |
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* {{cite book|last=Ferrante|first=Joan|title=Sociology: A Global Perspective|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=978-0-8400-3204-1|edition=7th|pages=269–272|date= 2010}} |
* {{cite book|last=Ferrante|first=Joan|title=Sociology: A Global Perspective|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=978-0-8400-3204-1|edition=7th|pages=269–272|date= 2010}} |
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* {{cite web |title=What do we mean by 'sex' and 'gender'? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908003355/http://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/ |archive-date=8 September 2014 |url=https://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/ |publisher=World Health Organization}} |
* {{cite web |title=What do we mean by 'sex' and 'gender'? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908003355/http://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/ |archive-date=8 September 2014 |url=https://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/ |publisher=World Health Organization }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Halberstam, Judith |editor1-last=Kimmel |editor1-first=Michael S. |editor2-last=Aronson |editor2-first=Amy |title=Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1 |date=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-57-607774-0 |pages=294–295 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWj5OBvTh1IC&pg=PA294 |chapter='Female masculinity'}}</ref> Men generally face social stigma for embodying [[Femininity|feminine]] traits, more so than women do for embodying masculine traits.{{Sfn|Helgeson|2017|pp=33–34}} This can also manifest as [[homophobia]].{{Sfn|Helgeson|2017|pp=146–149}} |
* {{cite book |author=Halberstam, Judith |editor1-last=Kimmel |editor1-first=Michael S. |editor2-last=Aronson |editor2-first=Amy |title=Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1 |date=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-57-607774-0 |pages=294–295 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWj5OBvTh1IC&pg=PA294 |chapter='Female masculinity' |access-date=25 December 2019 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119211642/https://books.google.com/books?id=jWj5OBvTh1IC&pg=PA294 |url-status=live }}</ref> Men generally face social stigma for embodying [[Femininity|feminine]] traits, more so than women do for embodying masculine traits.{{Sfn|Helgeson|2017|pp=33–34}} This can also manifest as [[homophobia]].{{Sfn|Helgeson|2017|pp=146–149}} |
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Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWj5OBvTh1IC&q=%22meanings+of+manhood+vary%22|title=Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1|date=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57-607774-0|editor1-last=Kimmel|editor1-first=Michael S.|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|page=xxiii|editor2-last=Aronson|editor2-first=Amy}}</ref> While the outward signs of masculinity look different in different cultures, there are some common aspects to its definition across cultures. In all cultures in the past, and still among traditional and non-Western cultures, getting married is the most common and definitive distinction between boyhood and manhood.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Arnett|first=Jeffrey Jensen|date=1998|title=Learning to Stand Alone: The Contemporary American Transition to Adulthood in Cultural and Historical Context|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/22591|journal=Human Development|language=en|volume=41|issue=5–6|pages=295–315|doi=10.1159/000022591|s2cid=143862036|issn=0018-716X}}</ref> In the late 20th century, some qualities traditionally associated with marriage (such as the "triple Ps" of ''protecting, providing, and [[procreating]]'') were still considered signs of having achieved manhood.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/manhoodinmaking00davi|url-access=registration|title=Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity|last=Gilmore|first=David D.|date=1990|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-300-05076-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/manhoodinmaking00davi/page/48 48]|language=en}}</ref> |
Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWj5OBvTh1IC&q=%22meanings+of+manhood+vary%22|title=Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1|date=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57-607774-0|editor1-last=Kimmel|editor1-first=Michael S.|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|page=xxiii|editor2-last=Aronson|editor2-first=Amy|access-date=30 May 2019|archive-date=19 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119212151/https://books.google.com/books?id=jWj5OBvTh1IC&q=%22meanings+of+manhood+vary%22|url-status=live}}</ref> While the outward signs of masculinity look different in different cultures, there are some common aspects to its definition across cultures. In all cultures in the past, and still among traditional and non-Western cultures, getting married is the most common and definitive distinction between boyhood and manhood.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Arnett|first=Jeffrey Jensen|date=1998|title=Learning to Stand Alone: The Contemporary American Transition to Adulthood in Cultural and Historical Context|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/22591|journal=Human Development|language=en|volume=41|issue=5–6|pages=295–315|doi=10.1159/000022591|s2cid=143862036|issn=0018-716X|access-date=28 November 2018|archive-date=28 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128080429/https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/22591|url-status=live}}</ref> In the late 20th century, some qualities traditionally associated with marriage (such as the "triple Ps" of ''protecting, providing, and [[procreating]]'') were still considered signs of having achieved manhood.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/manhoodinmaking00davi|url-access=registration|title=Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity|last=Gilmore|first=David D.|date=1990|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-300-05076-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/manhoodinmaking00davi/page/48 48]|language=en}}</ref> |
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=== Relationships === |
=== Relationships === |
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=== Status === |
=== Status === |
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Anthropology has shown that masculinity itself has [[social status]], just like wealth, [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]] and social class. In [[Western culture]], for example, greater masculinity usually brings greater social status.{{ |
[[Anthropology]] has shown that masculinity itself has [[social status]], just like wealth, [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]] and social class. In [[Western culture]], for example, greater masculinity usually brings greater social status.{{Sfn|Helgeson|2017|pp=45–48}} Many English words such as ''virtue'' and ''virile'' (from the [[Indo-European root]] ''vir'' meaning ''man'') reflect this.<ref>{{cite web |title=Virtue (2009) |publisher=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |year=2009 |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/virtue |access-date=8 June 2009 |archive-date=25 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425184204/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/virtue |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Virile (2009) |publisher=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |year=2009 |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/virile |access-date=8 June 2009 |archive-date=25 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425184113/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/virile |url-status=live }}</ref> In most cultures, [[male privilege]] allows men more rights and privileges than women. In societies where men are not given special legal privileges, they typically hold more positions of power, and men are seen as being taken more seriously in society.{{Sfn|Helgeson|2017|pp=45–48}} This is associated with a "gender-role strain" in which men face increased societal pressure to conform to gender roles.{{Sfn|Helgeson|2017|pp=119–121}} |
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== History == |
== History == |
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The earliest known recorded name of a man in writing is potentially [[Kushim (Uruk period)|Kushim]], who would have lived sometime between 3400 and 3000 BC in the [[Sumer]]ian city of [[Uruk]]; though his name may have been a title rather than his actual name.<ref name="Harari">{{cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval Noah |title=[[Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind]] |publisher=[[Penguin Random House Canada]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-7710-8351-8 |edition=Signal paperback |page=123 |chapter=Signed, Kushim |author-link=Yuval Noah Harari |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sapiensbriefhist0000hara/page/122/mode/2up |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref> The earliest confirmed names are that of Gal-Sal and his two slaves named En-pap X and Sukkalgir, from {{Circa|3100 BC}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-08-19 |title=Who's the First Person in History Whose Name We Know? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/whos-the-first-person-in-history-whose-name-we-know |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=Science |language=en}}</ref> |
The earliest known recorded name of a man in writing is potentially [[Kushim (Uruk period)|Kushim]], who would have lived sometime between 3400 and 3000 BC in the [[Sumer]]ian city of [[Uruk]]; though his name may have been a title rather than his actual name.<ref name="Harari">{{cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval Noah |title=[[Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind]] |publisher=[[Penguin Random House Canada]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-7710-8351-8 |edition=Signal paperback |page=123 |chapter=Signed, Kushim |author-link=Yuval Noah Harari |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sapiensbriefhist0000hara/page/122/mode/2up |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref> The earliest confirmed names are that of Gal-Sal and his two slaves named En-pap X and Sukkalgir, from {{Circa|3100 BC}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-08-19 |title=Who's the First Person in History Whose Name We Know? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/whos-the-first-person-in-history-whose-name-we-know |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=Science |language=en |archive-date=31 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731025918/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/whos-the-first-person-in-history-whose-name-we-know |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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== Family == |
== Family == |
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{{Main|Father}} |
{{Main|Father}} |
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[[File:Father and son 27.jpg|thumb|280x280px|Father and son]] |
[[File:Father and son 27.jpg|thumb|280x280px|Father and son]] |
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Men may have children, whether biological or [[adopted]]; such men are called fathers. The role of men in the family has shifted considerably in the 20th and 21st centuries, taking on a more active role in raising children in most societies.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news |last=University of California, Irvine |date=September 28, 2016 |title=Today's parents spend more time with their kids than moms and dads did 50 years ago |work=Science Daily |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/09/160928160716.htm |access-date=November 3, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Livingston |first1=Gretchen |last2=Parker |first2=Kim |date=19 June 2019 |title=8 facts about American dads |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/12/fathers-day-facts/ |access-date=2022-02-02 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Blamires |first1=Diana |last2=Kirkham |first2=Sophie |date=17 August 2005 |title=Fathers play greater role in childcare |url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/aug/17/gender.children |access-date=2022-02-02 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huerta |first1=Maria C. |last2=Adema |first2=Willem |last3=Baxter |first3=Jennifer |last4=Han |first4=Wen-Jui |last5=Lausten |first5=Mette |last6=Lee |first6=RaeHyuck |last7=Waldfogel |first7=Jane |date=16 December 2014 |title=Fathers' Leave and Fathers' Involvement: Evidence from Four OECD Countries |journal=European Journal of Social Security |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=308–346 |doi=10.1177/138826271401600403 |issn=1388-2627 |pmc=5415087 |pmid=28479865}}</ref> Men would traditionally marry a woman when raising children, but in modern times many countries now allow for [[same-sex marriage]], and for those couples to raise children either via adoption or [[surrogacy]]. Men may be [[single parent]]s, and are increasingly so in modern times, though women are three times more likely to be single parents than men.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Single-Parent Family {{!}} Psychology Today |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/family-dynamics/single-parent-family |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=www.psychologytoday.com |language=en-US}}</ref> In [[Paternalism|paternal]] societies, men have typically have been regarded as the "head of household" and held additional social privileges.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bell |first=Kenton |date=2014-12-25 |title=head of household definition {{!}} Open Education Sociology Dictionary |url=https://sociologydictionary.org/head-of-household/ |language=en-US}}</ref> |
Men may have children, whether biological or [[adopted]]; such men are called fathers. The role of men in the family has shifted considerably in the 20th and 21st centuries, taking on a more active role in raising children in most societies.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news |last=University of California, Irvine |date=September 28, 2016 |title=Today's parents spend more time with their kids than moms and dads did 50 years ago |work=Science Daily |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/09/160928160716.htm |access-date=November 3, 2020 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030195725/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/09/160928160716.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Livingston |first1=Gretchen |last2=Parker |first2=Kim |date=19 June 2019 |title=8 facts about American dads |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/12/fathers-day-facts/ |access-date=2022-02-02 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US |archive-date=10 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310211846/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/12/fathers-day-facts/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Blamires |first1=Diana |last2=Kirkham |first2=Sophie |date=17 August 2005 |title=Fathers play greater role in childcare |url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/aug/17/gender.children |access-date=2022-02-02 |website=the Guardian |language=en |archive-date=10 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310211847/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/aug/17/gender.children |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huerta |first1=Maria C. |last2=Adema |first2=Willem |last3=Baxter |first3=Jennifer |last4=Han |first4=Wen-Jui |last5=Lausten |first5=Mette |last6=Lee |first6=RaeHyuck |last7=Waldfogel |first7=Jane |date=16 December 2014 |title=Fathers' Leave and Fathers' Involvement: Evidence from Four OECD Countries |journal=European Journal of Social Security |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=308–346 |doi=10.1177/138826271401600403 |issn=1388-2627 |pmc=5415087 |pmid=28479865}}</ref> Men would traditionally marry a woman when raising children, but in modern times many countries now allow for [[same-sex marriage]], and for those couples to raise children either via adoption or [[surrogacy]]. Men may be [[single parent]]s, and are increasingly so in modern times, though women are three times more likely to be single parents than men.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Single-Parent Family {{!}} Psychology Today |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/family-dynamics/single-parent-family |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=www.psychologytoday.com |language=en-US |archive-date=31 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731030026/https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/family-dynamics/single-parent-family |url-status=live }}</ref> In [[Paternalism|paternal]] societies, men have typically have been regarded as the "head of household" and held additional social privileges.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bell |first=Kenton |date=2014-12-25 |title=head of household definition {{!}} Open Education Sociology Dictionary |url=https://sociologydictionary.org/head-of-household/ |language=en-US |access-date=10 March 2023 |archive-date=10 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310211847/https://sociologydictionary.org/head-of-household/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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The [[men's rights movement]] claims men face disadvantages when claiming [[child custody]], however, empirical research does not support the notion of a judicial bias against men.<ref name="melvillehunter">{{Cite journal |last1=Melville |first1=Angela |last2=Hunter |first2=Rosemary |year=2001 |title='As everybody knows': Countering myths of gender bias in family law |url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/1719/1/R_Hunter_As_everybody_knows_2001.pdf |journal=Griffith Law Review |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=124–138 |quote=Several authors have observed that men's rights groups claim that the family law system and the Family Court are biased against men, despite the lack of supporting empirical research.}} Also available through [http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/griffith10&div=12&src=home HeinOnline.]</ref> Mothers do have custody the majority of the time, but fathers do not seek custody the majority of the time, and custody is settled out of court.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-07-10 |title=Do Dads REALLY Get Dissed In Divorce Court? |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/dispelling-the-myth-of-ge_b_1617115 |access-date=2023-04-03 |website=HuffPost |language=en}}</ref><ref name="crean2">{{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Susan M. |url=https://archive.org/details/innameoffatherss0000crea/page/107 |title=In the name of the fathers: the story behind child custody |publisher=Amanita |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-921299-04-2 |location=Toronto |pages=[https://archive.org/details/innameoffatherss0000crea/page/107 107–108]}}</ref> |
The [[men's rights movement]] claims men face disadvantages when claiming [[child custody]], however, empirical research does not support the notion of a judicial bias against men.<ref name="melvillehunter">{{Cite journal |last1=Melville |first1=Angela |last2=Hunter |first2=Rosemary |year=2001 |title='As everybody knows': Countering myths of gender bias in family law |url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/1719/1/R_Hunter_As_everybody_knows_2001.pdf |journal=Griffith Law Review |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=124–138 |quote=Several authors have observed that men's rights groups claim that the family law system and the Family Court are biased against men, despite the lack of supporting empirical research. |access-date=3 April 2023 |archive-date=8 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108063630/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/1719/1/R_Hunter_As_everybody_knows_2001.pdf |url-status=live }} Also available through [http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/griffith10&div=12&src=home HeinOnline.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403182503/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/griffith10&div=12&src=home |date=3 April 2023 }}</ref> Mothers do have custody the majority of the time, but fathers do not seek custody the majority of the time, and custody is settled out of court.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-07-10 |title=Do Dads REALLY Get Dissed In Divorce Court? |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/dispelling-the-myth-of-ge_b_1617115 |access-date=2023-04-03 |website=HuffPost |language=en |archive-date=31 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731030446/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/dispelling-the-myth-of-ge_b_1617115 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="crean2">{{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Susan M. |url=https://archive.org/details/innameoffatherss0000crea/page/107 |title=In the name of the fathers: the story behind child custody |publisher=Amanita |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-921299-04-2 |location=Toronto |pages=[https://archive.org/details/innameoffatherss0000crea/page/107 107–108]}}</ref> |
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== Work == |
== Work == |
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{{See also|Work (human activity)}} |
{{See also|Work (human activity)}} |
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Men have traditionally held jobs that were not available to women. Such jobs tended to be either more strenuous, more prestigious, or more dangerous. Modern men increasingly take untraditional career paths, such as staying home and raising children while their partner works.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Heppner |first1=Mary J. |last2=Heppner |first2=P. Paul |date=September 2009 |title=On Men and Work: Taking the Road Less Traveled |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0894845309340789 |journal=Journal of Career Development |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=49–67 |doi=10.1177/0894845309340789 |s2cid=145053662 |issn=0894-8453}}</ref> Modern men tend to work longer than women, which impacts their ability to spend time with their families.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Williams |first=Joan C. |date=2013-05-29 |title=Why Men Work So Many Hours |work=Harvard Business Review |url=https://hbr.org/2013/05/why-men-work-so-many-hours |access-date=2023-03-10 |issn=0017-8012}}</ref> Even in modern times, some jobs remain available only to men, such as military service.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Micheletti |first=Alberto |date=2018-08-18 |title=Why is warfare almost exclusively male? |url=https://theprint.in/defence/why-is-warfare-almost-exclusively-male/100746/ |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Conscription and sexism|Conscription is overwhelmingly sexist]], currently only ten countries include women in their conscription programs.<ref>Goldstein, Joshua S. (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=XUAsskBg8ywC&pg=PA108 "War and Gender: Men's War Roles – Boyhood and Coming of Age"]. In Ember, Carol R.; Ember, Melvin ''Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures''. Volume 1. [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]. p. 108. {{ISBN|978-0-306-47770-6}}. Retrieved April 25, 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Persson |first1=Alma |last2=Sundevall |first2=Fia |date=2019-03-22 |title=Conscripting women: gender, soldiering, and military service in Sweden 1965–2018 |journal=Women's History Review |volume=28 |issue=7 |pages=1039–1056 |doi=10.1080/09612025.2019.1596542 |issn=0961-2025 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Men continue to hold more dangerous jobs than women, even in developed countries. In the United States in 2020, ten times as many men died on the job as women, and a man was ten times more likely to die on the job than a woman.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DeVore |first=Chuck |title=Fatal Employment: Men 10 Times More Likely Than Women To Be Killed At Work |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/chuckdevore/2018/12/19/fatal-employment-men-10-times-more-likely-than-women-to-be-killed-at-work/ |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> |
Men have traditionally held jobs that were not available to women. Such jobs tended to be either more strenuous, more prestigious, or more dangerous. Modern men increasingly take untraditional career paths, such as staying home and raising children while their partner works.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Heppner |first1=Mary J. |last2=Heppner |first2=P. Paul |date=September 2009 |title=On Men and Work: Taking the Road Less Traveled |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0894845309340789 |journal=Journal of Career Development |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=49–67 |doi=10.1177/0894845309340789 |s2cid=145053662 |issn=0894-8453 |access-date=10 March 2023 |archive-date=10 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310213702/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0894845309340789 |url-status=live }}</ref> Modern men tend to work longer than women, which impacts their ability to spend time with their families.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Williams |first=Joan C. |date=2013-05-29 |title=Why Men Work So Many Hours |work=Harvard Business Review |url=https://hbr.org/2013/05/why-men-work-so-many-hours |access-date=2023-03-10 |issn=0017-8012 |archive-date=10 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310213700/https://hbr.org/2013/05/why-men-work-so-many-hours |url-status=live }}</ref> Even in modern times, some jobs remain available only to men, such as military service.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Micheletti |first=Alberto |date=2018-08-18 |title=Why is warfare almost exclusively male? |url=https://theprint.in/defence/why-is-warfare-almost-exclusively-male/100746/ |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US |archive-date=31 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731031518/https://theprint.in/defence/why-is-warfare-almost-exclusively-male/100746/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Conscription and sexism|Conscription is overwhelmingly sexist]], currently only ten countries include women in their conscription programs.<ref>Goldstein, Joshua S. (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=XUAsskBg8ywC&pg=PA108 "War and Gender: Men's War Roles – Boyhood and Coming of Age"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731031639/https://books.google.com/books?id=XUAsskBg8ywC&pg=PA108 |date=31 July 2023 }}. In Ember, Carol R.; Ember, Melvin ''Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures''. Volume 1. [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]. p. 108. {{ISBN|978-0-306-47770-6}}. Retrieved April 25, 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Persson |first1=Alma |last2=Sundevall |first2=Fia |date=2019-03-22 |title=Conscripting women: gender, soldiering, and military service in Sweden 1965–2018 |journal=Women's History Review |volume=28 |issue=7 |pages=1039–1056 |doi=10.1080/09612025.2019.1596542 |issn=0961-2025 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Men continue to hold more dangerous jobs than women, even in developed countries. In the United States in 2020, ten times as many men died on the job as women, and a man was ten times more likely to die on the job than a woman.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DeVore |first=Chuck |title=Fatal Employment: Men 10 Times More Likely Than Women To Be Killed At Work |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/chuckdevore/2018/12/19/fatal-employment-men-10-times-more-likely-than-women-to-be-killed-at-work/ |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=10 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310220400/https://www.forbes.com/sites/chuckdevore/2018/12/19/fatal-employment-men-10-times-more-likely-than-women-to-be-killed-at-work/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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== Entertainment and media == |
== Entertainment and media == |
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== Clothing == |
== Clothing == |
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[[File:Denim Jeans Pant Display.JPG|thumb|A man wearing a [[business suit]] stands next to a display of men's [[blue jeans]] at a clothing factory.]] |
[[File:Denim Jeans Pant Display.JPG|thumb|A man wearing a [[business suit]] stands next to a display of men's [[blue jeans]] at a clothing factory.]] |
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Men's clothing typically encompasses a range of garments designed for various occasions, seasons, and styles. Fundamental items of a man's wardrobe include shirts, trousers, suits, and jackets, which are designed to provide both comfort and style while prioritizing functionality. Men's fashion also encompasses more casual garments such as [[t-shirts]], [[sweatshirts]], [[jeans]], [[shorts]], and [[swimwear]], which are typically intended for informal settings. Cultural and regional traditions often influence men's fashion, resulting in diverse styles and garments that reflect the unique characteristics of different parts of the world.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Karlen |first1=Josh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BVE3N2rBEF0C |title=The Indispensable Guide to Classic Men's Clothing |last2=Sulavik |first2=Christopher |date=1999 |publisher=Tatra Press |isbn=978-0-9661847-1-6 |language=en}}</ref> |
Men's clothing typically encompasses a range of garments designed for various occasions, seasons, and styles. Fundamental items of a man's wardrobe include shirts, trousers, suits, and jackets, which are designed to provide both comfort and style while prioritizing functionality. Men's fashion also encompasses more casual garments such as [[t-shirts]], [[sweatshirts]], [[jeans]], [[shorts]], and [[swimwear]], which are typically intended for informal settings. Cultural and regional traditions often influence men's fashion, resulting in diverse styles and garments that reflect the unique characteristics of different parts of the world.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Karlen |first1=Josh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BVE3N2rBEF0C |title=The Indispensable Guide to Classic Men's Clothing |last2=Sulavik |first2=Christopher |date=1999 |publisher=Tatra Press |isbn=978-0-9661847-1-6 |language=en |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407034928/https://books.google.com/books?id=BVE3N2rBEF0C |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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== Education == |
== Education == |
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[[File:Life_Class_1908_Edinburgh_College_of_Art.jpg|thumb|An all male [[figure drawing]] class in 1908 at [[Edinburgh College of Art]]]] |
[[File:Life_Class_1908_Edinburgh_College_of_Art.jpg|thumb|An all male [[figure drawing]] class in 1908 at [[Edinburgh College of Art]]]] |
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Men traditionally received more education than women as a result of [[single-sex education]]. Universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender, is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Historical summary of faculty, students, degrees, and finances in degree-granting institutions: Selected years, 1869–70 through 2005–06 |url=http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d07/tables/dt07_178.asp |access-date=2014-08-22 |publisher=Nces.ed.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Women (Still) Need Not Apply:The Gender and Science Reader |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |location=New York |pages=13–23 |author1=Eisenhart, A. Margaret |author2=Finkel, Elizabeth }}</ref> In the 21st century, the balance has shifted in many developed nations, and men now lag behind women in education.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Directorate-General for Education |first1=Youth |url=https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/509505 |title=Study on gender behaviour and its impact on education outcomes (with a special focus on the performance of boys and young men in education): final report |last2=ECORYS |last3=Staring |first3=François |last4=Donlevy |first4=Vicki |last5=Day |first5=Laurie |last6=Georgallis |first6=Marianna |last7=Broughton |first7=Andrea |date=2021 |publisher=Publications Office of the European Union |isbn=978-92-76-40249-7 |location=LU|doi=10.2766/509505 }}</ref> |
Men traditionally received more education than women as a result of [[single-sex education]]. Universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender, is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Historical summary of faculty, students, degrees, and finances in degree-granting institutions: Selected years, 1869–70 through 2005–06 |url=http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d07/tables/dt07_178.asp |access-date=2014-08-22 |publisher=Nces.ed.gov |archive-date=17 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117072828/https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d07/tables/dt07_178.asp |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Women (Still) Need Not Apply:The Gender and Science Reader |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |location=New York |pages=13–23 |author1=Eisenhart, A. Margaret |author2=Finkel, Elizabeth }}</ref> In the 21st century, the balance has shifted in many developed nations, and men now lag behind women in education.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Directorate-General for Education |first1=Youth |url=https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/509505 |title=Study on gender behaviour and its impact on education outcomes (with a special focus on the performance of boys and young men in education): final report |last2=ECORYS |last3=Staring |first3=François |last4=Donlevy |first4=Vicki |last5=Day |first5=Laurie |last6=Georgallis |first6=Marianna |last7=Broughton |first7=Andrea |date=2021 |publisher=Publications Office of the European Union |isbn=978-92-76-40249-7 |location=LU |doi=10.2766/509505 |access-date=10 March 2023 |archive-date=31 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731031752/https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/414f506c-df95-11eb-895a-01aa75ed71a1/language-en |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Men are more likely than women to be faculty at universities.<ref>{{cite book |title=A six-year Longitudinal Study of Undergraduate Women in Engineering and Science:The Gender and Science Reader |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |location=New York |pages=24–37 |author1=Brainard, Susanne G. |author2=Carlin, Linda }}</ref> |
Men are more likely than women to be faculty at universities.<ref>{{cite book |title=A six-year Longitudinal Study of Undergraduate Women in Engineering and Science:The Gender and Science Reader |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |location=New York |pages=24–37 |author1=Brainard, Susanne G. |author2=Carlin, Linda }}</ref> |
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In 2020, 90% of the world's men were [[Literacy|literate]], compared to 87% of women. But sub-Saharan Africa, and southwest Asia lagged behind the rest of the world; only 72% of men in sub-Saharan Africa were literate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=This is how much global literacy has changed over 200 years |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/09/reading-writing-global-literacy-rate-changed/ |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=World Economic Forum |date=12 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> |
In 2020, 90% of the world's men were [[Literacy|literate]], compared to 87% of women. But sub-Saharan Africa, and southwest Asia lagged behind the rest of the world; only 72% of men in sub-Saharan Africa were literate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=This is how much global literacy has changed over 200 years |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/09/reading-writing-global-literacy-rate-changed/ |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=World Economic Forum |date=12 September 2022 |language=en |archive-date=10 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310204824/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/09/reading-writing-global-literacy-rate-changed/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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== Rights == |
== Rights == |
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In most societies, men have more legal and cultural rights than women,{{Sfn|Helgeson|2017|pp=45–48}} and [[misogyny]] is far more prevalent than [[misandry]] in society.<ref name="Ouellette">{{cite book |last=Ouellette |first=Marc |title=International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-33343-6 |editor1=Flood, Michael |editor1-link=Michael Flood |location=Abingdon; New York |pages=442–443 |chapter=Misandry |display-editors=etal |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T54J3Q_VwnIC&q=misandry&pg=PA442}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gilmore |first=David D. |title=Misogyny: The Male Malady |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0812200324 |pages=12–13}}</ref> Men typically receive less support after being victims of [[sexual assault]], and [[rape of males]] is stigmatized.<ref name="Rabin">{{cite news |last=Rabin |first=Roni Caryn |date=23 January 2012 |title=Men Struggle for Rape Awareness |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/24/health/as-victims-men-struggle-for-rape-awareness.html |access-date=30 November 2013}}</ref> [[Domestic violence against men]] is similarly stigmatized.<ref name="Marginalizing">{{cite journal |last=Migliaccio |first=Todd A. |date=Winter 2001 |title=Marginalizing the Battered Male |journal=[[The Journal of Men's Studies]] |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=205–226 |doi=10.3149/jms.0902.205 |s2cid=145293675}} {{subscription required}}</ref> Opponents of [[circumcision]] describe it as a human rights violation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=Allan J. |last2=Arora |first2=Kavita Shah |date=2015-02-01 |title=Ritual Male Infant Circumcision and Human Rights |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2014.990162 |journal=The American Journal of Bioethics |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=30–39 |doi=10.1080/15265161.2014.990162 |issn=1526-5161 |pmid=25674955|s2cid=6581063 }}</ref> The [[fathers' rights movement]] seeks to support separated fathers that do not receive equal rights to care for their children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Flood |first=Michael |date=2012-12-01 |title=Separated fathers and the 'fathers' rights' movement |url=https://doi.org/10.5172/jfs.2012.18.2-3.235 |journal=Journal of Family Studies |volume=18 |issue=2–3 |pages=235–345 |doi=10.5172/jfs.2012.18.2-3.235 |s2cid=55469150 |issn=1322-9400}}</ref> The [[men's movement]] is the response to issues faced by men in Western countries. It includes [[Pro-feminism|pro-feminist]] groups such as the [[men's liberation movement]] and [[Antifeminism|anti-feminist]] groups such as the [[manosphere]] and the [[men's rights movement]]. |
In most societies, men have more legal and cultural rights than women,{{Sfn|Helgeson|2017|pp=45–48}} and [[misogyny]] is far more prevalent than [[misandry]] in society.<ref name="Ouellette">{{cite book |last=Ouellette |first=Marc |title=International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-33343-6 |editor1=Flood, Michael |editor1-link=Michael Flood |location=Abingdon; New York |pages=442–443 |chapter=Misandry |display-editors=etal |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T54J3Q_VwnIC&q=misandry&pg=PA442}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gilmore |first=David D. |title=Misogyny: The Male Malady |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0812200324 |pages=12–13}}</ref> Men typically receive less support after being victims of [[sexual assault]], and [[rape of males]] is stigmatized.<ref name="Rabin">{{cite news |last=Rabin |first=Roni Caryn |date=23 January 2012 |title=Men Struggle for Rape Awareness |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/24/health/as-victims-men-struggle-for-rape-awareness.html |access-date=30 November 2013 |archive-date=10 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010112128/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/24/health/as-victims-men-struggle-for-rape-awareness.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Domestic violence against men]] is similarly stigmatized.<ref name="Marginalizing">{{cite journal |last=Migliaccio |first=Todd A. |date=Winter 2001 |title=Marginalizing the Battered Male |journal=[[The Journal of Men's Studies]] |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=205–226 |doi=10.3149/jms.0902.205 |s2cid=145293675}} {{subscription required}}</ref> Opponents of [[circumcision]] describe it as a human rights violation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=Allan J. |last2=Arora |first2=Kavita Shah |date=2015-02-01 |title=Ritual Male Infant Circumcision and Human Rights |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2014.990162 |journal=The American Journal of Bioethics |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=30–39 |doi=10.1080/15265161.2014.990162 |issn=1526-5161 |pmid=25674955|s2cid=6581063 }}</ref> The [[fathers' rights movement]] seeks to support separated fathers that do not receive equal rights to care for their children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Flood |first=Michael |date=2012-12-01 |title=Separated fathers and the 'fathers' rights' movement |url=https://doi.org/10.5172/jfs.2012.18.2-3.235 |journal=Journal of Family Studies |volume=18 |issue=2–3 |pages=235–345 |doi=10.5172/jfs.2012.18.2-3.235 |s2cid=55469150 |issn=1322-9400 |access-date=4 August 2022 |archive-date=23 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023191114/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.5172/jfs.2012.18.2-3.235 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[men's movement]] is the response to issues faced by men in Western countries. It includes [[Pro-feminism|pro-feminist]] groups such as the [[men's liberation movement]] and [[Antifeminism|anti-feminist]] groups such as the [[manosphere]] and the [[men's rights movement]]. |
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== Sex symbol == |
== Sex symbol == |
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The [[Mars symbol]] (♂) is a common symbol that represents the male sex.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schott|first=G D|date=24 December 2005|title=Sex symbols ancient and modern: their origins and iconography on the pedigree|journal=BMJ: British Medical Journal|volume=331|issue=7531|pages=1509–1510|doi=10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1509|issn=0959-8138|pmc=1322246|pmid=16373733}}</ref> The symbol is identical to the planetary symbol of [[Mars]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Solar System Symbols|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/resources/680/solar-system-symbols|access-date=18 August 2021|website=NASA Solar System Exploration}}</ref> It was first used to denote sex by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1751.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stearn |first=William T. |author-link=William T. Stearn |title=The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology |journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] |date=May 1962 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=109–113 |url=https://iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1964/male_fem.pdf |jstor=1217734 |doi=10.2307/1217734 |issn=0040-0262 |quote=Their first biological use is in the Linnaean dissertation {{lang|la|Plantae hybridae xxx sistit J. J. Haartman}} (1751) where in discussing hybrid plants Linnaeus denoted the supposed female parent species by the sign ♀, the male parent by the sign ♂, the hybrid by ☿: '{{lang|la|matrem signo ♀, patrem ♂ & plantam hybridam ☿ designavero}}'. In subsequent publications he retained the signs ♀ and ♂ for male and female individuals but discarded ☿ for hybrids.}}</ref> The symbol is sometimes seen as a stylized representation of the shield and spear of the [[Roman mythology|Roman god]] [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]]. According to Stearn, however, this derivation is "fanciful" and all the historical evidence favours "the conclusion of the French classical scholar [[Claude de Saumaise]]" that it is derived from ''θρ'', the contraction of a Greek name for the planet Mars, which is ''Thouros''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stearn|first=William T.|date=1962|title=The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1217734|journal=Taxon|volume=11|issue=4|pages=109–113|doi=10.2307/1217734|jstor=1217734|issn=0040-0262}}</ref> |
The [[Mars symbol]] (♂) is a common symbol that represents the male sex.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schott|first=G D|date=24 December 2005|title=Sex symbols ancient and modern: their origins and iconography on the pedigree|journal=BMJ: British Medical Journal|volume=331|issue=7531|pages=1509–1510|doi=10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1509|issn=0959-8138|pmc=1322246|pmid=16373733}}</ref> The symbol is identical to the planetary symbol of [[Mars]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Solar System Symbols|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/resources/680/solar-system-symbols|access-date=18 August 2021|website=NASA Solar System Exploration|archive-date=20 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220171351/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/resources/680/solar-system-symbols/|url-status=live}}</ref> It was first used to denote sex by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1751.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stearn |first=William T. |author-link=William T. Stearn |title=The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology |journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] |date=May 1962 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=109–113 |url=https://iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1964/male_fem.pdf |jstor=1217734 |doi=10.2307/1217734 |issn=0040-0262 |quote=Their first biological use is in the Linnaean dissertation {{lang|la|Plantae hybridae xxx sistit J. J. Haartman}} (1751) where in discussing hybrid plants Linnaeus denoted the supposed female parent species by the sign ♀, the male parent by the sign ♂, the hybrid by ☿: '{{lang|la|matrem signo ♀, patrem ♂ & plantam hybridam ☿ designavero}}'. In subsequent publications he retained the signs ♀ and ♂ for male and female individuals but discarded ☿ for hybrids. |access-date=16 August 2022 |archive-date=27 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527105139/https://iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1964/male_fem.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The symbol is sometimes seen as a stylized representation of the shield and spear of the [[Roman mythology|Roman god]] [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]]. According to Stearn, however, this derivation is "fanciful" and all the historical evidence favours "the conclusion of the French classical scholar [[Claude de Saumaise]]" that it is derived from ''θρ'', the contraction of a Greek name for the planet Mars, which is ''Thouros''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stearn|first=William T.|date=1962|title=The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1217734|journal=Taxon|volume=11|issue=4|pages=109–113|doi=10.2307/1217734|jstor=1217734|issn=0040-0262|access-date=18 August 2021|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326024837/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1217734|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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== See also == |
== See also == |
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* [[Sexism]] |
* [[Sexism]] |
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== References == |
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