Mr rnddude (talk | contribs) →Reign (April 217 – June 218): One of a series of improvements to the article Tag: Visual edit |
Mr rnddude (talk | contribs) →Reign (April 217 – June 218): One of a series of improvements to the article Tags: nowiki added Visual edit |
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Caracalla was a profligate spender of Rome's income, he spent much of it on the army and stripped bare whatever sources of income he had.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus|last=Scott|first=Andrew|publisher=Rutgers|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=118-119}}</ref> Thus, upon Macrinus' ascension the fiscal situation of Rome was dire.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus|last=Scott|first=Andrew|publisher=Rutgers|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=125}}</ref> Macrinus made the initial move to overturn Caracalla's fiscal policies and moved closer towards those that had been set forth by [[Septimius Severus]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus|last=Scott|first=Andrew|publisher=Rutgers|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=126}}</ref> One such policy change involved the Roman legions, the soldiers that had already enlisted under Caracalla and who enjoyed exuberant payments would continue to receive that pay, but, to new recruits Macrinus reduced their pay to the level that had been set by Severus.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Emperor|last=Gibbon|first=Edward|publisher=|year=1776|isbn=|location=|pages=180}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus|last=Scott|first=Andrew|publisher=Rutgers|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=127-128}}</ref> Macrinus then revalued the [[Roman currency]], increasing the silver purity and weight of the [[denarius]] from 50.78% and 1.66 grams at the end of Caracalla's reign to 57.85% and 1.82 grams from Fall 217 to the end of his own reign, again mirroring the fiscal policy made under Severus.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus|last=Scott|first=Andrew|publisher=Rutgers|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=130-131}}</ref><ref>Kenneth W. Harl, [http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate"] Retrieved: 2016-05-15.</ref> Macrinus' goal with these policies might have been to return Rome to the relative economic stability that had been enjoyed under Severus' reign, though it would have come with a cost.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus|last=Scott|first=Andrew|publisher=Rutgers|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=134-135}}</ref> The fiscal changes that Macrinus enacted might have been tenable if not for the military, by this time the strength of the military was too great and by enacting reforms that angered the military, Macrinus paved the way for his own downfall.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|last=Gibbon|first=Edward|publisher=|year=1776|isbn=|location=|pages=181}}</ref> |
Caracalla was a profligate spender of Rome's income, he spent much of it on the army and stripped bare whatever sources of income he had.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus|last=Scott|first=Andrew|publisher=Rutgers|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=118-119}}</ref> Thus, upon Macrinus' ascension the fiscal situation of Rome was dire.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus|last=Scott|first=Andrew|publisher=Rutgers|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=125}}</ref> Macrinus made the initial move to overturn Caracalla's fiscal policies and moved closer towards those that had been set forth by [[Septimius Severus]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus|last=Scott|first=Andrew|publisher=Rutgers|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=126}}</ref> One such policy change involved the Roman legions, the soldiers that had already enlisted under Caracalla and who enjoyed exuberant payments would continue to receive that pay, but, to new recruits Macrinus reduced their pay to the level that had been set by Severus.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Emperor|last=Gibbon|first=Edward|publisher=|year=1776|isbn=|location=|pages=180}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus|last=Scott|first=Andrew|publisher=Rutgers|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=127-128}}</ref> Macrinus then revalued the [[Roman currency]], increasing the silver purity and weight of the [[denarius]] from 50.78% and 1.66 grams at the end of Caracalla's reign to 57.85% and 1.82 grams from Fall 217 to the end of his own reign, again mirroring the fiscal policy made under Severus.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus|last=Scott|first=Andrew|publisher=Rutgers|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=130-131}}</ref><ref>Kenneth W. Harl, [http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate"] Retrieved: 2016-05-15.</ref> Macrinus' goal with these policies might have been to return Rome to the relative economic stability that had been enjoyed under Severus' reign, though it would have come with a cost.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus|last=Scott|first=Andrew|publisher=Rutgers|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=134-135}}</ref> The fiscal changes that Macrinus enacted might have been tenable if not for the military, by this time the strength of the military was too great and by enacting reforms that angered the military, Macrinus paved the way for his own downfall.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|last=Gibbon|first=Edward|publisher=|year=1776|isbn=|location=|pages=181}}</ref> |
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Caracalla's mother [[Julia Domna]] was initially left in peace when Macrinus became emperor, however, Macrinus discovered that she was conspiring against him and had her placed under house arrest in Antioch.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=How Rome Fell|last=Goldsworthy|first=Adrian|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2009|isbn=|location=|pages=176}}</ref> By this time Julia Domna was suffering from an advanced stage of breast cancer and soon died in Antioch, possibly by starving herself.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> Soon after, Macrinus sent her sister [[Julia Maesa]] and her children back to [[Homs|Emesa]] in Syria.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=How Rome Fell|last=Goldsworthy|first=Adrian|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2009|isbn=|location=|pages=76-77}}</ref> |
Caracalla's mother [[Julia Domna]] was initially left in peace when Macrinus became emperor, however, Macrinus discovered that she was conspiring against him and had her placed under house arrest in Antioch.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=How Rome Fell|last=Goldsworthy|first=Adrian|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2009|isbn=|location=|pages=176}}</ref> By this time Julia Domna was suffering from an advanced stage of breast cancer and soon died in Antioch, possibly by starving herself.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> Soon after, Macrinus sent her sister [[Julia Maesa]] and her children back to [[Homs|Emesa]] in Syria, from where she would set in motion her plans to have Macrinus overthrown.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=How Rome Fell|last=Goldsworthy|first=Adrian|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2009|isbn=|location=|pages=76-77}}</ref> Macrinus himself had decided to remain in Antioch instead of going to Rome upon being declared emperor, a step which furthered his unpopularity in Rome and another contributor to his eventual downfall.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|title=History of Antioch in Syria: From Seleucus to the Arab Conquest|last=Glanville|first=Downey|publisher=Literary Licensing LLC|year=1961|isbn=1-258-48665-2|location=|pages=248-250}}</ref> |
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At a high point of his popularity monuments were built to honour Macrinus, including the grand [[tetrastyle]] [[Capitoline Temple]], in [[Volubilis]] was erected in 217 AD.<ref>[http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=14906 C. Michael Hogan (2007) ''Volubilis'', The Megalithic Portal, edited by A. Burnham]</ref> |
At a high point of his popularity monuments were built to honour Macrinus, including the grand [[tetrastyle]] [[Capitoline Temple]], in [[Volubilis]] was erected in 217 AD.<ref>[http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=14906 C. Michael Hogan (2007) ''Volubilis'', The Megalithic Portal, edited by A. Burnham]</ref> |
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His popularity also suffered in Rome. Not only had the new emperor failed to visit the city after taking power but a late-summer thunderstorm caused widespread fires and flooding. Macrinus' appointee as urban prefect proved unable to repair the damage to the satisfaction of the populace and had to be replaced. |
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==Downfall== |
==Downfall== |
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[[File:Aureus Macrinus-RIC 0079.jpg|thumb|250px|An [[aureus]] of Macrinus. Its elaborate symbolism celebrates the ''[[liberalitas]]'' ("prodigality") of Macrinus and his son [[Diadumenian]].]] |
[[File:Aureus Macrinus-RIC 0079.jpg|thumb|250px|An [[aureus]] of Macrinus. Its elaborate symbolism celebrates the ''[[liberalitas]]'' ("prodigality") of Macrinus and his son [[Diadumenian]].]] |
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Julia Maesa had retired to her home town of Emesa with an immense fortune that she had accrued over the course of twenty years, alongside her children, [[Julia Soaemias]] and [[Julia Mamaea]] and grandchildren, one of whom was Elagabalus, the son of Julia Soaemias.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|last=Gibbon|first=Edward|publisher=|year=1776|isbn=|location=|pages=182}}</ref> Elagabalus himself was the chief priest of the [[Phoenicia]]<nowiki/>n [[Solar deity|sun-deity]] [[Elagabalus (deity)|Elagabalus]] (or El-Gabal) in Emesa.<ref name=":10" /> Soldiers from ''Legio III Gallica'' that had been stationed at the nearby camp of [[Raphanea]] would often visit Emesa and would go to see Elagabalus perform his priestly rituals and duties while there.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=How Rome Fell|last=Goldsworthy|first=Adrian|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2009|isbn=|location=|pages=77}}</ref> Julia Maesa would take advantage of this to suggest to the soldiers that Elagabalus was indeed the illegitimate son of Caracalla.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":10" /> |
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This discontent was fostered by the surviving members of the [[Severan dynasty]], headed by [[Julia Maesa]] (Caracalla's aunt) and her daughters [[Julia Soaemias]] and [[Julia Mamaea]]. Having been evicted from the imperial palace and ordered to return home by Macrinus, the Severan women plotted from their home near [[Emesa]] in [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] to place another Severan on the imperial throne. |
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They used their hereditary influence over the cult of [[solar deity|sun-deity]] Elagabalus (the Latinised form of [[El-Gabal]]) to proclaim Soaemias' son [[Elagabalus]] (named for his family's patron deity) as the true successor to Caracalla. The rumor was spread, with the assistance of the Severan women, that Elagabalus was Caracalla's illegitimate son and thus the child of a union between first cousins. |
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On May 18, Elagabalus was proclaimed emperor by the [[Legio III Gallica|Legio III ''Gallica'']] at its camp at Raphanea.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How Rome Fell|last=Goldsworthy|first=Adrian|publisher=|year=2009|isbn=|location=|pages=78}}</ref> By now Macrinus sensed that his life was in danger, but could not decide upon a course of action and instead remained at Antioch.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|last=Gibbon|first=Edward|publisher=|year=1776|isbn=|location=|pages=183}}</ref> Not to remain idle however, Macrinus sent Ulpinus Julianus with a force of cavalry to regain control of the rebels, a failed attempt which resulted in the death of Ulpinus and further strengthened Elagabalus' army.<ref name=":11" /> Soon after a force under Elagabalus' tutor Gannys marched on [[Antioch]] and engaged a force under Macrinus on June 8, 218 near the village of Immae.<ref name=":9" /> Macrinus, deserted the [[Battle of Antioch (218)|battle]] before its conclusion and fled back to Antioch.<ref name=":9" /> Macrinus was forced to flee from Antioch as fighting erupted and would later be captured and executed.<ref name=":9" /> |
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⚫ | Macrinus, deserted by most of his soldiers, was soundly defeated in the [[Battle of Antioch (218)|battle]] and fled by sea towards Italy disguised as a courier.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} He was captured near [[Chalcedon]] and later executed in [[Cappadocia]]. His son [[Diadumenian]], sent for safety to the Parthian court, was captured at [[Zeugma, Commagene|Zeugma]] and also murdered.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} |
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⚫ | |||
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Macrinus' short reign, while important for its historical "firsts", was cut short due to the inability of this otherwise accomplished man to control or satisfy the soldiery.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} In his death at the hands of his own troops, Macrinus reinforces the notion of the soldiers as the true brokers of power in the third-century empire and highlighted the importance of maintaining the support of this vital faction.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} His reign was followed by another seventeen years of rule under the Severan emperors [[Elagabalus]] and [[Severus Alexander]]. |
Macrinus' short reign, while important for its historical "firsts", was cut short due to the inability of this otherwise accomplished man to control or satisfy the soldiery.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} In his death at the hands of his own troops, Macrinus reinforces the notion of the soldiers as the true brokers of power in the third-century empire and highlighted the importance of maintaining the support of this vital faction.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} His reign was followed by another seventeen years of rule under the Severan emperors [[Elagabalus]] and [[Severus Alexander]]. |
Revision as of 07:05, 3 July 2016
Macrinus | |||||
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File:054 Macrinus.jpg | |||||
24th Emperor of the Roman Empire | |||||
Reign | 8 April 217 – 8 June 218 | ||||
Predecessor | Caracalla | ||||
Successor | Elagabalus | ||||
Born | c. 165 Caesarea | ||||
Died | June 218 (aged 53) Cappadocia | ||||
Spouse | Nonia Celsa (?) | ||||
Issue | Diadumenian | ||||
| |||||
Father | equestrian family |
Macrinus (Latin: Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus Augustus;[1] c. 165 – June 218), was Roman Emperor from 217 to 218. Macrinus' origin was Mauretanian,[2] probably of mixed extraction with Punic or Punicized elements.[3] As a member of the equestrian class he became the first emperor who did not hail from the senatorial class.
Macrinus was overthrown and executed in 218.
Background and career
Born in Caesarea Mauretaniae (modern Cherchell, Algeria) in the Roman province of Mauretania to an equestrian family, Macrinus received an education which allowed him to ascend to the Roman political class.[4] Over the years he earned a reputation as a skilled lawyer, and under the emperor Septimius Severus he became an important bureaucrat. Severus' successor Caracalla appointed him prefect of the Praetorian Guard.[4][5]
While Macrinus probably enjoyed the trust of Caracalla, this may have changed when, according to tradition, it was prophesied that he would depose and succeed the Emperor.[4] Macrinus, fearing for his own safety, resolved to have Caracalla murdered before he himself was condemned.[6]
In the spring of 217, Caracalla was in the eastern provinces preparing a campaign against the Parthian Empire.[7][8] Macrinus was among his staff, as were other members of the Praetorian Guard. In April, the Emperor went to visit a temple of Luna near the spot of the battle of Carrhae, accompanied only by his personal bodyguard, which included Macrinus.[7] On April 8, while traveling to the temple, Caracalla was stabbed to death by Justin Martialus, a soldier whom Macrinus had recruited to commit the murder.[7][9]In the immediate aftermath, Martialus was himself killed by one of Caracalla's men.[7]
For either two or three days, Rome remained without an Emperor.[6][10] But by April 11, Macrinus had proclaimed himself emperor, and taken for himself all of the imperial titles and powers without waiting for the Senate.[6] The army backed his rise to emperor, and the Senate, so far away was powerless to intervene.[10] Thus Macrinus adopted the name of Severus, in honor of the Severan dynasty, and conferred the imperial title and name of Antoninus to his son Diadumenianus, in honor of the Antonine dynasty.[11][12]
Reign (April 217 – June 218)
Despite his equestrian background, Macrinus was at first cheerfully confirmed into his new role by the Senate and the provinces.[13] The Senate themselves were less concerned by Macrinus' Mauretanian ancestry than by his equestrian social background.[6] Their opinion of him was further reduced by his decisions to appoint men to high offices who were of similarly undistinguished backgrounds.[6] These actions led to the Senate scrutinizing Macrinus with critical severity, it was the Senate who had the constitutional power to chose the emperor from among the Senators.[13]
Macrinus' predecessor Caracalla had a tendency towards military belligerence and upon his death had left several conflicts for Macrinus to resolve.[14] Macrinus was at first occupied by the threat of the Parthians, with whom Rome had been at war since the reign of Caracalla. Macrinus would settle a peace deal with the Parthians after fighting an indecisive battle at Nisibis in 217.[15] In return for peace, Macrinus would pay an indemnity of 200million sesterces to the Parthian ruler Artabanus V.[16][17] Simultaneously, Macrinus would have been under the threat of both Dacia and Armenia, and thus, any deal with Parthia might have been beneficial to Rome.[18] Macrinus then turned his attention to Armenia, he settled a peace treaty with them by returning the crown and loot to Tiridates and releasing his mother from prison, thus returning Armenia to its status as a client kingdom of Rome.[19] Finally, Macrinus turned his attention to the Dacians, settling peace with them by releasing hostages, though this was likely not handled by himself but Marcus Agrippa instead.[20] In matters of foreign policy, Macrinus showed a tendency towards settling disputes through diplomacy and reluctance to engage in military conflicts, though this may have been due to lack of resources and manpower than his own will.[14]
Caracalla was a profligate spender of Rome's income, he spent much of it on the army and stripped bare whatever sources of income he had.[21] Thus, upon Macrinus' ascension the fiscal situation of Rome was dire.[22] Macrinus made the initial move to overturn Caracalla's fiscal policies and moved closer towards those that had been set forth by Septimius Severus.[23] One such policy change involved the Roman legions, the soldiers that had already enlisted under Caracalla and who enjoyed exuberant payments would continue to receive that pay, but, to new recruits Macrinus reduced their pay to the level that had been set by Severus.[24][25] Macrinus then revalued the Roman currency, increasing the silver purity and weight of the denarius from 50.78% and 1.66 grams at the end of Caracalla's reign to 57.85% and 1.82 grams from Fall 217 to the end of his own reign, again mirroring the fiscal policy made under Severus.[26][27] Macrinus' goal with these policies might have been to return Rome to the relative economic stability that had been enjoyed under Severus' reign, though it would have come with a cost.[28] The fiscal changes that Macrinus enacted might have been tenable if not for the military, by this time the strength of the military was too great and by enacting reforms that angered the military, Macrinus paved the way for his own downfall.[28][29]
Caracalla's mother Julia Domna was initially left in peace when Macrinus became emperor, however, Macrinus discovered that she was conspiring against him and had her placed under house arrest in Antioch.[30] By this time Julia Domna was suffering from an advanced stage of breast cancer and soon died in Antioch, possibly by starving herself.[11][30] Soon after, Macrinus sent her sister Julia Maesa and her children back to Emesa in Syria, from where she would set in motion her plans to have Macrinus overthrown.[11][31] Macrinus himself had decided to remain in Antioch instead of going to Rome upon being declared emperor, a step which furthered his unpopularity in Rome and another contributor to his eventual downfall.[32]
At a high point of his popularity monuments were built to honour Macrinus, including the grand tetrastyle Capitoline Temple, in Volubilis was erected in 217 AD.[33]
Downfall
Julia Maesa had retired to her home town of Emesa with an immense fortune that she had accrued over the course of twenty years, alongside her children, Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea and grandchildren, one of whom was Elagabalus, the son of Julia Soaemias.[34] Elagabalus himself was the chief priest of the Phoenician sun-deity Elagabalus (or El-Gabal) in Emesa.[34] Soldiers from Legio III Gallica that had been stationed at the nearby camp of Raphanea would often visit Emesa and would go to see Elagabalus perform his priestly rituals and duties while there.[34][35] Julia Maesa would take advantage of this to suggest to the soldiers that Elagabalus was indeed the illegitimate son of Caracalla.[11][34]
Execution (218)
On May 18, Elagabalus was proclaimed emperor by the Legio III Gallica at its camp at Raphanea.[36] By now Macrinus sensed that his life was in danger, but could not decide upon a course of action and instead remained at Antioch.[37] Not to remain idle however, Macrinus sent Ulpinus Julianus with a force of cavalry to regain control of the rebels, a failed attempt which resulted in the death of Ulpinus and further strengthened Elagabalus' army.[37] Soon after a force under Elagabalus' tutor Gannys marched on Antioch and engaged a force under Macrinus on June 8, 218 near the village of Immae.[32] Macrinus, deserted the battle before its conclusion and fled back to Antioch.[32] Macrinus was forced to flee from Antioch as fighting erupted and would later be captured and executed.[32]
Macrinus, deserted by most of his soldiers, was soundly defeated in the battle and fled by sea towards Italy disguised as a courier.[citation needed] He was captured near Chalcedon and later executed in Cappadocia. His son Diadumenian, sent for safety to the Parthian court, was captured at Zeugma and also murdered.[citation needed]
Macrinus' short reign, while important for its historical "firsts", was cut short due to the inability of this otherwise accomplished man to control or satisfy the soldiery.[citation needed] In his death at the hands of his own troops, Macrinus reinforces the notion of the soldiers as the true brokers of power in the third-century empire and highlighted the importance of maintaining the support of this vital faction.[citation needed] His reign was followed by another seventeen years of rule under the Severan emperors Elagabalus and Severus Alexander.
Citations
- ^ In Classical Latin, Macrinus' name would be inscribed as MARCVS OPELLIVS SEVERVS MACRINVS AVGVSTVS.
- ^ "Macrinus, by race a Moor, from Caesarea... one of his ears had been bored in accordance with the custom followed by most of the Moors", Cassius Dio, Dio's Rome (bk 79), Kessinger Publishing, 2004, v.6, p.21
- ^ Andrew G. Scott, Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus, ProQuest, 2008, ISBN 9780549890416, p. 53
- ^ a b c Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1. p. 176.
- ^ Mennen, Inge (2011). Impact of Empire, Volume 12: Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193-284. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 15.
- ^ a b c d e Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 75.
- ^ a b c d Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 74.
- ^ Mennen, Inge (2011). Impact of Empire, Volume 12: Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 22.
- ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 177.
- ^ a b Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 178.
- ^ a b c d Dunstan, William, E. (2010). Ancient Rome. Rowman and Littleman Publishers. p. 213.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Mennen, Inge (2011). Impact of Empire, Volume 12: Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 26.
- ^ a b Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 179.
- ^ a b Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 118.
- ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 76.
- ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 88.
- ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 119.
- ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 111.
- ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 113.
- ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. pp. 114–115.
- ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. pp. 118–119.
- ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 125.
- ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 126.
- ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Emperor. p. 180.
- ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. pp. 127–128.
- ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. pp. 130–131.
- ^ Kenneth W. Harl, Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate" Retrieved: 2016-05-15.
- ^ a b Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. pp. 134–135.
- ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 181.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 176.
- ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. pp. 76–77.
- ^ a b c d Glanville, Downey (1961). History of Antioch in Syria: From Seleucus to the Arab Conquest. Literary Licensing LLC. pp. 248–250. ISBN 1-258-48665-2.
- ^ C. Michael Hogan (2007) Volubilis, The Megalithic Portal, edited by A. Burnham
- ^ a b c d Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 182.
- ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 77.
- ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. p. 78.
- ^ a b Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 183.
References
- Dio, Cassius. (n.d.). Roman History.
- Downey, Glanville. (1961). History of Antioch in Syria: From Seleucus to the Arab Conquest. Literary Licensing LLC. ISBN 1-258-48665-2
- Dunstan, William E. (2010). Ancient Rome. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.
- Gibbon, Edward. (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1
- Goldsworthy, Adrian. (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press.
- Herodian of Antioch. (n.d.). History of the Roman Empire.
- Historia Augusta. (n.d.)
- Mennen, Inge. (2011). Impact of Empire, Volume 12: Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Brill Academic Publishers.
- Miller, S.N., "The Army and the Imperial House," The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Imperial Crisis and Recovery (A.D. 193–324), S.A. Cook et al. eds, Cambridge University Press, 1965, pp. 50–2.
- Scott, Andrew. (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. ISBN 0-549-89041-6
External links
- Life of Macrinus (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation)
- "Macrinus and Diadumenianius" at De Imperatoribus Romanis (by Michael Meckler of Ohio State University)
- Macrinus by Dio Cassius
- Livius.org: Marcus Opellius Macrinus
- Macrinus, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05
- Ross Cowan, 'The Battle of Nisibis, AD 217', Ancient Warfare 3.5 (2009), 29-35. An examination of Macrinus' generalship.