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{{Infobox royalty |
{{Infobox royalty |
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|monarch |
|monarch |
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| coronation = 936 in [[Laon]] |
| coronation = 936 in [[Laon]] |
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| cor-type = france |
| cor-type = france |
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| full name = |
| full name = |
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| predecessor = [[Rudolph of France]] |
| predecessor = [[Rudolph of France]] |
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| successor = [[Lothair of France|Lothair]] |
| successor = [[Lothair of France|Lothair]] |
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| spouses = [[Gerberga of Saxony]] |
| spouses = [[Gerberga of Saxony]] |
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| issue = [[Lothair of France|Lothair, King of West Francia]]<br>[[Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine]] <br>[[Matilda of France|Matilda, Queen of Burgundy]] |
| issue = [[Lothair of France|Lothair, King of West Francia]]<br />[[Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine]] <br />[[Matilda of France|Matilda, Queen of Burgundy]] |
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| issue-link =#Children |
| issue-link =#Children |
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| house = [[Carolingian]] |
| house = [[Carolingian]] |
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| death_date = 10 September 954 (aged 33-34) |
| death_date = 10 September 954 (aged 33-34) |
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| death_place = [[Reims]] |
| death_place = [[Reims]] |
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| burial_place = [[Abbey of Saint-Remi|Saint-Remi Abbey]], [[Reims]], France |
| burial_place = [[Abbey of Saint-Remi|Saint-Remi Abbey]], [[Reims]], France |
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}} |
}} |
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⚫ | '''Louis IV''' (September 920 / September 921<ref>The precise date of birth of Louis IV is unknown. The Annals of [[Flodoard]] indicate that he was fifteen in 936 and that he was born in the region of Laon-Reims.</ref> – 10 September 954), called '''''d'Outremer''''' or '''''Transmarinus''''' (both meaning "from overseas"), reigned as king of [[West Francia]] from 936 to 954. A member of the [[Carolingian]] dynasty, he was the only son of king [[Charles the Simple]] and [[Eadgifu of Wessex]], daughter of King [[Edward the Elder]] of [[Kingdom of Wessex|Wessex]].<ref>Donald A. Bullough, ''Carolingian Renewal: Sources and Heritage'', (Manchester University Press, 1991), 286</ref> His reign is mostly known thanks to the Annals of [[Flodoard]] and the later ''Historiae'' of [[Richerus]]. |
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⚫ | '''Louis IV''' (September 920 / September 921<ref>The precise date of birth of Louis IV is unknown. The Annals of [[Flodoard]] indicate that he was fifteen in 936 and that he was born in the region of Laon-Reims.</ref> – 10 September 954), called '''''d'Outremer''''' or '''''Transmarinus''''' (both meaning "from overseas"), reigned as king of [[West Francia]] from 936 to 954. A member of the [[Carolingian]] dynasty, he was the only son of king [[Charles the Simple]] and his second wife [[Eadgifu of Wessex]], daughter of King [[Edward the Elder]] of [[Kingdom of Wessex|Wessex]].<ref>Donald A. Bullough, ''Carolingian Renewal: Sources and Heritage'', (Manchester University Press, 1991), 286</ref> His reign is mostly known thanks to the Annals of [[Flodoard]] and the later ''Historiae'' of [[Richerus]]. |
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After the dethronement and capture of Charles the Simple in 923, queen Eadgifu and her infant son took refuge in Wessex (for this he received the nickname of ''d'Outremer'') at the court of her father King Edward, and after Edward's death, of her brother King [[Æthelstan]]. Young Louis was raised in the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] court until his teens. During this time he enjoyed legendary stories about [[Edmund the Martyr]], [[Kingdom of East Anglia|King of East Anglia]], an ancestor of his maternal family who had heroically fought against the Vikings.<ref>Poly 1990, p. 296.</ref> |
After the dethronement and capture of Charles the Simple in 923, queen Eadgifu and her infant son took refuge in Wessex (for this he received the nickname of ''d'Outremer'') at the court of her father King Edward, and after Edward's death, of her brother King [[Æthelstan]]. Young Louis was raised in the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] court until his teens. During this time he enjoyed legendary stories about [[Edmund the Martyr]], [[Kingdom of East Anglia|King of East Anglia]], an ancestor of his maternal family who had heroically fought against the Vikings.<ref>Poly 1990, p. 296.</ref> |
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Once he took the throne, Louis wanted to free himself from the tutelage of Hugh the Great, who, with his title of [[Duke of the Franks]] was the second most powerful man after the King. |
Once he took the throne, Louis wanted to free himself from the tutelage of Hugh the Great, who, with his title of [[Duke of the Franks]] was the second most powerful man after the King. |
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In 939 the young monarch attempted to conquer [[Lotharingia]]; however, the expedition was a failure and his brother-in-law, king [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]] of [[East Francia]] counterattacked and besieged the city of [[Reims]] in 940. In 945, following the death of [[William I Longsword]], [[Duke of Normandy]], Louis tried to conquer his lands, but was kidnapped by the men of Hugh the Great. |
In 939, the young monarch attempted to conquer [[Lotharingia]]; however, the expedition was a failure and his brother-in-law, king [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]] of [[East Francia]] counterattacked and besieged the city of [[Reims]] in 940. In 945, following the death of [[William I Longsword]], [[Duke of Normandy]], Louis tried to conquer his lands, but was kidnapped by the men of Hugh the Great. |
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The [[Synod of Ingelheim]] in 948 allowed the excommunication of Hugh the Great and released Louis from his long tutelage. From 950 Louis gradually imposed his rule in the northeast of the kingdom, building many alliances (especially with the Counts of [[Vermandois]]) and under the protection of the [[Ottonian]] kingdom of [[East Francia]]. |
The [[Synod of Ingelheim]] in 948 allowed the excommunication of Hugh the Great and released Louis from his long tutelage. From 950 Louis gradually imposed his rule in the northeast of the kingdom, building many alliances (especially with the Counts of [[Vermandois]]) and under the protection of the [[Ottonian]] kingdom of [[East Francia]]. |
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==Assumption of crown== |
== Assumption of crown == |
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In spring of 936 [[Hugh the Great]] sent an embassy to Wessex inviting Louis to "come and take the head of the kingdom" (Flodoard). King [[Æthelstan]], his uncle, after forcing the embassy to swear that the future king will have the homage of all his vassals, permitted him the return home with his mother Eadgifu, some bishops and faithful servants.<ref>Sot 1988, p. 724.</ref> After a few hours of sea journey, Louis received the homage of Hugh and some Frankish nobles on the beach of [[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Boulogne]], who kissed his hands. Chronicler Richerus gives us an anecdote about this first encounter: |
In spring of 936 [[Hugh the Great]] sent an embassy to Wessex inviting Louis to "come and take the head of the kingdom" (Flodoard). King [[Æthelstan]], his uncle, after forcing the embassy to swear that the future king will have the homage of all his vassals, permitted him the return home with his mother Eadgifu, some bishops and faithful servants.<ref>Sot 1988, p. 724.</ref> After a few hours of sea journey, Louis received the homage of Hugh and some Frankish nobles on the beach of [[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Boulogne]], who kissed his hands. Chronicler Richerus gives us an anecdote about this first encounter: |
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During the ritual, Hugh the Great acted as squire bearing the King's arms. Almost nothing is known about the coronation ceremony of Louis IV. It seems certain that the King would wear the crown and sceptre of his predecessor. He must have promised before the bishops of France to respect the privileges of the Church. Maybe he received the ring (a religious symbol), the sword and the stick of [[Saint Remigius]] (referring to the baptism of [[Clovis I]]). Finally, the new King (perhaps like his ancestor [[Charles the Bald]]) used a blue silk coat called ''Orbis Terrarum'' with cosmic allusions (referring to the ''[[Vulgate]]'') and the purple robe with precious stones and gold incrustations also used by Odo in 888) and his own son [[Lothair of France|Lothair]] during his coronation in 954.<ref>Isaïa 2009, p. 131.</ref><ref>Pinoteau 1992, pp. 76-80.</ref> |
During the ritual, Hugh the Great acted as squire bearing the King's arms. Almost nothing is known about the coronation ceremony of Louis IV. It seems certain that the King would wear the crown and sceptre of his predecessor. He must have promised before the bishops of France to respect the privileges of the Church. Maybe he received the ring (a religious symbol), the sword and the stick of [[Saint Remigius]] (referring to the baptism of [[Clovis I]]). Finally, the new King (perhaps like his ancestor [[Charles the Bald]]) used a blue silk coat called ''Orbis Terrarum'' with cosmic allusions (referring to the ''[[Vulgate]]'') and the purple robe with precious stones and gold incrustations also used by Odo in 888) and his own son [[Lothair of France|Lothair]] during his coronation in 954.<ref>Isaïa 2009, p. 131.</ref><ref>Pinoteau 1992, pp. 76-80.</ref> |
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Historians have wondered why the powerful Hugh the Great called the young Carolingian prince to throne instead of taking it himself, as his father had done fifteen years earlier. First, he had many rivals, especially [[Hugh, Duke of Burgundy]] (King Rudolph's brother) and [[Herbert II, Count of Vermandois]] who probably would have challenged his election. But above all, it seems that he was shocked by the early death of his father. Richerus explains that Hugh the Great remembered his father who had died for his "pretentions" and this was the cause of his short and turbulent reign. It was then that "the Gauls, anxious to appear free to elect their King, assembled under the leadership of Hugh to deliberate about the choice of a new King".<ref name="Sot1988"/> According to Richerus, Hugh the Great delivered the following speech: |
Historians have wondered why the powerful Hugh the Great called the young Carolingian prince to throne instead of taking it himself, as his father had done fifteen years earlier. First, he had many rivals, especially [[Hugh, Duke of Burgundy]] (King Rudolph's brother) and [[Herbert II, Count of Vermandois]] who probably would have challenged his election. But above all, it seems that he was shocked by the early death of his father. Richerus explains that Hugh the Great remembered his father who had died for his "pretentions" and this was the cause of his short and turbulent reign. It was then that "the Gauls, anxious to appear free to elect their King, assembled under the leadership of Hugh to deliberate about the choice of a new King".<ref name="Sot1988" /> According to Richerus, Hugh the Great delivered the following speech: |
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::King Charles died miserably. If my father and us, we hurt your Majesty by some of our actions, we must use all our efforts to erase the trace. Although following your unanimous desire my father committed a great crime reigning, since only one had the right to rule and was alive, he deserved to be imprisoned. This, believe me, wasn't the will of God. Also I never had to take the place of my father.<ref name="Sot1988"/> |
::King Charles died miserably. If my father and us, we hurt your Majesty by some of our actions, we must use all our efforts to erase the trace. Although following your unanimous desire my father committed a great crime reigning, since only one had the right to rule and was alive, he deserved to be imprisoned. This, believe me, wasn't the will of God. Also I never had to take the place of my father.<ref name="Sot1988" /> |
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Hugh the Great knew that the [[Robertians|Robertian]] dynasty had not achieved much; his uncle Odo had died after a few years of reign, abandoned by the nobles. Hugh's father, Robert I, was killed during the battle of Soissons after only months of reign and his brother-in-law Rudolph couldn't stop the troubles that multiplied in the Kingdom during his reign. Finally, Hugh didn't have a legitimate male heir: his first wife Judith (daughter of Count Roger of Maine and Princess Rothilde) died in 925 after eleven years of childless union; in 926 he married Princess [[Eadhild |
Hugh the Great knew that the [[Robertians|Robertian]] dynasty had not achieved much; his uncle Odo had died after a few years of reign, abandoned by the nobles. Hugh's father, Robert I, was killed during the battle of Soissons after only months of reign and his brother-in-law Rudolph couldn't stop the troubles that multiplied in the Kingdom during his reign. Finally, Hugh didn't have a legitimate male heir: his first wife Judith (daughter of Count Roger of Maine and Princess Rothilde) died in 925 after eleven years of childless union; in 926 he married Princess [[Eadhild]] of Wessex, sister of Queen Eadgifu, who also didn't bear him any children.<ref>Depreux 2002, pp. 136-137.</ref> In addition, the marriage with Eadhild, actively promoted by Eadgifu, was made in order to sever an eventual dangerous link between families of Hugh and Count Heribert II of Vermandois.<ref>Sarah Foot: ''Dynastic Strategies: The West Saxon Royal Family in Europe''. In: David Rollason, Conrad Leyser, Hannah Williams: ''England and the Continent in the Tenth Century:Studies in Honour of Wilhelm Levison (1876–1947)''. Brepols, 2010, p. 246.</ref> |
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===Regency of Hugh the Great=== |
=== Regency of Hugh the Great === |
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Having arrived on the continent, Louis IV was a young man of fifteen, who spoke neither Latin nor [[Old French]], but probably spoke [[Old English]]. He knew nothing about his new kingdom. Hugh the Great, after negotiating with the most powerful nobles of the Kingdom |
Having arrived on the continent, Louis IV was a young man of fifteen, who spoke neither Latin nor [[Old French]], but probably spoke [[Old English]]. He knew nothing about his new kingdom. Hugh the Great, after negotiating with the most powerful nobles of the Kingdom – ([[William I Longsword]] of Normandy, [[Herbert II of Vermandois]] and [[Arnulf I, Count of Flanders|Arnulf of Flanders]]) – was appointed guardian of the new King.<ref name="Theis1990">Theis 1990, p. 169.</ref> |
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The young King quickly became a puppet of Hugh the Great, who had reigned ''de facto'' since the death of his father Robert in 923. Territorially, Louis IV was quite helpless since he possessed few lands around the ancient Carolingian domains ([[Compiègne]], [[Quierzy]], [[Verberie]], [[Ver-lès-Chartres]] and [[Ponthion]]), and some abbeys (Saint-Jean in Laon, Saint-Corneille in Compiègne, [[Corbie]] and [[Fleury-sur-Loire]]) and collected the revenues from the province of [[Reims]]. We know that king had the power to appoint the suffragants of the Archbishopric of Reims. During this time Laon became the centre of the small Carolingian heartland, compared with the possessions in the [[Loire Valley]] of the Robertians.<ref name="Theis1990"/> |
The young King quickly became a puppet of Hugh the Great, who had reigned ''de facto'' since the death of his father Robert in 923. Territorially, Louis IV was quite helpless since he possessed few lands around the ancient Carolingian domains ([[Compiègne]], [[Quierzy]], [[Verberie]], [[Ver-lès-Chartres]] and [[Ponthion]]), and some abbeys (Saint-Jean in Laon, Saint-Corneille in Compiègne, [[Corbie]] and [[Fleury-sur-Loire]]) and collected the revenues from the province of [[Reims]]. We know that king had the power to appoint the suffragants of the Archbishopric of Reims. During this time Laon became the centre of the small Carolingian heartland, compared with the possessions in the [[Loire Valley]] of the Robertians.<ref name="Theis1990" /> |
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Hugh the Great's power came from the extraordinary title of ''Dux Francorum'' ([[Duke of the Franks]])<ref>Title held by [[Charles Martel]] and [[Pepin the Short]] when they were [[Mayor of the Palace|Mayors of the Palace]] for the last Merovingian Kings.</ref> that Louis IV repeatedly confirmed in 936, 943 and 954; and his rule over the [[Marches of Neustria]], where he reigned as ''princeps'' (territorial prince). This title was for the first time formalized by the Royal Chancery.<ref>Guillot, Sassier 2003, p. 170.</ref><ref>Theis 1990, p. 170.</ref> |
Hugh the Great's power came from the extraordinary title of ''Dux Francorum'' ([[Duke of the Franks]])<ref>Title held by [[Charles Martel]] and [[Pepin the Short]] when they were [[Mayor of the Palace|Mayors of the Palace]] for the last Merovingian Kings.</ref> that Louis IV repeatedly confirmed in 936, 943 and 954; and his rule over the [[Marches of Neustria]], where he reigned as ''princeps'' (territorial prince). This title was for the first time formalized by the Royal Chancery.<ref>Guillot, Sassier 2003, p. 170.</ref><ref>Theis 1990, p. 170.</ref> |
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From the beginning of 937 Louis IV, called by some "The King of the Duke" (le roi du duc)<ref>Quote of Laurent Theis. C. Bonnet, ''Les Carolingiens (741-987),'' Paris, Colin, 2001, p. 214.</ref> tried to halt the virtual regency of the Duke of the Franks; in the contemporary charters Hugh the Great appears only as "Count" as if the ducal title was taken from him by the King. But Louis IV hesitated about this move, because the ducal title was already given to Hugh the Great by Charles the Simple in 914. But a serious misconduct probably took place at that time, because Louis IV removed the title from him.<ref>Guillot, Sassier 2003, pp. 170-171</ref> For his part, Hugh the Great continued to claim to be the Duke of the Franks. In a letter from 938 the Pope called him Duke of the Franks, three years later (941) he presided a meeting in Paris during which he raised personally, in the manner of a King, his viscounts to the rank of counts. Finally, Hugh the Great had the decisive respect of the entire episcopate of France.<ref name="Guillot2003">Guillot, Sassier 2003, p. 171.</ref> |
From the beginning of 937 Louis IV, called by some "The King of the Duke" (le roi du duc)<ref>Quote of Laurent Theis. C. Bonnet, ''Les Carolingiens (741-987),'' Paris, Colin, 2001, p. 214.</ref> tried to halt the virtual regency of the Duke of the Franks; in the contemporary charters Hugh the Great appears only as "Count" as if the ducal title was taken from him by the King. But Louis IV hesitated about this move, because the ducal title was already given to Hugh the Great by Charles the Simple in 914. But a serious misconduct probably took place at that time, because Louis IV removed the title from him.<ref>Guillot, Sassier 2003, pp. 170-171</ref> For his part, Hugh the Great continued to claim to be the Duke of the Franks. In a letter from 938 the Pope called him Duke of the Franks, three years later (941) he presided a meeting in Paris during which he raised personally, in the manner of a King, his viscounts to the rank of counts. Finally, Hugh the Great had the decisive respect of the entire episcopate of France.<ref name="Guillot2003">Guillot, Sassier 2003, p. 171.</ref> |
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==Difficulties during the early years, 938–945== |
== Difficulties during the early years, 938–945 == |
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===Louis IV and his supporters, 938–939=== |
=== Louis IV and his supporters, 938–939 === |
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The rivalries between the nobility appeared as the only hope for the Louis IV to free himself from the regency of Hugh the Great. In 937 Louis IV began to rely more on his Chancellor [[Artald of Reims|Artald, Archbishop of Reims]], [[Hugh the Black]] and [[William I Longsword]], all enemies of Hugh the Great. He also received the homage of other important nobles like [[Alan II, Duke of Brittany]] (who also spent part of his life in England) and [[Sunyer, Count of Barcelona]].<ref>In fact, until the 10th century, the Catalan nobles go to the royal palace in Laon to confirm privileges for their churches and ensure their loyalty to the King. And Wilfred, brother of the Count of Barcelona, received a charter from Louis IV renewing his rights in the [[Abbey of Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa]] (937).</ref> Nevertheless, the support for the young king was still limited, until the Pope clearly favored him after he forced the French nobles to renew their homage to the king in 942.<ref name="Guillot2003"/> King's power in the south was symbolic since the death of the last Count of the [[Marca Hispanica|Spanish March]] in 878.<ref>Theis 1990, pp. 155-157.</ref> |
The rivalries between the nobility appeared as the only hope for the Louis IV to free himself from the regency of Hugh the Great. In 937 Louis IV began to rely more on his Chancellor [[Artald of Reims|Artald, Archbishop of Reims]], [[Hugh the Black]] and [[William I Longsword]], all enemies of Hugh the Great. He also received the homage of other important nobles like [[Alan II, Duke of Brittany]] (who also spent part of his life in England) and [[Sunyer, Count of Barcelona]].<ref>In fact, until the 10th century, the Catalan nobles go to the royal palace in Laon to confirm privileges for their churches and ensure their loyalty to the King. And Wilfred, brother of the Count of Barcelona, received a charter from Louis IV renewing his rights in the [[Abbey of Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa]] (937).</ref> Nevertheless, the support for the young king was still limited, until the Pope clearly favored him after he forced the French nobles to renew their homage to the king in 942.<ref name="Guillot2003" /> King's power in the south was symbolic since the death of the last Count of the [[Marca Hispanica|Spanish March]] in 878.<ref>Theis 1990, pp. 155-157.</ref> |
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Hugh the Great's response to the King's alliances approximating Herbert II of Vermandois, a very present ruler in minor France:<ref>The minor France is the region between Loire and Meuse.</ref> it possessed a tower, called château Gaillot in the city of Laon.<ref>Theis 1990, p. 171.</ref> The following year, the King seized the tower but Herbert II conquered the fortresses of Reims. Flodoard related the events as follows: |
Hugh the Great's response to the King's alliances approximating Herbert II of Vermandois, a very present ruler in minor France:<ref>The minor France is the region between Loire and Meuse.</ref> it possessed a tower, called château Gaillot in the city of Laon.<ref>Theis 1990, p. 171.</ref> The following year, the King seized the tower but Herbert II conquered the fortresses of Reims. Flodoard related the events as follows: |
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::But Louis, called by the archbishop Artaud returned and besieged Laon where a new citadel was built by Herbert. He undermines and overthrows many machines walls and finally took it with great difficulty.<ref name="T1990b">Theis 1990, p. 172.</ref> |
::But Louis, called by the archbishop Artaud returned and besieged Laon where a new citadel was built by Herbert. He undermines and overthrows many machines walls and finally took it with great difficulty.<ref name="T1990b">Theis 1990, p. 172.</ref> |
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===War over Lotharingia=== |
=== War over Lotharingia === |
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Louis IV then looked to the [[Lotharingia]], the land of his ancestors and began attempts to conquer it. In 939 [[Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine]] rebelled against King [[Otto I]] of East Francia and offered the crown to Louis IV, who received homage of the Lotharingian aristocracy in [[Verdun]] on his way to [[Aachen]]. In |
Louis IV then looked to the [[Lotharingia]], the land of his ancestors and began attempts to conquer it. In 939 [[Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine]] rebelled against King [[Otto I]] of East Francia and offered the crown to Louis IV, who received homage of the Lotharingian aristocracy in [[Verdun]] on his way to [[Aachen]]. In 2 October 939 Gilbert drowned in [[Rhine]] while escaping from the forces of Otto I after the defeat at the [[Battle of Andernach]]. Louis IV used this opportunity to strengthen his domain over Lotharingia by marrying Giselbert's widow, [[Gerberga of Saxony]] (end 939), without the consent of her brother King Otto I. The wedding did not stop Otto I who, after alliance with Hugh the Great, Herbert II of Vermandois and William I Longsword, resumed his invasion of Lotharingia and advanced towards Reims.<ref name="T1990">Theis 1990, pp. 171-172.</ref> |
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===Crisis of the royal power, 940–941=== |
=== Crisis of the royal power, 940–941 === |
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In 940 the East Frankish invaders finally conquered the city of Reims, where archbishop Artald was expelled and replaced by [[Hugh of Vermandois (bishop)|Hugh of Vermandois]], younger son of Herbert II, who also seized the patrimony of Saint-Remi. About this, Flodoard wrote: |
In 940 the East Frankish invaders finally conquered the city of Reims, where archbishop Artald was expelled and replaced by [[Hugh of Vermandois (bishop)|Hugh of Vermandois]], younger son of Herbert II, who also seized the patrimony of Saint-Remi. About this, Flodoard wrote: |
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::These are the same Franks who want this King, who crossed the sea at their request, the same ones who sworn loyalty to him and lied to God and that King?.<ref name="T1990b"/> |
::These are the same Franks who want this King, who crossed the sea at their request, the same ones who sworn loyalty to him and lied to God and that King?.<ref name="T1990b" /> |
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Flodoard also publishes at the end of his ''Annals'' the testimony of a girl from Reims (the ''Visions of Flothilde'') who predicted the expulsion of Artald from Reims. Flothilde mentioned that the saints are alarmed about the disloyalty of the nobles against the King. This testimony was widely believed, especially among the population of Reims, who believed that the internal order and peace come from the oaths of loyalty to the King, while Artald was blamed of having forsaken divine service.<ref>Isaïa 2009, p. 49.</ref> Contemporary Christian tradition affirmed that Saint Martin attended the coronation of 936. Now the two royal patron saints, Saint Remi and Saint Denis, seem to have turned back to the King's rule. To soften the anger of the saints, in the middle of the siege of Reims by Hugh the Great and William I Longsword, Louis IV went to Saint Remi Basilica and promised to the saint to pay him a pound of silver every year.<ref>Isaïa 2009, p. 317.</ref> |
Flodoard also publishes at the end of his ''Annals'' the testimony of a girl from Reims (the ''Visions of Flothilde'') who predicted the expulsion of Artald from Reims. Flothilde mentioned that the saints are alarmed about the disloyalty of the nobles against the King. This testimony was widely believed, especially among the population of Reims, who believed that the internal order and peace come from the oaths of loyalty to the King, while Artald was blamed of having forsaken divine service.<ref>Isaïa 2009, p. 49.</ref> Contemporary Christian tradition affirmed that Saint Martin attended the coronation of 936. Now the two royal patron saints, Saint Remi and Saint Denis, seem to have turned back to the King's rule. To soften the anger of the saints, in the middle of the siege of Reims by Hugh the Great and William I Longsword, Louis IV went to Saint Remi Basilica and promised to the saint to pay him a pound of silver every year.<ref>Isaïa 2009, p. 317.</ref> |
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In the meanwhile, Hugh the Great and his vassals had sworn allegiance to Otto I, who moved to the Carolingian Palace of [[Attigny, Ardennes|Attigny]] before his unsuccessful siege of Laon. In 941 the royal army, which tried to oppose Otto's invasion, was defeated and Artald was forced to submit to the rebels. Now Louis IV was surrendered in the only property that remained in his hands: the city of Laon. Otto I believed that the power Louis IV was sufficiently diminished and proposed a reconciliation with the Duke of the Franks and the Count of Vermandois. From that point on, Otto I was the new arbitrator in the West Francia.<ref name="T1990"/> |
In the meanwhile, Hugh the Great and his vassals had sworn allegiance to Otto I, who moved to the Carolingian Palace of [[Attigny, Ardennes|Attigny]] before his unsuccessful siege of Laon. In 941 the royal army, which tried to oppose Otto's invasion, was defeated and Artald was forced to submit to the rebels. Now Louis IV was surrendered in the only property that remained in his hands: the city of Laon. Otto I believed that the power Louis IV was sufficiently diminished and proposed a reconciliation with the Duke of the Franks and the Count of Vermandois. From that point on, Otto I was the new arbitrator in the West Francia.<ref name="T1990" /> |
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===Intervention in Normandy, 943–946=== |
=== Intervention in Normandy, 943–946 === |
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On December |
On 17 December 942 [[William I Longsword]] was ambushed and killed by men of [[Arnulf I, Count of Flanders]] at [[Picquigny]] and on 23 February 943 [[Herbert II, Count of Vermandois]] died of natural causes.<ref>According to contemporary sources (Dudon of Saint-Quentin and Flodoard of Reims), the murder was an act of revenge of the Count of Flanders who had just lost in favor of William I the city of Montreuil because the count of the Normans had approached King Louis IV to the detriment of Arnold and his lord Otto I of Germany. Dudon of Saint-Quentin: ''De Moribus et actis primorum Normanniae ducum'', ed. [[Jules Lair]], Caen, 1865, p. 84.</ref> The heir of [[Duchy of Normandy]] was [[Richard I of Normandy|Richard I]], the ten-year-old son of William born from his Breton concubine, while Herbert II leave as heirs four adult sons. |
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Louis IV took advantage of the internal disorder in the Duchy of Normandy and entered [[Rouen]], where he received the homage from part of the Norman aristocracy and offered his protection to the infant Richard I with the help of Hugh the Great.<ref>Riché 1999, p. 287.</ref> The regency of Normandy was entrusted to the faithful Herluin, Count of Montreuil (who was also a vassal of Hugh the Great), while Richard I was imprisoned first in Laon and then in [[Château de Coucy]].<ref>Although the history of the minority of Richard I is very confusing, it seems that this really happened. Dudon of Saint-Quentin, ''op. cit.'', pp. 86-88.</ref> |
Louis IV took advantage of the internal disorder in the Duchy of Normandy and entered [[Rouen]], where he received the homage from part of the Norman aristocracy and offered his protection to the infant Richard I with the help of Hugh the Great.<ref>Riché 1999, p. 287.</ref> The regency of Normandy was entrusted to the faithful Herluin, Count of Montreuil (who was also a vassal of Hugh the Great), while Richard I was imprisoned first in Laon and then in [[Château de Coucy]].<ref>Although the history of the minority of Richard I is very confusing, it seems that this really happened. Dudon of Saint-Quentin, ''op. cit.'', pp. 86-88.</ref> |
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In 943, during the homage given to the King, Hugh the Great recovered the ''ducatus Franciae'' (Duchy of France) title and the rule over Burgundy.<ref>Guillot, Sassier 2003, p. 172.</ref> |
In 943, during the homage given to the King, Hugh the Great recovered the ''ducatus Franciae'' (Duchy of France) title and the rule over Burgundy.<ref>Guillot, Sassier 2003, p. 172.</ref> |
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During the summer of 945 Louis IV went to Normandy after being called by his faithful Herluin, who was a victim of a serious revolt. While the two were riding, they were ambushed near [[Bayeux]].<ref>The Normans had never accepted the regency of Herluin. Dudo of Saint-Quentin, ''op. cit.'', p. 90.</ref> Herluin was killed, but Louis IV managed to escape to Rouen; where he was finally captured by the Normans. The kidnappers demanded from Queen Gerberga that she send her two sons Lothair and Charles as hostages in exchange for the release of her husband. The Queen only sent her youngest son Charles, with Bishop Guy of Soissons taking the place of Lothair, the eldest son and heir.<ref>It seems that Richard I was returned to the Normans at the same time. Dudon of Saint-Quentin, ''op. cit.'', p. 92.</ref> Like his father, Louis IV was kept in captivity, then sent to Hugh the Great. On his orders, the king was placed under the custody of [[Theobald I, Count of Blois]] for several months.<ref name="Sassier1987">Sassier 1987, p. 116.</ref> The ambush and capture of the King were probably ordered by Hugh the Great, who wanted to permanently end his attempts of political independence.<ref name="T1990c">Theis 1990, p. 174</ref> Ultimately, probably by the pressure of the Frankish nobles and Kings Otto I and [[Edmund I]] of England, Hugh the Great decided to release Louis IV.<ref name="Sassier1987"/> Flodoard recorded this event as follows: |
During the summer of 945 Louis IV went to Normandy after being called by his faithful Herluin, who was a victim of a serious revolt. While the two were riding, they were ambushed near [[Bayeux]].<ref>The Normans had never accepted the regency of Herluin. Dudo of Saint-Quentin, ''op. cit.'', p. 90.</ref> Herluin was killed, but Louis IV managed to escape to Rouen; where he was finally captured by the Normans. The kidnappers demanded from Queen Gerberga that she send her two sons Lothair and Charles as hostages in exchange for the release of her husband. The Queen only sent her youngest son Charles, with Bishop Guy of Soissons taking the place of Lothair, the eldest son and heir.<ref>It seems that Richard I was returned to the Normans at the same time. Dudon of Saint-Quentin, ''op. cit.'', p. 92.</ref> Like his father, Louis IV was kept in captivity, then sent to Hugh the Great. On his orders, the king was placed under the custody of [[Theobald I, Count of Blois]] for several months.<ref name="Sassier1987">Sassier 1987, p. 116.</ref> The ambush and capture of the King were probably ordered by Hugh the Great, who wanted to permanently end his attempts of political independence.<ref name="T1990c">Theis 1990, p. 174</ref> Ultimately, probably by the pressure of the Frankish nobles and Kings Otto I and [[Edmund I]] of England, Hugh the Great decided to release Louis IV.<ref name="Sassier1987" /> Flodoard recorded this event as follows: |
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::Hugh the Great restored King Louis to his functions, at least in name.<ref name="T1990c"/> |
::Hugh the Great restored King Louis to his functions, at least in name.<ref name="T1990c" /> |
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Hugh was the only one who would decide if Louis IV could be restored or deposed. In return for the release of the King, he demanded the surrender of Laon,<ref>Richer de Reims: ''Gallica Histoire de son temps'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20140722043904/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1022235.zoom.f314.langFR.pagination Book II, p. 203] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927231718/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark%3A/12148/bpt6k1022235.zoom.f314.langFR.pagination |date=27 September 2015 }}.</ref> which was entrusted to his vassal Thibaud.<ref name="Sassier1987"/> The Carolingian kinship was in the abyss, because it no longer held or controlled anything. |
Hugh was the only one who would decide if Louis IV could be restored or deposed. In return for the release of the King, he demanded the surrender of Laon,<ref>Richer de Reims: ''Gallica Histoire de son temps'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20140722043904/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1022235.zoom.f314.langFR.pagination Book II, p. 203] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927231718/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark%3A/12148/bpt6k1022235.zoom.f314.langFR.pagination |date=27 September 2015 }}.</ref> which was entrusted to his vassal Thibaud.<ref name="Sassier1987" /> The Carolingian kinship was in the abyss, because it no longer held or controlled anything. |
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In June 946, a royal charter called optimistically the "eleventh year of the reign of Louis when he had recovered the ''Francia''". This charter is the first official text who identified only the Western Frankish kingdom (sometimes called West Francia by some historians).<ref name="Pinoteau">Hervé Pinoteau: ''La symbolique royale française, ve ‑ xviiie siècles'', PSR, p. 115.</ref> This statement is consistent with the fact that the title of King of the Franks, used since 911 by Charles the Simple<ref name="Pinoteau"/> was thereafter continuously claimed by the Kings of the Western Kingdom after the [[Treaty of Verdun]], including the non-Carolingians ones. Among the Kings of the East, sometimes called Germanic Kings, this claim was occasional and disappeared completely after the 11th century.<ref>Hervé Pinoteau: ''La symbolique royale française, ve ‑ xviiie siècles'', PSR, p. 159.</ref> |
In June 946, a royal charter called optimistically the "eleventh year of the reign of Louis when he had recovered the ''Francia''". This charter is the first official text who identified only the Western Frankish kingdom (sometimes called West Francia by some historians).<ref name="Pinoteau">Hervé Pinoteau: ''La symbolique royale française, ve ‑ xviiie siècles'', PSR, p. 115.</ref> This statement is consistent with the fact that the title of King of the Franks, used since 911 by Charles the Simple<ref name="Pinoteau" /> was thereafter continuously claimed by the Kings of the Western Kingdom after the [[Treaty of Verdun]], including the non-Carolingians ones. Among the Kings of the East, sometimes called Germanic Kings, this claim was occasional and disappeared completely after the 11th century.<ref>Hervé Pinoteau: ''La symbolique royale française, ve ‑ xviiie siècles'', PSR, p. 159.</ref> |
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==Ottonian hegemony, 946–954== |
== Ottonian hegemony, 946–954 == |
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[[File:La France au Xe siècle2.svg|thumb|right|The actual size of West Francia and Carolingian controlled lands (in yellow) in 10th century]] |
[[File:La France au Xe siècle2.svg|thumb|right|The actual size of West Francia and Carolingian controlled lands (in yellow) in 10th century]] |
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===The trial of Hugh the Great, 948–949=== |
=== The trial of Hugh the Great, 948–949 === |
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Otto I was not satisfied with the growing power of Hugh the Great who, although not accepted by the whole kingdom, respected the division of powers. In 946 Otto I and [[Conrad I of Burgundy]] raised an army and tried to take Laon and then [[Senlis]].<ref>Sassier 1987, p. 117.</ref> They invaded Reims with a large army, according to Flodoard. Archbishop [[Hugh of Vermandois (bishop)|Hugh of Vermandois]] escaped and Artald was restored. "Robert, Archbishop of Trier and [[Frederick (archbishop of Mainz)|Frederick]], Archbishop of Mainz take everyone by the hand" (Flodoard). A few months later, Louis IV joined the fight against Hugh the Great and his allies at the Battle of Rouen. In the spring of 947, Louis and his wife Gerberga spent the Easter holidays in Aachen at the court of Otto I, asking him for help in their war against Hugh the Great.<ref>Régine Le Jan: ''Femmes, pouvoir et société dans le haut Moyen Âge'', 2001, p. 35.</ref> |
Otto I was not satisfied with the growing power of Hugh the Great who, although not accepted by the whole kingdom, respected the division of powers. In 946 Otto I and [[Conrad I of Burgundy]] raised an army and tried to take Laon and then [[Senlis]].<ref>Sassier 1987, p. 117.</ref> They invaded Reims with a large army, according to Flodoard. Archbishop [[Hugh of Vermandois (bishop)|Hugh of Vermandois]] escaped and Artald was restored. "Robert, Archbishop of Trier and [[Frederick (archbishop of Mainz)|Frederick]], Archbishop of Mainz take everyone by the hand" (Flodoard). A few months later, Louis IV joined the fight against Hugh the Great and his allies at the Battle of Rouen. In the spring of 947, Louis and his wife Gerberga spent the Easter holidays in Aachen at the court of Otto I, asking him for help in their war against Hugh the Great.<ref>Régine Le Jan: ''Femmes, pouvoir et société dans le haut Moyen Âge'', 2001, p. 35.</ref> |
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But the Duke of the Franks, not paying attention to the sentence, devastated [[Soissons]], Reims and profaned dozens of churches. In the meanwhile, his vassal and relative [[Theobald I, Count of Blois]] (nicknamed "the Trickster") who had married [[Luitgarde of Vermandois]], daughter of Herbert II of Vermandois and widow of William I Longsword, had built a fortress in [[Montaigu, Aisne|Montaigu]] in Laon to humiliate the king, and seized the lordship of [[Coucy-le-Château-Auffrique]] in Reims. The Synod of Trier (September 948) decided to excommunicate him for his actions. Guy I, [[Count of Soissons]], who ordained Hugh of Vermandois, must repent, while Thibaud of Amiens and Yves of Senlis, who both consecrated Hugh, were excommunicated. The King, with the help of Arnold, deposed Thibaud from the seat of Amiens and placed the faithful Raimbaud in his place (949).<ref>Theis 1990, p. 177, 200.</ref> |
But the Duke of the Franks, not paying attention to the sentence, devastated [[Soissons]], Reims and profaned dozens of churches. In the meanwhile, his vassal and relative [[Theobald I, Count of Blois]] (nicknamed "the Trickster") who had married [[Luitgarde of Vermandois]], daughter of Herbert II of Vermandois and widow of William I Longsword, had built a fortress in [[Montaigu, Aisne|Montaigu]] in Laon to humiliate the king, and seized the lordship of [[Coucy-le-Château-Auffrique]] in Reims. The Synod of Trier (September 948) decided to excommunicate him for his actions. Guy I, [[Count of Soissons]], who ordained Hugh of Vermandois, must repent, while Thibaud of Amiens and Yves of Senlis, who both consecrated Hugh, were excommunicated. The King, with the help of Arnold, deposed Thibaud from the seat of Amiens and placed the faithful Raimbaud in his place (949).<ref>Theis 1990, p. 177, 200.</ref> |
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===Return of the balance=== |
=== Return of the balance === |
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The last step in the emancipation of Louis IV shows that his reign wasn't entirely negative. In 949 he entered Laon, where by command of Hugh the Great, Theobald I of Blois surrendered to him the fortress he had built a few months earlier.<ref>Sassier 1987, p. 118.</ref> The King recovered, at the expense of Herbert II's vassals, the château of [[Corbeny]] which his father had given to Saint-Remi of Reims and also authorized archbishop Artald to mint coins in his city.<ref>Flodoard: ''Histoire de l'Église de Reims'', pp. 548-549.</ref> |
The last step in the emancipation of Louis IV shows that his reign wasn't entirely negative. In 949 he entered Laon, where by command of Hugh the Great, Theobald I of Blois surrendered to him the fortress he had built a few months earlier.<ref>Sassier 1987, p. 118.</ref> The King recovered, at the expense of Herbert II's vassals, the château of [[Corbeny]] which his father had given to Saint-Remi of Reims and also authorized archbishop Artald to mint coins in his city.<ref>Flodoard: ''Histoire de l'Église de Reims'', pp. 548-549.</ref> |
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Flodoard records in 951 that Queen Eadgifu (''Ottogeba regina mater Ludowici regis''), who since her return with her son to France retired to the Abbey of Notre Dame in Laon (''abbatiam sanctæ Mariæ...Lauduni''), where she became the Abbess, was abducted from there by [[Herbert III of Omois|Herbert III of Vermandois]], Count of Château-Thierry (''Heriberti...Adalberti fratris''), who married her shortly after; the King, furious about this (''rex Ludowicus iratus'') confiscated the Abbey of Notre Dame from his mother and donated it to his wife Gerberga (''Gerbergæ uxori suæ'').<ref>Flodoard: ''Annals'', Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Scriptorum III, p. 401.</ref><ref>Jean nDunba: ''West Francia: The Kingdom''. In: Timothy Reuter. The New Cambridge Medieval History III. Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 384.</ref> |
Flodoard records in 951 that Queen Eadgifu (''Ottogeba regina mater Ludowici regis''), who since her return with her son to France retired to the Abbey of Notre Dame in Laon (''abbatiam sanctæ Mariæ...Lauduni''), where she became the Abbess, was abducted from there by [[Herbert III of Omois|Herbert III of Vermandois]], Count of Château-Thierry (''Heriberti...Adalberti fratris''), who married her shortly after; the King, furious about this (''rex Ludowicus iratus'') confiscated the Abbey of Notre Dame from his mother and donated it to his wife Gerberga (''Gerbergæ uxori suæ'').<ref>Flodoard: ''Annals'', Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Scriptorum III, p. 401.</ref><ref>Jean nDunba: ''West Francia: The Kingdom''. In: Timothy Reuter. The New Cambridge Medieval History III. Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 384.</ref> |
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==Death of Louis IV and the Legend of the Wolf== |
== Death of Louis IV and the Legend of the Wolf == |
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In the early 950s, Queen Gerberga developed an increased [[Eschatology|eschatological]] fear, and began to consult [[Adso of Montier-en-Der]]; being highly educated, she commissioned to him the ''De ortu et tempore antichristi'' (Birth of the era of the Antichrist). There worries of the Queen assuring her that the arrival of the [[Antichrist]] will not take place before the end of the Kingdoms of France and Germany, the two ''Imperia'' fundamentals of the universe. In consequence, the Frankish King can continue his reign without fear, because Heaven was the door of legitimacy.<ref>Sassier 2002, pp. 188-189.</ref> |
In the early 950s, Queen Gerberga developed an increased [[Eschatology|eschatological]] fear, and began to consult [[Adso of Montier-en-Der]]; being highly educated, she commissioned to him the ''De ortu et tempore antichristi'' (Birth of the era of the Antichrist). There worries of the Queen assuring her that the arrival of the [[Antichrist]] will not take place before the end of the Kingdoms of France and Germany, the two ''Imperia'' fundamentals of the universe. In consequence, the Frankish King can continue his reign without fear, because Heaven was the door of legitimacy.<ref>Sassier 2002, pp. 188-189.</ref> |
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At the end of the summer of 954, Louis IV went riding with his companions on the road from Laon to Reims. As he crossed the forest of Voas (near to his palace in [[Corbeny]]), he saw a wolf and attempted to capture it. Flodoard, from whom these details are known, said that the King [[List of horse accidents|fell from his horse]]. Urgently carried to Reims, he eventually died from his injuries on 10 September. For the Reims canons, the wolf whom the king tried to hunt wasn't an animal but a fantastic creature, a divine supernatural intervention. |
At the end of the summer of 954, Louis IV went riding with his companions on the road from Laon to Reims. As he crossed the forest of Voas (near to his palace in [[Corbeny]]), he saw a wolf and attempted to capture it. Flodoard, from whom these details are known, said that the King [[List of horse accidents|fell from his horse]]. Urgently carried to Reims, he eventually died from his injuries on 10 September. For the Reims canons, the wolf whom the king tried to hunt wasn't an animal but a fantastic creature, a divine supernatural intervention. |
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Flodoard recalled indeed that in 938 Louis IV had captured Corbeny in extreme brutality and without respecting the donations to the monks made by his father. Thus God could punish the King and his descendants with the curse of the wolf as a "plague". The later events are disturbing. According to Flodoard Louis reportedly died from [[tuberculosis]] (then called ''pesta elephantis''); in 986 his son Lothair died by a "plague"<ref>Richer de Reims: [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k102231r.image.f141 ''Histoire de son temps |
Flodoard recalled indeed that in 938 Louis IV had captured Corbeny in extreme brutality and without respecting the donations to the monks made by his father. Thus God could punish the King and his descendants with the curse of the wolf as a "plague". The later events are disturbing. According to Flodoard Louis reportedly died from [[tuberculosis]] (then called ''pesta elephantis''); in 986 his son Lothair died by a "plague"<ref>Richer de Reims: [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k102231r.image.f141 ''Histoire de son temps – La mort de Lothaire''], Book III, p. 137.</ref> after he besieged [[Verdun]], and finally his grandson [[Louis V of France|Louis V]] died in 987 from injuries received when falling from his horse while hunting, a few months after he besieged Reims for the trial of archbishop [[Adalbero (archbishop of Reims)|Adalberon]].<ref>Poly 1990, pp. 292-294.</ref> |
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==Dynastic memorial and burial== |
== Dynastic memorial and burial == |
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Gerberga, a dynamic and devoted wife, supported the burial of her late husband at the [[Abbey of Saint-Remi]].<ref name="Bradbury41">Jim Bradbury, ''The Capetians: Kings of France 987-1328'', (Hambledon Continuum, 2007), 41.</ref> Unusually for the Carolingians, she took care of the dynastic memorial (''mémoire dynastique'') of Louis IV. The Queen, from Ottonian descent, was constantly at the side of her husband, supporting him and being active in the defence of Laon (941) and of Reims (946), accompanied him on the military expeditions to Aquitaine (944) and Burgundy (949), and was also active during his period of imprisonment in 945-946.<ref name="Isaïa">Isaïa 2009, p. 271</ref> By France and Germany, the role of queens was different: the memorial mostly was a task of males. Written shortly after 956, perhaps by Adso of Montier-en-Der (according to [[Karl Ferdinand Werner]]) the ''Life of Clotilde''<ref>Michel Rouche: ''Clovis, histoire et mémoire'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ll2sF5OPRH8C&pg=PA147#v=onepage&q&f=false online], 1997, p. 147.</ref> proposes to Queen Gerberga to build a church destined to be burial place of members of the Carolingian dynasty: the Abbey of Saint-Remi; moreover in a charter dated 955, King Lothair, following the desires of his mother, confirmed the immunity of Saint-Remi as the place of coronations and royal necropolis. |
Gerberga, a dynamic and devoted wife, supported the burial of her late husband at the [[Abbey of Saint-Remi]].<ref name="Bradbury41">Jim Bradbury, ''The Capetians: Kings of France 987-1328'', (Hambledon Continuum, 2007), 41.</ref> Unusually for the Carolingians, she took care of the dynastic memorial (''mémoire dynastique'') of Louis IV. The Queen, from Ottonian descent, was constantly at the side of her husband, supporting him and being active in the defence of Laon (941) and of Reims (946), accompanied him on the military expeditions to Aquitaine (944) and Burgundy (949), and was also active during his period of imprisonment in 945-946.<ref name="Isaïa">Isaïa 2009, p. 271</ref> By France and Germany, the role of queens was different: the memorial mostly was a task of males. Written shortly after 956, perhaps by Adso of Montier-en-Der (according to [[Karl Ferdinand Werner]]) the ''Life of Clotilde''<ref>Michel Rouche: ''Clovis, histoire et mémoire'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ll2sF5OPRH8C&pg=PA147#v=onepage&q&f=false online], 1997, p. 147.</ref> proposes to Queen Gerberga to build a church destined to be burial place of members of the Carolingian dynasty: the Abbey of Saint-Remi; moreover in a charter dated 955, King Lothair, following the desires of his mother, confirmed the immunity of Saint-Remi as the place of coronations and royal necropolis. |
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The tomb of Louis IV was later destroyed during the [[French Revolution]]. At that time, the two tombs of Louis IV and his son Lothair were in the centre of the Abbey, the side of the Epistle reserved to Louis IV and the side of the gospel to Lothair. Both remains were moved in the middle of the 18th century and transported to the right and left of the mausoleum of [[Carloman I]] first under the first arch of the collateral nave towards the sacristy of Saint-Remi Abbey. The statues placed on the original graves were left there. Both statues were painted and the golden [[Fleur-de-lis]] on each of the Kings' capes was easily visible. A graphic description of the tombs was made by [[Bernard de Montfaucon]].<ref>[[Bernard de Montfaucon]]: ''Les monuments de la monarchie française'', vol. I, p. 346.</ref><ref>Prosper Tarbé: ''Les sépultures de l'église Saint-Remi de Reims'', 1842.</ref> Louis IV was shown seated on a throne with a double-dossier. He was depicted as full-bearded, wearing a [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnet]] and dressed with a [[chlamys]] and also was holding a sceptre who ended with a pine cone. The throne of Louis IV was similar to a bench placed on a pedestal of the same material. The seat had a back that was above the royal head he was home with a gable roof, three arches decorated the underside of the roof. The base on which rested his feet was decorated at the corners with figures of children or lions.<ref>Christian Settipani: ''La Préhistoire des Capétiens'', ed. Patrick Van Kerrebrouck, 1993, p. 327.</ref> |
The tomb of Louis IV was later destroyed during the [[French Revolution]]. At that time, the two tombs of Louis IV and his son Lothair were in the centre of the Abbey, the side of the Epistle reserved to Louis IV and the side of the gospel to Lothair. Both remains were moved in the middle of the 18th century and transported to the right and left of the mausoleum of [[Carloman I]] first under the first arch of the collateral nave towards the sacristy of Saint-Remi Abbey. The statues placed on the original graves were left there. Both statues were painted and the golden [[Fleur-de-lis]] on each of the Kings' capes was easily visible. A graphic description of the tombs was made by [[Bernard de Montfaucon]].<ref>[[Bernard de Montfaucon]]: ''Les monuments de la monarchie française'', vol. I, p. 346.</ref><ref>Prosper Tarbé: ''Les sépultures de l'église Saint-Remi de Reims'', 1842.</ref> Louis IV was shown seated on a throne with a double-dossier. He was depicted as full-bearded, wearing a [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnet]] and dressed with a [[chlamys]] and also was holding a sceptre who ended with a pine cone. The throne of Louis IV was similar to a bench placed on a pedestal of the same material. The seat had a back that was above the royal head he was home with a gable roof, three arches decorated the underside of the roof. The base on which rested his feet was decorated at the corners with figures of children or lions.<ref>Christian Settipani: ''La Préhistoire des Capétiens'', ed. Patrick Van Kerrebrouck, 1993, p. 327.</ref> |
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==Children== |
== Children == |
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Louis IV and Gerberga had seven children:<ref>Christian Settipani: ''La Préhistoire des Capétiens'', éd. Patrick Van Kerrebrouck, 1993, p. 330.</ref> |
Louis IV and Gerberga had seven children:<ref>Christian Settipani: ''La Préhistoire des Capétiens'', éd. Patrick Van Kerrebrouck, 1993, p. 330.</ref> |
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⚫ | * [[Matilda of France|Mathilde]] (end 943 – 27 January 992), married on 964 to King [[Conrad I of Burgundy]].<ref>''Burgundy and Provence, 879-1032'', Constance Brittain Bourchard, '''The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024''', ed. Rosamond McKitterick and Timothy Reuter, (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 342.</ref> |
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⚫ | * Charles (January 945 – [[Rouen]], before 953). Guillaume de Jumièges records that a son of Louis IV hostage of the Normans after 13 July 945 to secure the release of his father,<ref>''Willelmi Gemmetencis Historiæ'' (Du Chesne, 1619), Book IV, chap. VIII, p. 243.</ref> although it's unknown whether this son was Charles, who would have been a baby at the time, normally too young to have been used as a hostage according to then current practice. |
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⚫ | * Daughter (947 / early 948 – died young). Flodoard records that ''Chonradus...dux'' baptised ''filiam Ludowici regis'' in the middle of his passage dealing with 948.<ref>Flodoard: ''Annals'', Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Scriptorum III, p. 397.</ref> She must have been born in the previous year, or very early in the same year, if the timing of the birth of King Louis's son Louis is correctly dated to the end of 948. |
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⚫ | * Louis (December 948 – before 10 September 954). The ''Genealogica Arnulfi Comitis'' names (in order) ''Hlotharium Karolum Ludovicum et Mathildim'' as children of ''Hludovicum ex regina Gerberga''. Flodoard records the birth of ''regi Ludowico filius...patris ei nomen imponens'' at the end of his passage concerning 948.<ref>Flodoard: ''Annals'', Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Scriptorum III, p. 398.</ref> |
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⚫ | *[[Matilda of France|Mathilde]] (end 943 – 27 January 992), married on 964 to King [[Conrad I of Burgundy]].<ref>''Burgundy and Provence, 879-1032'', Constance Brittain Bourchard, '''The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024''', ed. Rosamond McKitterick and Timothy Reuter, (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 342.</ref> |
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⚫ | *Charles (January 945 – [[Rouen]], before 953). Guillaume de Jumièges records that a son of Louis IV hostage of the Normans after 13 July 945 to secure the release of his father,<ref>''Willelmi Gemmetencis Historiæ'' (Du Chesne, 1619), Book IV, chap. VIII, p. 243.</ref> although it's unknown whether this son was Charles, who would have been a baby at the time, normally too young to have been used as a hostage according to then current practice. |
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⚫ | *Daughter (947 / early 948 – died young). Flodoard records that ''Chonradus...dux'' baptised ''filiam Ludowici regis'' in the middle of his passage dealing with 948.<ref>Flodoard: ''Annals'', Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Scriptorum III, p. 397.</ref> She must have been born in the previous year, or very early in the same year, if the timing of the birth of King Louis's son Louis is correctly dated to the end of 948. |
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⚫ | *Louis (December 948 – before 10 September 954). The ''Genealogica Arnulfi Comitis'' names (in order) ''Hlotharium Karolum Ludovicum et Mathildim'' as children of ''Hludovicum ex regina Gerberga''. Flodoard records the birth of ''regi Ludowico filius...patris ei nomen imponens'' at the end of his passage concerning 948.<ref>Flodoard: ''Annals'', Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Scriptorum III, p. 398.</ref> |
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Immediately after Louis IV died, his widow Gerberga was forced to obtain the approval of Hugh the Great for the coronation of her son Lothair, which took place on 12 November 954 at the Abbey of Saint-Remi in Reims.<ref>Guillot, Sassier 2003, p. 173.</ref> |
Immediately after Louis IV died, his widow Gerberga was forced to obtain the approval of Hugh the Great for the coronation of her son Lothair, which took place on 12 November 954 at the Abbey of Saint-Remi in Reims.<ref>Guillot, Sassier 2003, p. 173.</ref> |
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The regency of the Kingdom was held firstly by Hugh the Great, and after his death in 956 by Gerberga's brother [[Bruno the Great]], [[Archbishop of Cologne]] and [[Duke of Lotharingia]] until 965, marking the Ottonian influence over France during all the second half of the 10th century.<ref name="Isaïa"/> Thus, the end of Louis IV's reign and the beginning of the rule of Lothair, wasn't the "''dark century of iron and lead'' [...] ''but rather'' [...] ''the last century of the Carolingian Europe''".<ref>Riché 1999, p. 279.</ref> |
The regency of the Kingdom was held firstly by Hugh the Great, and after his death in 956 by Gerberga's brother [[Bruno the Great]], [[Archbishop of Cologne]] and [[Duke of Lotharingia]] until 965, marking the Ottonian influence over France during all the second half of the 10th century.<ref name="Isaïa" /> Thus, the end of Louis IV's reign and the beginning of the rule of Lothair, wasn't the "''dark century of iron and lead'' [...] ''but rather'' [...] ''the last century of the Carolingian Europe''".<ref>Riché 1999, p. 279.</ref> |
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Louis IV's youngest surviving son Charles, known as ''Charles of Lower Lorraine'', settled on an island in the [[Zenne]] river in the primitive ''[[pagus]]'' of Brabant, where he erected a [[Castra|castrum]] in the town called ''Bruoc Sella'' or ''Broek Zele'', which later became [[Brussels]]. |
Louis IV's youngest surviving son Charles, known as ''Charles of Lower Lorraine'', settled on an island in the [[Zenne]] river in the primitive ''[[pagus]]'' of Brabant, where he erected a [[Castra|castrum]] in the town called ''Bruoc Sella'' or ''Broek Zele'', which later became [[Brussels]]. |
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==Ancestry== |
== Ancestry == |
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{{ahnentafel |
{{ahnentafel |
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Line 191: | Line 192: | ||
| 21 = 21. [[Suzanne of Paris]] |
| 21 = 21. [[Suzanne of Paris]] |
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| 24 = 24. [[Æthelwulf of Wessex]] |
| 24 = 24. [[Æthelwulf of Wessex]] |
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| 25 = 25. [[Osburga |
| 25 = 25. [[Osburga]] of Isle of Wight |
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| 26 = 26. Æthelred Mucil |
| 26 = 26. Æthelred Mucil |
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| 27 = 27. Eadburga |
| 27 = 27. Eadburga |
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}} |
}} |
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==Notes== |
== Notes == |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
{{Reflist|2}} |
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==References== |
== References == |
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===Books=== |
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=== Articles === |
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*Xavier Barral i Altet: "Le paysage architectural de l'an Mil", ''La France de l'an Mil'', Paris, Seuil, 1990, pp. 169–183. |
* Xavier Barral i Altet: "Le paysage architectural de l'an Mil", ''La France de l'an Mil'', Paris, Seuil, 1990, pp. 169–183. |
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*Alexandre Bruel: "Études sur la chronologie des rois de France et de Bourgogne", ''Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes'', n° 141, 1880. |
* Alexandre Bruel: "Études sur la chronologie des rois de France et de Bourgogne", ''Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes'', n° 141, 1880. |
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*André Chédeville: "Le paysage urbain vers l'an Mil", ''Le Roi et son royaume en l'an Mil'', Paris, Picard, 1990, pp. 157–163. |
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* André Chédeville: "Le paysage urbain vers l'an Mil", ''Le Roi et son royaume en l'an Mil'', Paris, Picard, 1990, pp. 157–163. |
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* Robert Delort: "France, Occident, monde à la charnière de l'an Mil", ''La France de l'an Mil'', Paris, Seuil, 1990, pp. 7–26. |
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*Anne Lombard-Jourdan: "L'Invention du "roi fondateur" à Paris au xiie siècle", ''Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes'', n° 155, 1997, pp. 485–542 [http://www.persee.fr/doc/bec_0373-6237_1997_num_155_2_450883 online]. |
* Anne Lombard-Jourdan: "L'Invention du "roi fondateur" à Paris au xiie siècle", ''Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes'', n° 155, 1997, pp. 485–542 [http://www.persee.fr/doc/bec_0373-6237_1997_num_155_2_450883 online]. |
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* [[Hervé Pinoteau]]: "Les insignes du roi vers l'an mil", ''Le Roi de France et son royaume autour de l'an mil'', Paris, Picard, 1992, pp. 73–88. |
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* Jean-Pierre Poly: "Le capétien thaumaturge : genèse populaire d'un miracle royal", ''La France de l'an Mil'', Paris, Seuil, 1990, pp. 282–308. |
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* Annie Renoux: "Palais capétiens et normands à la fin du xe siècle et au début du xie siècle", ''Le Roi de France et son royaume autour de l'an mil'', Paris, Picard, 1992, pp. 179–191. |
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* Laurent Ripart: "Le royaume de Bourgogne de 888 au début du xiie siècle", ''Pouvoirs, Église et société (888-début du xiie siècle)'', Paris, CNED, 2008, pp. 72–98. |
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*Michel Sot: "Hérédité royale et pouvoir sacré avant 987", Annales ESC, n° 43, 1988, pp. 705–733 [http://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1988_num_43_3_283514 online]. |
* Michel Sot: "Hérédité royale et pouvoir sacré avant 987", Annales ESC, n° 43, 1988, pp. 705–733 [http://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1988_num_43_3_283514 online]. |
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*Michel Sot: "Les élévations royales de 888 à 987 dans l'historiographie du xe siècle", ''Religion et culture autour de l'an Mil'', Paris, Picard, 1992, pp. 145–150. |
* Michel Sot: "Les élévations royales de 888 à 987 dans l'historiographie du xe siècle", ''Religion et culture autour de l'an Mil'', Paris, Picard, 1992, pp. 145–150. |
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==External links== |
== External links == |
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* [http://viaf.org/viaf/266650009/ Virtual International Authority File] |
* [http://viaf.org/viaf/266650009/ Virtual International Authority File] |
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* [http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb121178074 National Library of France] |
* [http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb121178074 National Library of France] |