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This is an alphabetic list of [[Pre-columbian]] achievements in [[science]] and [[technology]] made by the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] during the 15,000 years that they have inhabited the [[Americas]]. |
This is an alphabetic list of [[Pre-columbian]] achievements in [[science]] and [[technology]] made by the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] during the 15,000 years that they have inhabited the [[Americas]]. |
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==A== |
==A== |
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[[File:Pulseras Nepohualtzintzin.jpg|thumb|An illustration of the Pre-Columbian abacus: the [[Nepohualtzintzin]]]] |
[[File:Pulseras Nepohualtzintzin.jpg|thumb|An illustration of the Pre-Columbian abacus: the [[Abacus#Native American|Nepohualtzintzin]]]] |
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* [[Abacus]] – |
* [[Abacus]] – The [[Aztec]] and [[Maya peoples|Maya]] of [[Mesoamerica]] performed arithmetic operations using an abacus. It served as a more accurate and faster alternative to a written solution or relying on memory. Archaeologistshe have recorded the Mesoamerican abacus, or [[Abacus#Native American|Nepohualtzintzin]], as being present in Mesoamerica from at least between 900–1000 CE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuevoleon.inea.gob.mx/MEVyT/Disco1/cursos/numyc/interface/main/recursos/revista/revista5.htm|title=The Prehispanic Computer? The Nepohualtzintzin|date=September 1986|work=Chispa Magazine}}</ref> |
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* [[Abstract art]] – |
* [[Abstract art]] – Abstract art was used by nearly all societies of [[North America|North]] and [[South America]]. Members of European art world believed [[tribal art]] was "primitive" until the 1890s when it served as inspiration for the modern American abstract art movement. See also [[Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas]]. |
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[[File:Cueva de las Jarillas.jpg|thumb|Adobe buildings at [[Cuarenta Casas]]]] |
[[File:Cueva de las Jarillas.jpg|thumb|Adobe buildings at [[Cuarenta Casas]]]] |
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* [[Adobe]] – |
* [[Adobe]] – Adobe was used by the peoples from South America, [[Mesoamerica]], and up to [[Southwestern United States|Southwestern]] tribes of the U.S. It is estimated that it was developed around the year 3000 BCE. |
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* [[Agave wine]] – is made from the same plant, [[Agave tequilana|blue agave]], as [[tequila]] but with a lower [[Alcohol by volume|alcohol content]]. |
* [[Agave wine]] – This wine is made from the same plant, [[Agave tequilana|blue agave]], as is [[tequila]], but with a lower [[Alcohol by volume|alcohol content]]. |
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* [[Almanacs]] – |
* [[Almanacs]] – Almanacs were invented independently by the [[Maya peoples]]. Their culture arose, and presumably began using almanacs, around 3,500 years ago, while Europeans are known to have created written almanacs only after 1150 CE. Almanacs are books containing meteorological and astronomical information, which the Maya used in various aspects of their life.<ref>{{cite book|ref=Sharer|last = Sharer|first = Robert|title = The Ancient Maya|year = 2006|publisher = Stanford University Press|url = https://archive.org/details/ancientmaya0006shar|url-access=registration|quote=maya almanac origin.|page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientmaya0006shar/page/127 127]|isbn = 9780804748179}}</ref> |
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* [[Alpaca]]s – |
* [[Alpaca]]s – The [[Andean civilizations]] were among the first to domesticate alpacas. |
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* [[American football]] – |
* [[American football]] – The [[Iroquois]] claim to have played football. While no specification is made as to whether this is meant to be American football or soccer. Soccer is said to have been invented in Asia.<ref name="Froman, Frances 2014">Froman, Frances & Keye, Alfred J. "English-Cayuga/Cayuga-English Dictionary" 2014.</ref> |
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* [[Anesthetics]] – |
* [[Anesthetics]] – Indigenous peoples used [[coca]], [[peyote]], [[datura]] and other plants for partial or total loss of sensation or consciousness during surgery. Western doctors had effective anesthetics only after the mid-19th century. Before this, they either had to perform surgery while the patient dealt with the pain or they needed to knock the patient out unconscious.<ref>{{Citation |
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| last = Calatayud |
| last = Calatayud |
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| first = Jesus |
| first = Jesus |
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| url=https://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/article.aspx?articleid=1943164 |
| url=https://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/article.aspx?articleid=1943164 |
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| access-date = 8 August 2019 }}</ref> |
| access-date = 8 August 2019 }}</ref> |
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* [[Apartment|Apartment blocks]] – |
* [[Apartment|Apartment blocks]] – The [[Ancestral Pueblo people]] and other tribes which once thrived in the present day Southwest of the US, developed complex multistory apartment complexes, some of which are still in use today. [[Pueblo]] communities in present-day [[New Mexico]] continue to reside in some of these ancient multistory apartment complexes–which were constructed by their ancestors many centuries ago–even before the first apartments were built in the United States during the 18th century. [[Pueblo Bonito]], one of the seminal archaeological sites today, is an example of this indigenous multistory apartment complex construction from the Anasazi and [[Hohokam]] time periods; approximately dating back one thousand years ago. |
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[[File:Nazca monkey.jpg|thumb|[[Nazca]] monkey]] |
[[File:Nazca monkey.jpg|thumb|[[Nazca]] monkey]] |
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*Art to be viewed from space – |
*Art to be viewed from space – The [[Nazca Lines]] were created by the ancient [[Nazca culture]] in modern-day [[Peru]]. The Nazca built these artworks, which could only be viewed from the sky or from space. It was as if the Nazca were building monuments, which only their gods could view from up in the sky. Some of these artworks, otherwise known as the Nazca Lines, could only be viewed from the sky and each one of these works of Nazca art spans several miles across in size and dimension in the [[Sechura Desert]]. |
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* [[Aqueduct (water supply)|Aqueducts]] – |
* [[Aqueduct (water supply)|Aqueducts]] – The ancient Andean cultures, such as [[Chimú culture|Chimu]], [[Moche culture|Moche]] and [[Nazca culture|Nazca]], lived in dry environments, yet they sustained large scale agriculture consisting of a wide variety of crops by employing aqueducts connecting various freshwater sources, such as mountain streams and lakes to their agricultural fields which were sometimes injecting pressure with the aid of [[puquios]] (wind-based water pumps). The [[History of the Incas|Inca]] later expanded on these previously constructed aqueducts and built a more complex and large aqueduct system in the [[Inca Empire]]. The Mesoamerican [[Aztecs]] also constructed complex, dual-pipe aqueducts to supply their vast city of [[Tenochtitlan]]. |
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* [[Aspirin]] – |
* [[Aspirin]] – Indigenous Americans have been using [[willow]] tree bark for thousands of years to reduce fever and pain as were the peoples of [[Assyria]], [[Sumer]], [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Ancient Greece]]. When chemists analyzed willows in the last century, they discovered [[salicylic acid]]; the basis of the modern drug aspirin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://starryskies.com/articles/dln/1-01/asprin.html|title=The Science of Asprin and Willows}}</ref> |
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* [[Asymmetric warfare]] – Araucanian leaders such as [[Lautaro]] developed effective military tactics to counter the Spanish invasion, winning the [[Arauco War]]. These tactics consisted in a combination of espionage, cattle raiding, and using attack waves in the battlefield to exhaust the enemy. |
* [[Asymmetric warfare]] – Araucanian leaders such as [[Lautaro]] developed effective military tactics to counter the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish invasion]], winning the [[Arauco War]]. These tactics consisted in a combination of espionage, cattle raiding, and using attack waves in the battlefield to exhaust the enemy. |
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* [[Astronomy]] – Mesoamerican cultures, such as the [[Maya peoples|Maya]] and [[Aztec]], were able to accurately predict astronomical events, like eclipses, hundreds of years into the future.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Ancient Maya Predicted 1991 Solar Eclipse | author= Miriam Kramer | date = January 2013 | url = https://www.livescience.com/26070-maya-predicted-1991-solar-eclipse.html | website = [[Live Science]] }}</ref> |
* [[Astronomy]] – Mesoamerican cultures, such as the [[Maya peoples|Maya]] and [[Aztec]], were able to accurately predict astronomical events, like eclipses, hundreds of years into the future.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Ancient Maya Predicted 1991 Solar Eclipse | author= Miriam Kramer | date = January 2013 | url = https://www.livescience.com/26070-maya-predicted-1991-solar-eclipse.html | website = [[Live Science]] }}</ref> |
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* [[Spear-thrower|Atlatl]] – [[Paleo-Indians]] ([[Beringia]]n Diaspora) from over 11,500 years ago had developed a highly developed spear thrower in the form of the atlatl to hunt [[woolly mammoth]]s, [[Ground sloth|giant sloths]], [[mastodon]], [[muskox]] ([[euceratherium]]), [[Castoroides|giant beaver]], early [[Reindeer|caribou]], [[steppe bison]], [[saber-toothed cat]], and other [[Pleistocene]] animals. Using the atlatl, these ancient [[Paleo-Indians]] were able to traverse much of the Americas from [[Alaska]], down to [[Mexico]], [[Central America]], South America, and, finally, all the way south into [[Chile]] as they hunted and followed these Pleistocene [[megafauna]] within a short 3,000 year time period–from about 14,500 years ago to about 11,500 years ago.<ref>[[Paleo-Indians]]</ref> |
* [[Spear-thrower|Atlatl]] – [[Paleo-Indians]] ([[Beringia]]n Diaspora) from over 11,500 years ago had developed a highly developed spear thrower in the form of the atlatl to hunt [[woolly mammoth]]s, [[Ground sloth|giant sloths]], [[mastodon]], [[muskox]] ([[euceratherium]]), [[Castoroides|giant beaver]], early [[Reindeer|caribou]], [[steppe bison]], [[saber-toothed cat]], and other [[Pleistocene]] animals. Using the atlatl, these ancient [[Paleo-Indians]] were able to traverse much of the Americas from [[Alaska]], down to [[Mexico]], [[Central America]], South America, and, finally, all the way south into [[Chile]] as they hunted and followed these Pleistocene [[megafauna]] within a short 3,000 year time period–from about 14,500 years ago to about 11,500 years ago.<ref>[[Paleo-Indians]]</ref> |
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* [[Avocado]] – |
* [[Avocado]] – Indigenous Americans were the first to domesticate and cultivate avocados.<ref name="nrcs.usda.gov">https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs141p2_024206.pdf</ref> |
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== B == |
== B == |
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* [[Calabash|Bottle gourd]]s – the [[Pre-Columbian Mexico|ancient Mexicans]] learned to first cultivate bottle gourds around 8,000 BCE. Indigenous peoples grew bottle gourds for use as bowls, scoops, colanders, ladles, spoons, canteens, and dippers. Larger gourds were used as cooking vessels. The [[indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands]] hung bottle gourds on poles in their cornfields to serve as habitats for insect-eating birds (a form of biological pest control, which they developed). Indigenous Americans in northern Peru also used bottle gourds as floats for fishing nets.<ref>[http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2014/02/06/1318678111.abstract?sid=bca9b016-9e19-4386-8876-eeb020bc994c "Transoceanic drift and the domestication of African bottle gourds in the Americas"], Kistler et al, ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'', February 10, 2014.</ref> |
* [[Calabash|Bottle gourd]]s – the [[Pre-Columbian Mexico|ancient Mexicans]] learned to first cultivate bottle gourds around 8,000 BCE. Indigenous peoples grew bottle gourds for use as bowls, scoops, colanders, ladles, spoons, canteens, and dippers. Larger gourds were used as cooking vessels. The [[indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands]] hung bottle gourds on poles in their cornfields to serve as habitats for insect-eating birds (a form of biological pest control, which they developed). Indigenous Americans in northern Peru also used bottle gourds as floats for fishing nets.<ref>[http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2014/02/06/1318678111.abstract?sid=bca9b016-9e19-4386-8876-eeb020bc994c "Transoceanic drift and the domestication of African bottle gourds in the Americas"], Kistler et al, ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'', February 10, 2014.</ref> |
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* [[Bulletproof vest]] – [[Ichcahuipilli]], was a military armor used by various Mesoamerican cultures. It consisted of a layered cotton shirt, at least 2 inches thick, hardened with [[brine]] and other substances. It was originally intended to protect the wearer against projectiles and other weaponry, such as spears, arrows, and obsidian swords, but later was discovered to be capable of stopping musket shots.<ref name="Phillips 2015">Phillips, Charles "The Complete Illustrated History of the Aztec & Maya: The Definitive Chronicle of the Ancient Peoples of Central America & Mexico - Including the Aztec, Maya, Olmec, Mixtec, Toltec & Zapotec" 2015.</ref> |
* [[Bulletproof vest]] – [[Ichcahuipilli]], was a military armor used by various Mesoamerican cultures. It consisted of a layered cotton shirt, at least 2 inches thick, hardened with [[brine]] and other substances. It was originally intended to protect the wearer against projectiles and other weaponry, such as spears, arrows, and obsidian swords, but later was discovered to be capable of stopping musket shots.<ref name="Phillips 2015">Phillips, Charles "The Complete Illustrated History of the Aztec & Maya: The Definitive Chronicle of the Ancient Peoples of Central America & Mexico - Including the Aztec, Maya, Olmec, Mixtec, Toltec & Zapotec" 2015.</ref> |
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* [[Bunk bed]] – the Iroquoian [[Longhouses of the indigenous peoples of North America|longhouses]] housed several families together. The concept of bunk beds was developed by these [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] peoples, since these longhouses included several bed combinations which featured one bed built on top of another, akin to bunk beds in modern times.<ref>{{cite book|ref=Chazan|last = Johnston|first = David|title = Ingenious: How Canadian Innovators Made the World Smaller, Smarter, Kinder, Safer, Healthier, Wealthier and Happier|year = 2017|publisher = Signal Books|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=j6M8DgAAQBAJ&q=iroquois+bunk+bed&pg=PA71|page=71|isbn = 9780771050916}}</ref> |
* [[Bunk bed]] – the [[Iroquois|Iroquoian]] [[Longhouses of the indigenous peoples of North America|longhouses]] housed several families together. The concept of bunk beds was developed by these [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] peoples, since these longhouses included several bed combinations which featured one bed built on top of another, akin to bunk beds in modern times.<ref>{{cite book|ref=Chazan|last = Johnston|first = David|title = Ingenious: How Canadian Innovators Made the World Smaller, Smarter, Kinder, Safer, Healthier, Wealthier and Happier|year = 2017|publisher = Signal Books|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=j6M8DgAAQBAJ&q=iroquois+bunk+bed&pg=PA71|page=71|isbn = 9780771050916}}</ref> |
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== C == |
== C == |
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* [[Chinampa]] – floating gardens, which were highly productive areas used for farming and growing food, were constructed by the Aztecs to provide food and sustenance to their 250,000 inhabits in the city of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs used the chinampas in and around Tenochtitlan to grow corn, squash, beans, tomato, avocado, chilli peppers, and a plethora of other food products to feed the burgeoning population of their great metropolis. |
* [[Chinampa]] – floating gardens, which were highly productive areas used for farming and growing food, were constructed by the Aztecs to provide food and sustenance to their 250,000 inhabits in the city of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs used the chinampas in and around Tenochtitlan to grow corn, squash, beans, tomato, avocado, chilli peppers, and a plethora of other food products to feed the burgeoning population of their great metropolis. |
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* [[Chocolate]] – the [[Maya civilization]] was the first to drink cocoa. This tradition was later passed on to the Aztecs, who called the beverage ''[[Xocolatl|xocalatl]]''. Indigenous people in Mesoamerica introduced it to the Spanish and Portuguese, but they kept the beloved ''xocalatl'' from the rest of Europe for nearly a century. |
* [[Chocolate]] – the [[Maya civilization]] was the first to drink cocoa. This tradition was later passed on to the [[Aztecs]], who called the beverage ''[[Xocolatl|xocalatl]]''. Indigenous people in Mesoamerica introduced it to the Spanish and Portuguese, but they kept the beloved ''xocalatl'' from the rest of Europe for nearly a century. |
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* [[Chunkey]] – a Native American game where a person rolls a hoop covered in a leather strap framework and tries to hit it with spears or arrows. This may have inspired the sport of [[skeet shooting]].<ref>"Chumash Indians-Sports and Recreation". Retrieved 2008-09-16.</ref> |
* [[Chunkey]] – a Native American game where a person rolls a hoop covered in a leather strap framework and tries to hit it with spears or arrows. This may have inspired the sport of [[skeet shooting]].<ref>"Chumash Indians-Sports and Recreation". Retrieved 2008-09-16.</ref> |
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*[[Compass]] (possibly) – the |
*[[Compass]] (possibly) – the [[Olmecs]] are known to have knowledge of magnetism. The discovery of a hematite artifact has led many experts to believe that Olmec invented the compass 1,000 years before the Chinese did, although some still are not convinced.<ref>[http://www.sciencemag.org/content/189/4205/753.abstract]. Lodestone Compass: Chinese or Olmec Primacy?. Retrieved February 2015.</ref> |
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* [[Compulsory education]] – the Aztec Triple Alliance, which ruled from 1428 to 1521 CE, is considered to be the first state to implement a system of universal compulsory education.<ref name="Soustelle2002">{{cite book|author=Jacques Soustelle|title=Daily life of the Aztecs: on the eve of the Spanish Conquest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WMrNE7uq-tMC|accessdate=27 November 2012|date=11 November 2002|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-42485-9|page=173}}</ref><ref>Wikipedia: [[Aztec#Education]]</ref> |
* [[Compulsory education]] – the Aztec Triple Alliance, which ruled from 1428 to 1521 CE, is considered to be the first state to implement a system of universal compulsory education.<ref name="Soustelle2002">{{cite book|author=Jacques Soustelle|title=Daily life of the Aztecs: on the eve of the Spanish Conquest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WMrNE7uq-tMC|accessdate=27 November 2012|date=11 November 2002|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-42485-9|page=173}}</ref><ref>Wikipedia: [[Aztec#Education]]</ref> |
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* [[Maize|Corn (maize)]] – the domestication of maize, now cultivated throughout the world, is one of the most influential technological contributions of Indigenous Americans. |
* [[Maize|Corn (maize)]] – the domestication of maize, now cultivated throughout the world, is one of the most influential technological contributions of Indigenous Americans. |
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[[File:Chuño.jpg|thumb|[[Chuño]], a freeze dried potato]] |
[[File:Chuño.jpg|thumb|[[Chuño]], a freeze dried potato]] |
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* [[Freeze-drying]] – the [[Andean civilizations]] learned to freeze dry potatoes ([[chuño]]) and other food items, so that the resultant dehydrated powder could be stored for years and then later transported across vast distances to feed countless hungry peoples. The Spanish conquistadors used this Andean invented freeze-drying technique to transport several tonnes of dehydrated potatoes across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] back to Europe to feed hungry Europeans.<ref name="news.nationalgeographic.com">{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/0914_040913_information_about_indians.html|title=16 Indian Innovations: From Popcorn to Parkas}}</ref> |
* [[Freeze-drying]] – the [[Andean civilizations]] learned to freeze dry potatoes ([[chuño]] ) and other food items, so that the resultant dehydrated powder could be stored for years and then later transported across vast distances to feed countless hungry peoples. The Spanish [[Conquistador|conquistadors]] used this Andean invented freeze-drying technique to transport several tonnes of dehydrated potatoes across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] back to Europe to feed hungry Europeans.<ref name="news.nationalgeographic.com">{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/0914_040913_information_about_indians.html|title=16 Indian Innovations: From Popcorn to Parkas}}</ref> |
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== G == |
== G == |
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[[File:Igloo inner.jpg|thumb|Inside an igloo]] |
[[File:Igloo inner.jpg|thumb|Inside an igloo]] |
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* [[Igloo]]s – built by the Inuit, igloos were constructed for many centuries as a form of protection and shelter to house people from the harsh [[Arctic]] weather. While the temperature outside an igloo may have been {{convert|-45|C}}, the temperature within an igloo was stable ranging from {{convert|-7|to|16|C}} when warmed by body heat. The Central Inuit people in [[Northern Canada]] (especially those, who lived around the [[Davis Strait]]), lined the inside living area of an igloo with animal skin and hides. This assisted in increasing the temperature within an igloo from around {{convert|2|C}} to {{convert|10|–|20|C}}, thereby insuring a more comfortable existence for the inhabitants of the igloo from the fierce cold outside. With the addition of a [[kudlik]] the temperature could be raised even more. |
* [[Igloo]]s – built by the [[Inuit]], igloos were constructed for many centuries as a form of protection and shelter to house people from the harsh [[Arctic]] weather. While the temperature outside an igloo may have been {{convert|-45|C}}, the temperature within an igloo was stable ranging from {{convert|-7|to|16|C}} when warmed by body heat. The Central Inuit people in [[Northern Canada]] (especially those, who lived around the [[Davis Strait]]), lined the inside living area of an igloo with animal skin and hides. This assisted in increasing the temperature within an igloo from around {{convert|2|C}} to {{convert|10|–|20|C}}, thereby insuring a more comfortable existence for the inhabitants of the igloo from the fierce cold outside. With the addition of a [[kudlik]] the temperature could be raised even more. |
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* [[Inca road system]]s – the Inca built one of the most extensive road systems in the ancient world. The Incas built upon the roads, which were originally constructed by previous Andean civilizations such as the [[Chimú culture|Chimu]], [[Nazca culture|Nazca]], [[Wari culture|Wari]], [[Moche culture|Moche]], and others. The Inca also further refined and expanded upon the earlier innovations and systems laid in place by previous Indigenous cultures. The Incan road system, at its peak, spanned over {{convert|20,000|mi|abbr=on}} and crisscrossed mountains, rivers, deserts, rainforests, and plains. The road system connected the empire from the Andes mountain in [[Colombia]] all through [[Ecuador]], Peru, [[Bolivia]], northeastern [[Argentina]], and present-day northern Chile. The Inca roads were used to transport food, goods, people, and armies, while Inca officials frequently relayed messages using the roads across the vast stretches of the Inca Empire. In areas, where rivers blocked the directions of the roads, the Inca constructed elaborate and complex [[Inca rope bridge|rope bridges]]. |
* [[Inca road system]]s – the Inca built one of the most extensive road systems in the ancient world. The Incas built upon the roads, which were originally constructed by previous Andean civilizations such as the [[Chimú culture|Chimu]], [[Nazca culture|Nazca]], [[Wari culture|Wari]], [[Moche culture|Moche]], and others. The Inca also further refined and expanded upon the earlier innovations and systems laid in place by previous Indigenous cultures. The Incan road system, at its peak, spanned over {{convert|20,000|mi|abbr=on}} and crisscrossed mountains, rivers, deserts, rainforests, and plains. The road system connected the empire from the Andes mountain in [[Colombia]] all through [[Ecuador]], Peru, [[Bolivia]], northeastern [[Argentina]], and present-day northern Chile. The Inca roads were used to transport food, goods, people, and armies, while Inca officials frequently relayed messages using the roads across the vast stretches of the Inca Empire. In areas, where rivers blocked the directions of the roads, the Inca constructed elaborate and complex [[Inca rope bridge|rope bridges]]. |
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* Inuit [[snow goggles]] – the Inuit made snow goggles which protected their eyes against the harsh winds in the Arctic regions of North America, long before sunglasses became available to modern Europeans. |
* Inuit [[snow goggles]] – the Inuit made snow goggles which protected their eyes against the harsh winds in the Arctic regions of North America, long before sunglasses became available to modern Europeans. |
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*[[Painting in the Americas before European colonization]] |
*[[Painting in the Americas before European colonization]] |
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*[[Mesoamerican chronology]] |
*[[Mesoamerican chronology]] |
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* {{portal-inline|History}} |
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* {{portal-inline|North America}} |
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* {{portal-inline|Central America}} |
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* {{portal-inline|South America}} |
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==Notes== |
==Notes== |