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Alternative name | Law School of Berytus |
---|---|
Location | Beirut (Berytus) |
Type | University |
Part of | Colonia Julia Augusta Felix / Berytus |
History | |
Abandoned | 551 CE |
Periods | Roman — Byzantine |
Cultures | Phoenician, Roman, Byzantine |
Satellite of | Rome, Constantinople |
Associated with | Law school faculty and students |
Site notes | |
Condition | Not excavated |
The Law School of Beirut was a center for the study of law in classical antiquity. It flourished under the patronage of the Roman emperors and functioned as the Roman Empire's preeminent center of jurisprudence until its destruction in 551 CE.[1][2][3]
The law schools of the Roman Empire established organized repositories of imperial constitutions and institutionalized the study and the practice of jurisprudence to relieve the busy royal courts. Jurists began archiving imperial constitutions, thus facilitating the task of jurists in referring to legal precedents. The origins of the Law School of Beirut are obscure. The earliest written mention of the school dates to 239 CE, when its reputation had already been established. The school attracted young, affluent Roman citizens, and its professors made major contributions to the Codex of Justinian. The school achieved such wide recognition throughout the empire that Beirut was known as the "Mother of Laws". Beirut was one of the few schools allowed to continue teaching jurisprudence when Byzantine Emperor Justinian I shut down other provincial law schools.
The course of study at Beirut lasted for five years and consisted of the revision and analysis of classical juridic texts and imperial constitutions in addition to case discussions. Justinian took a personal interest in the teaching process, and he charged the bishop of Beirut, the governor of Phoenicia Maritima and the teachers with maintaining discipline in the school.
The school's facilities were destroyed in the aftermath of a massive earthquake that hit the Phoenician coastline. It was moved to Sidon but did not survive the Arab conquest of 635 CE. Ancient texts attest that the school was located next to the ancient Anastasis church, vestiges of which lie beneath the Saint George Orthodox Cathedral in Beirut's historic center.
Background
In his role as guarantor of justice, the Roman emperor was expected to devote substantial amounts of time to dealing with judicial matters; he was the chief magistrate whose major prerogative (jus) was the ordering of all public affairs, for which he could demand assistance from anyone at any time.[4]
In dealing with legal appeals and petitions from subjects and judicial queries of magistrates and governors, the emperors were careful to consult with the jurists (iuris consulti) who were usually secretaries drafted from the equestrian order. From the reign of Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE) and onward, jurists began compiling organized repositories of imperial edicts (constitutiones), and juristic scholarship became an imperially sponsored function of administration. These archives formed the foundation of every new judicial decision based on the archived legal precedents and earlier deliberations. The repositories of edicts and the imperially sponsored juristic scholarship gave rise to the earliest law school system of the Occident aimed specifically at training professional jurists.[4]
History
During the reign of Augustus, Beirut was established under the name Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix and granted the status of Ius Italicum as a colony for veterans of Actium from the 5th Macedonian and the 3rd Gallic legions. It was chosen as a regional center instead of the more prominent Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon, which both had a history of belligerence against Rome.[5][6]
Beirut was named as a major center for the study of law and jurisprudence in 239 CE in the writings of Gregory Thaumaturgus,[7][8][a] the bishop of Neo-Caesarea. Other early written sources do not mention when the law school was established, and the date is much debated among modern historians and scholars. Edward Gibbon suggested its founding may have been directed by locally born Emperor Alexander Severus, who reigned from 222 to 235.[9] In the early 17th century, the Italian jurist Scipione Gentili attributed the foundation of the school to Augustus, while the later 17th-century French scholar Gilles Ménage argued for Septimius Severus (reigned from 193 to 211 CE). In the 19th century, Karl Hase thought the school was established shortly after the victory at Actium in 31 BCE,[10] Adolf Friedrich Rudorff dated it to the reign of Hadrian,[11] and F.P. Bremer suggested that it opened around 200 CE, based on the reference in Gregory.[12]
Theodor Mommsen[b] linked the establishment of the law school in Beirut with the need for jurists, since the city was chosen to serve as a repository for Roman imperial edicts dealing with the eastern provinces. Imperial constitutiones arriving in Beirut were translated to Greek, published and then archived. This function is first recorded for 196 CE, the date of the earliest constitutions contained in the Gregorian Codex, but the city is thought to have served as a depository since earlier times.[13][14] The proximity of the repository to the law school gave the Beiruti jurists the opportunity to consult archived edicts and to keep the students updated with the most recent imperial constitutions—an advantage that the law schools of Caesarea Maritima and Alexandria lacked.[15]
The 3rd-century emperors Diocletian and Maximian issued constitutions exempting the students of the Law School of Beirut from compulsory service in their hometowns.[16] In the 4th century, the Greek rhetorician Libanius reported that the school attracted young students from affluent families and deplored the school's instructional use of Latin, which was gradually abandoned in favor of Greek in the course of the century.[17] By the 5th century, Beirut had established its leading position and repute among the empire's law schools; its teachers were highly regarded and played a chief role in the development of juristic learning in the East to the point that they were dubbed the "Oecumenical Masters".[1][18] From 425 onward, the law school of Constantinople became a rival center of law study and was the only school, along with the Law School of Beirut to be maintained after Justinian I closed those of Alexandria, Caesarea Maritima and Athens in 529 CE.[1]
On July 9, 551, the Phoenician coastal cities were devastated by a high magnitude earthquake. In Beirut the earthquake was followed by a tsunami and a fire that obliterated the city. 30,000 people lost their lives, including many students from abroad. Justinian allocated funds to rebuild Beirut, and the law school was temporarily moved to the southern Phoenician city of Sidon, pending reconstruction. The best teachers, however, moved to Constantinople. Misfortune hit Beirut again in 560 CE when a massive fire ravaged the recovering city. The law school was not reopened, and all prospect of its return was abandoned with the Arab conquest in 635 CE.[19][20]
Academia
The study course at the Law School of Beirut did not comprise the provincial laws of Phoenica;[21] it only included Roman law. Ancient texts provide an idea of the curriculum, the teaching method, the course languages and the duration of the study.
Preparatory studies
Future students at the Law School of Beirut were expected to have undergone grammar, rhetoric and encyclopedic sciences studies. Another prerequisite was the mastery of the Greek and Latin languages given that the classical juridic references and the imperial constitutions used in the teaching program were written in Latin. The aspirants could pursue their preparatory studies in public schools or have private tutors.[22]
Curriculum
The study of the works of classical jurists and of the imperial constitutions provided the basis of legal education at Beirut's law school. The Scholia Sinaitica and the Scholia to the Basilika give glimpses of the school's teaching method, which is comparable to the one used in the rhetoric schools. Juridic texts were discussed and analyzed, and the lecturer would add his comments, consisting of references to analogous passages from imperial constitutions or from the works of prominent Roman jurists of the like of Ulpian. He would then formulate the general legal principles and use these to resolve legal problems inspired from actual, practical cases. This method differed from the scheme of classical times in which the student had to master the law basics before engaging in case studies later in his education.[23][24][25]
Jurisprudence was taught in Latin even in the law schools of the East, but towards the end of the 4th and the beginning of the 5th century, Latin was supplanted by Greek at Beirut. A similar shift probably occurred at the school of Constantinople about the same time.[17][23]
Little is known about the curriculum before the fifth century. Justinian's Omnem constitution at the beginning of the Digest is the only source of information about the existing system of study in the fifth century up until the Justinian reforms of 533 CE. The old program was a four-year course to be completed before the age of 25. The courses were based on the works of Gaius, Ulpian, Papinian and Paul the jurist. Students attended lectures for three years and spent the fourth in private study of Paul's Responsa; they had the option to stay for a fifth year to study imperial constitutions. The students of each year were distinguished by special names: 1st year, Dupondii; 2nd, Edictales; 3rd, Papinianistae; 4th, Lytae.[26]
After his 533 Omnem constitution, Justinian I fixed the duration of the legal course in the schools of Beirut and Constantinople at 5 years.[27][28] The courses consisted of taught elements and self-study using materials advanced in his Corpus Juris Civilis, namely the Institutes, Digest and Code.[27][28] First-year students were to be lectured on the Institutiones and on the first part of the Digest.[c] Second-year students were taught the greater part of the Digest.[d] Third-year students had to learn various texts from Papinian and the leges singulares.[e] There were no lectures during the fourth year of study, but the pupils studied the rest of the Digest up to Book 36.[f] The students were still given cognomens according to their year of study, but Justinian changed the name of the first-year students from the frivolous dupondii, which means "two-pennies". First-year students were henceforth designated Iustiniani novi and fifth-year students were dubbed Prolytae; the other names remained unchanged.[29][30]
At the end of the course, graduands were given certificates allowing them to work as court advocates or in the imperial civil service.[24]
Professorial body
Ancient texts reveal the names and deeds of some of the most notable law professors at the Beirut school; the scarce sources include historical accounts, juridic works, anthologies, ancient correspondences and funerary inscriptions.
Rhetoric teacher Libanius wrote many letters of correspondence to a fourth-century law school professor called Domninus (the Elder). In 360 CE, Libanius attempted to recruit Domninus in the school of Antioch where he taught, but Domninus apparently declined since later letters sent to him by Libanius between 361 and 364 CE served as recommendations for law school candidates.[31]
The most brilliant era for the Law School of Beirut was that which became known as the era of the Ecumenical Masters (τῆς οἰκουμένης διδάσκαλοι), spanning a century between 400 and 500 CE. The seven revered masters who were praised and cited by sixth-century scholars are Cyrillus, Patricius, Domninus, Demosthenes, Eudoxius, Leontius and Amblichus.[32]
Cyrillus was the founder of the ecumenical school of jurists. He is believed to have taught from 400–410 CE to 538 CE. He was styled "the great" because of his reputation as a teacher and was known for his direct use of ancient sources of law and for interpreting jurists such as Ulpian and Papinian. Cyrillus wrote a precise treatise on definitions (υπομνημα των δεφινιτων) that supplied the materials for many important scholia appended to the first and second titles of the eleventh book of the Basilica.[33][34]
Patricius is a fifth-century teacher who garnered praise in the third preface of the Justinian Digest (Tanta-Dedoken) as a distinguished professor of the Beirut law school. Archaeological excavations done in Beirut at the turn of the 20th century revealed a funerary monument which is believed to belong to the deceased Patricius.[35][36] Later came Domninus the Younger, Demosthenes and Eudoxius, who were coevals.
Leontius was another Ecumenical Master, a son of Eudoxius and the father of Anatolius, who was summoned by the imperial court to assist with the writing of the Justinian Code. Zacharias Rhetor wrote that Leontius had a great reputation in the legal field; Zacharias was Leontius' student in the first year of his legal course in the year 487 or 488 CE. Leontius was raised to the office of Praetorian prefect of the East under Anastasius between 503 and 504 CE and became Magister militum in 528 CE. Leontius was also involved as a commissioner in the preparation of the first codex of Justinian.[14][37]
The last of the Ecumenical Masters was Amblichus, a contemporary of Leontius who wrote about Ulpian's Libri ad Edictum.[38] Historical sources also tell of Euxenius, a teacher at the Beirut law school who taught during the times of the Ecumenical Masters. Euxenius was the brother of the city's bishop Eustathius and was involved in the 460 CE religious controversy caused by Timothy Aelurus.[39]
Three school professors who were contemporary to Justinian I are Dorotheus, Anatolius and Julianus. Dorotheus and Anatolius (the son of Leontius) were summoned to the court of Justinian and commissioned to draft the Digesta. Dorotheus also collaborated with Theophilus in drafting the Institutiones under the supervision of Tribonian.[40] Julianus Antecessor, the last known professor of Beirut, is extolled by Theaetetus as "the light of the law". Julian left Beirut and settled in Constantinople, where he authored the Epitome Iuliani in 555 CE.[41]
Under Justinian, there were eight teachers in the law schools of the Byzantine empire; it is presumed that Beirut and Constantinople's schools had 4 teachers each.[23][42] Justinian mandated the supervision and the enforcement of discipline in the school of Beirut to the teachers, the city's bishop and the governor of Phoenicia Maritima.[28][43]
Notable students
According to Eusebius of Caesarea, Pamphilus of Caesarea was born into a rich family in Beirut in the latter half of the 3rd century and attended its law school. Pamphilus later became the presbyter of Caesarea Maritima and founder of its extensive Christian library. He is celebrated as a martyr by the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Eusebius also tells of Aphian and his brother Aedesius, born to a noble Lycian family. The brothers converted to Christianity while studying law in Beirut and were executed for their beliefs.[44]
Fourth-century historian Eunapius speaks of a high-ranking official of the Roman empire called Anatolius, known by his enemies as Azutrio. Anatolius occupied the offices of consul of Syria, vicarius of the Diocese of Asia, proconsul of Constantinople, urban prefect of Constantinople in 354 and finally Praetorian prefect of Illyricum until his death in 360. Eunapius wrote of Anatolius: "He reached the summit of the science of law. Nothing about this is surprising because Beirut, his homeland, is the mother and nurse of these studies".[45][46] Libanius' correspondence with Gaianus of Tyre discusses the latter's achievements after his graduation from the Law School of Beirut. Gaianus became the consular governor of Phoenicia in 362.[47]
Gazan lawyer and church historian Sozomen, who was himself a student at Beirut, wrote in his Historia Ecclesiastica about Triphyllius, a convert to Christendom who became the bishop of Nicosia. Triphyllius received juridic training in the school at Beirut and was criticized by his teacher Saint Spyridon for his atticism and for using legal vocabulary instead of that of the Bible.[45]
Ecclesiastical historian Zacharias Rhetor studied law at Beirut between 487 and 492 and worked as a lawyer in Constantinople for a long time before his good imperial contacts won him the appointment as bishop of Mytilene. Among Zacharias' works is the biography of Severus, the last monophysite patriarch of Antioch and one of the founders of the Syriac Orthodox Church who also had been a law student in Beirut as of 486.[48] Another late-5th-century student was John Rufus, a vehement anti-Chalcedonian priest who moved to Maiuma after the expulsion of his master Peter the Fuller. In Maiuma, John Rufus authored the Plerophoriae and the Life of Peter the Iberian.[49][50]
Location
Historically, Roman stationes or auditoria where teaching was done stood next to public libraries housed in temples; this arrangement was copied in the Roman colony at Beirut. The first mention of the school's premises dates to 350 AD,[51] but the description does not specify its location. In the fifth century, Zacharias Rhetor reported that the school stood next to the "Temple of God", the description of which permitted its identification with the Byzantine Anastasis cathedral.[52]
At the turn of the 20th century, archaeological excavations in the souk between the Saint George Greek Orthodox cathedral and Saint George Cathedral of the Maronites unearthed a funerary stele etched with an epitaph to Patricius, "whose career was consecrated for the study of law". Patricius was identified as the famous 5th-century law school professor.[53] In 1994, archaeological excavations underneath the Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral in Beirut Central District's Nejmeh Square identified structural elements of the Anastasis cathedral, but they were restricted to a small area of 316 square metres (3,400 sq ft) and failed to unearth the interred school.[20][54][55]
Legacy
The Law School of Beirut supplied the Roman Empire and especially its eastern provinces with lawyers and magistrates for three centuries until the school's destruction. The flow of students was abundant and persistent because of the affluence, honor and the secured employment offered by the profession.[56] A degree in law became highly sought after following an edict issued in 460 CE by Emperor Leo I. The edict ordered that candidates for the bar of the Eastern praetorian prefecture had to produce certificates of proficiency from the law professors who instructed them at one of the recognized law schools of the empire.[24][57]
The in-depth studies of the juridic classical works in Beirut and later in Constantinople gave an unprecedented scientific dimension to jurisprudence; this academic movement gave rise to the minds behind Justinian's juridic reforms. As a result of the new understanding of the classical juridic texts, the imperial laws of the late fifth and sixth centuries were more cognizable and of a superior style than those of the early Postclassical Era according to legal historian George Mousourakis and other scholars.[58][59][60][61]
Two professors from the Law School of Beirut, Dorotheus and Anatolius were contributors to Tribonian in the writing of the Codex of Justinian,[28] the empire's body of civil laws that was issued between 529 and 534 CE and which profoundly impacted the modern western legal system.[62]
The school garnered accolades throughout the course of its existence and was bestowed with the title Berytus Nutrix Legum, by Eunapius, Libanius and Zacharias Rhetor and finally by Justinian I himself in his 533 CE Omnem constitution; the constitution reads:[50]
These three works which we have composed we desire should be put in their hands in royal cities as well as in the most fair city of Berytus, which may well be styled the nursing mother of law, as indeed previous Emperors have commanded, but in no other places which did not enjoy the same privilege in old times, as we have heard that even in the brilliant city of Alexandria, and in Caesarea and others, there have been ignorant men who, instead of doing their duty, conveyed spurious lessons to their pupils, and such as these we desire to make desist from that attempt by laying down the above limits, so that, if they should hereafter be guilty of such conduct and carry on their duties outside the royal cities and the metropolis Berytus, they may be punished by a fine of ten pounds of gold and be expelled from the city in which instead of teaching the law they transgress the law.[28]
From the third century on, the school tolerated and assimilated Christian teachings. It produced a number of students who would become influential church leaders and bishops such as Pamphilus of Caesarea, Severus of Antioch and Aphian who, along with his brother Edesius, converted to Christianity during their studies in Beirut. Under Cyrillus, the first of the Ecumenical Masters, the Christian faith was consolidated as an integral element of the jursitic training.[63][64]
The reputation of Beirut as "mother of laws" reemerged in modern times.[63] In 1913, Paul Huvelin the first dean of the newly established Université Saint-Joseph's Faculty of Law, dedicated the inaugural speech to the classical Law School of Beirut in an effort to confer legitimacy to the new academy.[63][65] The epithet Berytus Nutrix Legum is used as a motto and as part of the emblem of the Beirut Bar Association which was founded in 1919.[63] The title also figures as part of the Municipality of Beirut's seal and flag.[66]
Notes
- ^ In Oratio Panegyrica ad Origenem, Chapter V.
- ^ Mommsen in Die Heimath des Gregorianus.
- ^ Books 1 to 5 of the digest called the Prota.
- ^ The de iudiciis (books 5 to 11) and the de rebus (books 12 to 19) and the libri singularis: books 23, 26, 28 and 30.
- ^ Books 20 to 22.
- ^ Books 24, 25, 27, 29 and 31 to 36.
References
- ^ a b c Jolowicz 1972, p.453
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.16–31
- ^ Sartre 2005, pp.289–291
- ^ a b Walker 2000, p.91
- ^ Jones Hall 2004, pp.46–47
- ^ Lawler, Andrew (2011). "Rebuilding Beirut". Archaeology. 64 (4).
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help) - ^ Sartre 2005, p.289
- ^ Collinet 1925, p.17
- ^ Gibbon 1854, p.294
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.16–20
- ^ Rudorff 1857, P.130
- ^ Bremer 1868, p.73
- ^ Mommsen 1901, pp.139–144
- ^ a b Kassir 2010, p.52
- ^ Collinet 1925, p.22
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.29–30
- ^ a b Collinet 1925, p.39
- ^ Pomeroy 2012, pp.41–42
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.54–58
- ^ a b Sartre 2005, p.291
- ^ Collinet 1925, p.209
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.81–83
- ^ a b c Jolowicz 1972, p.454
- ^ a b c Mousourakis 2003, p.363
- ^ Collinet 1925, p.245
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.224–240
- ^ a b Corcoran, Simon (July 20, 2009). "Law-school texts after 533". The Epitome of Julian. University College London. Retrieved March 23, 2013.
- ^ a b c d e Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus Augustus (Justinian I, emperor of the East) (534). "The digest of Justinian" (Document). Constantinople: Cambridge University Press.
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: Unknown parameter|others=
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ignored (help) - ^ Collinet 1925, p.241
- ^ Buckland 1921, p.49
- ^ Collinet 1925, p.121
- ^ Collinet 1925, p.131
- ^ Encyclopedia Britannica 1911, p.707
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.131–132
- ^ Jalabert 1906, pp.170–171
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.132–138
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.141–154
- ^ Collinet 1925, p.141
- ^ Collinet 1925, p.154
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.186–189
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.190–191
- ^ Collinet 1925, p.211
- ^ Collinet 1925, p.34
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.27–30
- ^ a b Collinet 1925, pp.30–32
- ^ Eunapius 1596, pp.148–151
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.87–88
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp.46–51
- ^ Sterk 2009, p.208
- ^ a b Collinet 1925, p.51
- ^ Collinet 1925, p.62
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp. 63–73
- ^ Collinet 1925, pp. 61–73
- ^ Skaf, Isabelle; Makaroun Bou Assaf, Yasmine (2005). "Une nouvelle approche pour la préservation in situ des mosaïques et vestiges archéologiques au Liban : La crypte de l'église Saint-Georges à Beyrouth". In Aïcha Ben Abed Ben Khader — Martha Demas — Thomas Roby (ed.). Lessons Learned: Reflecting on the Theory and Practice of Mosaic Conservation : Proceedings of the 9th ICCM Conference, Hammamet, Tunisia, November 29–December 3, 2005. 9th ICCM Conference. Hammamet, Tunisia: Getty Publications. pp. 224–229. Retrieved March 21, 2013.
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ignored (help)Template:Fr - ^ Jones Hall 2004, p.67
- ^ Rawlinson 2004, p.265
- ^ Jolowicz 1972, pp.454–455
- ^ Jolowicz 1972, p.451–460
- ^ Kunkel 1973, p.146
- ^ Schulz 1967, p.267
- ^ Mousourakis 2003, p.364
- ^ Goodman 1995, p.222
- ^ a b c d Kassir 2010, p.53
- ^ Attridge 1992, p.436
- ^ Kassir 2010, p.199
- ^ "Logo" (Document). Municipality of Beirut.
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Bibliography
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- Eunapius of Sardis (1596). Bioi philosophon kai sophiston (Lives of the Sophists). apud Hieronymum Commelinum. Template:Gr icon
- Gibbon, Edward (1854). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire — Volume 2. Phillips, Sampson and company.
- Goodman, Ellen (1995). The Origins of the Western Legal Tradition: From Thales to the Tudors. Federation Press. ISBN 9781862871816.
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- Jones Hall, Linda (2004). Roman Berytus: Beirut in Late Antiquity. Routledge. ISBN 9780415289191.
- Kassir, Samir (2010). Beirut. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520256682.
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- Mommsen, Theodor (1901). "Die Heimath des Gregorianus". Zeitschrift der savigny-stiftung für rechtsgeschichte (22). Böhlau Verlag. Template:De icon
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- Sterk, Andrea (2009). Renouncing the World Yet Leading the Church: The Monk-Bishop in Late Antiquity. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674044012.
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- public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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