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{{Short description|Islamic views and laws on sexuality}} |
{{Short description|Islamic views and laws on sexuality}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} |
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} |
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{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2020}} |
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2020}} |
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[[File:Atai (Walters MS 666) - A Juriconsult Giving Sexual Advice (cropped).jpg|thumb| A Juriconsult Giving Sexual Advice. From Khamsa by Atai (Walters MS 666). This illustration from Walters manuscript W.666 depicts a mufti, having heard a complaint from a mother about her son-in-law's inability to consummate his marriage to her daughter, giving sexual advice. 1133 AH/AD 1721 (Ottoman). Atai (Uzbeki, died 1044 AH/AD 1634) (author of text). Khayr Allah Khayri Jawush Zadah (scribe)]] |
[[File:Atai (Walters MS 666) - A Juriconsult Giving Sexual Advice (cropped).jpg|thumb| A [[Juriconsult]] Giving Sexual Advice. From Khamsa by Atai (Walters MS 666). This illustration from Walters manuscript W.666 depicts a mufti, having heard a complaint from a mother about her son-in-law's inability to consummate his marriage to her daughter, giving sexual advice. 1133 AH/AD 1721 (Ottoman). Atai (Uzbeki, died 1044 AH/AD 1634) (author of text). Khayr Allah Khayri Jawush Zadah (scribe)]] |
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{{Fiqh |sexual}} |
{{Fiqh |sexual}} |
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Views and laws about [[sexuality]] in [[Islam]] are largely predicated on the [[Quran]], the sayings of [[Muhammad]] (''[[hadith]]'') and the rulings of religious leaders (''[[fatwa]]'') confining sexual activity to marital relationships between men and women.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rassool |first1=G. Hussein |title=Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-44125-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_QsCgAAQBAJ&q=islamic+sexual+jurisprudence&pg=PA75 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Kecia |title=Sexual Ethics and Islam: Feminist Reflections on Qur'an, Hadith, and Jurisprudence |date=2016 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-78074-853-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gB29DwAAQBAJ&q=editions%3AISBN1851684565 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> While most traditions discourage celibacy, all encourage strict [[chastity]], modesty and privacy with regard to any relationships between [[gender]]s, holding forth that their [[intimate relationship|intimacy]] as perceived within Islam is largely reserved for marriage. This sensitivity to gender difference, gender seclusion and [[haya (Islam)|modesty]] outside of marriage can be seen in current prominent aspects of Islam, such as interpretations of [[list of types of sartorial hijab|Islamic dress]] and degrees of [[sex segregation and Islam|gender segregation]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shah |first1=Saeeda |title=Education, Leadership and Islam: Theories, discourses and practices from an Islamic perspective |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-05254-6 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=afUWCgAAQBAJ&q=sex+segregation+islam&pg=PA96 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> |
Views and laws about [[sexuality]] in [[Islam]] are largely predicated on the [[Quran]], the sayings of [[Muhammad]] (''[[hadith]]'') and the rulings of religious leaders (''[[fatwa]]'') confining sexual activity to marital relationships between men and women.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rassool |first1=G. Hussein |title=Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-44125-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_QsCgAAQBAJ&q=islamic+sexual+jurisprudence&pg=PA75 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Kecia |title=Sexual Ethics and Islam: Feminist Reflections on Qur'an, Hadith, and Jurisprudence |date=2016 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-78074-853-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gB29DwAAQBAJ&q=editions%3AISBN1851684565 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> While most traditions discourage [[celibacy in Islam|celibacy]], all encourage strict [[chastity]], modesty and privacy with regard to any relationships between [[gender]]s, holding forth that their [[intimate relationship|intimacy]] as perceived within Islam is largely reserved for marriage. This sensitivity to gender difference, gender seclusion and [[haya (Islam)|modesty]] outside of marriage can be seen in current prominent aspects of Islam, such as interpretations of [[list of types of sartorial hijab|Islamic dress]] and degrees of [[sex segregation and Islam|gender segregation]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shah |first1=Saeeda |title=Education, Leadership and Islam: Theories, discourses and practices from an Islamic perspective |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-05254-6 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=afUWCgAAQBAJ&q=sex+segregation+islam&pg=PA96 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> |
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In Islam, prohibitions against extramarital sex are strong and permissible marital sexual activities are familiar subjects.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islam-usa.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=289&Itemid=301 | title=Sex education, teenage pregnancy, sex in Islam and marriage | publisher=/www.islam-usa.com | access-date=13 June 2015 | author=Dr. Shahid Athar | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615003934/http://www.islam-usa.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=289&Itemid=301 | archive-date=15 June 2015 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://myummah.co.za/site/2008/03/15/sunnah-of-the-wedding-night/|title=Sunnah of the Wedding Night|date=15 March 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317145545/http://myummah.co.za/site/2008/03/15/sunnah-of-the-wedding-night/|archive-date=17 March 2015}}</ref> [[marriage in Islam|Marriage]] is the only permitted sexual relationship and it is described in |
In Islam, prohibitions against extramarital sex are strong, and permissible marital sexual activities are familiar subjects.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islam-usa.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=289&Itemid=301 | title=Sex education, teenage pregnancy, sex in Islam and marriage | publisher=/www.islam-usa.com | access-date=13 June 2015 | author=Dr. Shahid Athar | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615003934/http://www.islam-usa.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=289&Itemid=301 | archive-date=15 June 2015 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://myummah.co.za/site/2008/03/15/sunnah-of-the-wedding-night/|title=Sunnah of the Wedding Night|date=15 March 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317145545/http://myummah.co.za/site/2008/03/15/sunnah-of-the-wedding-night/|archive-date=17 March 2015}}</ref> [[marriage in Islam|Marriage]] is the only permitted sexual relationship, and it is described in Quran and hadith as bringing about strong love and closeness. Contraceptive use is permitted for birth control. Actions and behaviours such as certain abortions and homosexuality are [[Haram|strictly forbidden]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Simon |first1=Rita James |last2=Brooks |first2=Alison |title=Gay and Lesbian Communities the World Over |date=2009 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7391-4364-3 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AGlGTAXlAcsC&q=homosexuality+islam&pg=PA17 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> |
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Islamic scholarly perspectives and rulings on sexuality are codified as either sexual jurisprudence ({{lang-ar|الفقه الجنسي}}{{efn|{{IPA-ar|fiqhu'l dʒin'siːu'l ʔis'laːmiː}}; {{transl|ar|Al-fiqh al-jinsi}}}}) or marital jurisprudence ({{lang-ar|فقه النكاح}}{{efn|{{IPA-ar|fiqhu'n nikah}}; {{transl|ar|Fiqh al-nikah}}}}), which both in turn also contain components of [[Islamic family jurisprudence]], [[Islamic marital jurisprudence]], [[Islamic hygienical jurisprudence|hygienical]] and [[Islamic criminal jurisprudence|criminal jurisprudence]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mallat |first1=Chibli |last2=Connors |first2=Jane Frances |title=Islamic Family Law |date=1990 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-1-85333-301-9 |pages=55, 58, 60, 62, 63, 64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goEwYQVb6HIC&q=sexual&pg=PA31 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohn-Sherbok |first1=Dan |last2=Chryssides |first2=George D. |last3=El-Alami |first3=Dawoud |title=Love, Sex and Marriage: Insights from Judaism, Christianity and Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd |isbn=978-0-334-04405-5 |pages=XX, 88, 182, 196 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LO-b2FxcBswC&q=Islam |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Muhammad Aftab |title=Sex & Sexuality in Islam |date=2006 |publisher=Nashriyat |isbn=978-969-8983-04-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRTYAAAAMAAJ&q=islam+family+sex |access-date=26 May 2020 |page=296|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Christie S. |title=Islamic Criminal Law: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-980604-1 |pages=10, 11, 12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnZtem-HTQC&q=islamic+sexual+jurisprudence&pg=PA10 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Zia |first1=Afiya Shehrbano |title=Sex Crime in the Islamic Context: Rape, Class and Gender in Pakistan |date=1994 |publisher=ASR |isbn=978-969-8217-23-5 |pages=7, 9, 32 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=se_ZAAAAMAAJ&q=islam+sex+criminal |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> |
Islamic scholarly perspectives and rulings on sexuality are codified as either sexual jurisprudence ({{lang-ar|الفقه الجنسي}}{{efn|{{IPA-ar|fiqhu'l dʒin'siːu'l ʔis'laːmiː}}; {{transl|ar|Al-fiqh al-jinsi}}}}) or marital jurisprudence ({{lang-ar|فقه النكاح}}{{efn|{{IPA-ar|fiqhu'n nikah}}; {{transl|ar|Fiqh al-nikah}}}}), which both in turn also contain components of [[Islamic family jurisprudence]], [[Islamic marital jurisprudence]], [[Islamic hygienical jurisprudence|hygienical]] and [[Islamic criminal jurisprudence|criminal jurisprudence]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mallat |first1=Chibli |last2=Connors |first2=Jane Frances |title=Islamic Family Law |date=1990 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-1-85333-301-9 |pages=55, 58, 60, 62, 63, 64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goEwYQVb6HIC&q=sexual&pg=PA31 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohn-Sherbok |first1=Dan |last2=Chryssides |first2=George D. |last3=El-Alami |first3=Dawoud |title=Love, Sex and Marriage: Insights from Judaism, Christianity and Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd |isbn=978-0-334-04405-5 |pages=XX, 88, 182, 196 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LO-b2FxcBswC&q=Islam |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Muhammad Aftab |title=Sex & Sexuality in Islam |date=2006 |publisher=Nashriyat |isbn=978-969-8983-04-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRTYAAAAMAAJ&q=islam+family+sex |access-date=26 May 2020 |page=296|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Christie S. |title=Islamic Criminal Law: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-980604-1 |pages=10, 11, 12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnZtem-HTQC&q=islamic+sexual+jurisprudence&pg=PA10 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Zia |first1=Afiya Shehrbano |title=Sex Crime in the Islamic Context: Rape, Class and Gender in Pakistan |date=1994 |publisher=ASR |isbn=978-969-8217-23-5 |pages=7, 9, 32 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=se_ZAAAAMAAJ&q=islam+sex+criminal |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> |
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==Sex education== |
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⚫ | Islam has a long tradition of pragmatism with respect to sex education, with sex being readily discussed and not subject or taboo as long as the topics under discussion were Islamically permissible. A [[hadith]] attributed to Muhammad's wife [[Aisha]] states that the [[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]] women in particular were not shy about asking questions regarding sexual matters as long as they are halal.<ref>Bukhari, Book 3, Number 0649</ref> From as early as the 14th-century, entire manuscripts devoted to Islamic sexual education were being written in Arabic in Baghdad, which at that time was a great literary centre within the Muslim world.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Women and Men in al-Suyūṭī's Guides to Sex and Marriage |last=Myrne |first=Pernilla |date=2018 |publisher=The Middle East Documentation Center (MEDOC) at the University of Chicago |issn=1947-2404 |doi=10.25846/26hn-gp87 |pages=47–67 |journal=Mamlūk Studies Review |volume=XXI |url=https://knowledge.uchicago.edu/record/1253?ln=en}}</ref> |
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⚫ | In modern practice, sex education is not recommended until the approach of puberty, children are expected to be taught the signs of this and the characteristics which distinguish men from women.<ref name=CEII>{{cite book |last1=Alwan |first1=Abdullah Nasih |last2=Ghali |first2=Mahmoud |last3=Ghani |first3=Kamal Abdul |last4=Elkhatib |first4=Shafiq |last5=Shaban |first5=Ali Ahmad |last6=Al-Gindi |first6=Ash-Shahhat |last7=Zeid |first7=Khalifa Ezzat |first8=Selma |last8=Cook |title=Child Education in Islam |date=2004 |publisher=Dar-Us Salam |location=Cairo |isbn=977-342-000-0 |pages=186–214 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lk685SYzgOIC&q=child+education+in+islam&pg=PA14 |access-date=19 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref> Islamic tradition also encourages that sexual education be entwined with morality, explaining Islamic rules involving the covering the intimate parts of the body, [[Intimate parts in Islam|‘''awrah'']], and the Islamic positions on modesty, chastity and avoiding [[promiscuity]].<ref name=CEII/> |
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⚫ | ''Khitan'' or ''Khatna'' ({{lang-ar|ختان}}, {{lang-ar|ختنة}}) is the term for male [[circumcision]] carried out as a [[Islamic culture|cultural rite]] by Muslims and is considered a sign of belonging to the wider [[Islam]]ic community.<ref name="bbc">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |title=Circumcision of boys |access-date=29 July 2008 |work=Religion & ethics – Islam |publisher=BBC |date=24 March 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080305204605/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |archive-date=5 March 2008 }}</ref> Whether or not it should be carried out after [[converting to Islam]] is debated among Islamic scholars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://convertingtoislam.com/circum.html |title=Male circumcision – the Islamic View |publisher=www.convertingtoislam.com |access-date=4 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151217175325/http://convertingtoislam.com/circum.html |archive-date=17 December 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicinvitationcentre.com/FAQ/converts/FAQ_converts.html#Anchor-34662circumcision|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227151507/http://islamicinvitationcentre.com/FAQ/converts/FAQ_converts.html#Anchor-34662circumcision|archive-date=27 December 2010 |title=Is Circumcision obligatory after conversion? |publisher=Islamicinvitationcentre.com |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> The Quran does not mention circumcision, either explicitly or implicitly, in any verse, while some [[hadith]]s mention circumcision in a list of practices known as ''[[fitra]]'' (acts considered to be of a refined person). However, different hadiths contradict on whether circumcision is part of fitra or not. According to some traditions Muhammad was born without a [[foreskin]] ([[Aposthia|aposthetic]]), while others maintain that his grandfather [[Abdul-Muttalib]] circumcised him when he was seven days old.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |title=Religions – Islam: Circumcision of boys |publisher=BBC |date=13 August 2009 |access-date=26 February 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120629074142/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |archive-date=29 June 2012 }}</ref><ref>Al-Halabi, Ali Ibn-Burhan-al-Din. Alsirah al-halabiyyah. Vol.1 Beirut: Al-maktabah al-islamiyyah. (n.d.): 54-5</ref> Islamic sources that advocate for circumcision also do not fix a particular time for circumcision, which can depend on family, region and country. The preferred age is usually seven although some Muslims are circumcised as early as the seventh day after birth and as late as the commencement of [[puberty]].<ref name="bbc" /> |
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⚫ | For example, in issues pertaining to [[Marriage in Islam|marriage]], ''baligh'' is related to the [[Arabic]] legal expression, ''hatta tutiqa'l-rijal'', which means that a wedding may not take place until the girl is physically fit to engage in [[sexual intercourse]]. In comparison, ''baligh'' or ''balaghat'' concerns the reaching of [[sexual maturity]] which becomes manifest by the [[menses]]. The age related to these two concepts can, but need not necessarily, coincide. Only after a separate condition called ''rushd'', or intellectual maturity to handle one's own property, is reached can a girl receive her [[bridewealth]].<ref>Masud, ''Islamic Legal Interpretation, Muftis and Their Fatwas'', [[Harvard University]] Press, 1996</ref> |
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⚫ | Nocturnal emission is not a sin in Islam. Moreover, whereas a person fasting (in [[Ramadan]] or otherwise) would normally be considered to have broken their fast by ejaculating on purpose (during either masturbation or intercourse), nocturnal emission is not such a cause. They are still required to bathe prior to undergoing some rituals in the religion. Muslim scholars consider ejaculation something that makes one temporarily ritually impure, a condition known as [[junub]]; meaning that a [[Muslim]] who has had an orgasm or ejaculated must have a ''[[ghusl]].''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith-Hefner |first1=Nancy J. |title=Islamizing Intimacies: Youth, Sexuality, and Gender in Contemporary Indonesia |date=2019 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |location= |isbn=978-0-8248-7811-5 |page=128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVnGDwAAQBAJ&q=nocturnal+emission+islam&pg=PA128 |access-date=26 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref> |
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⚫ | The Qur'an makes specific mention of menstruation in Verse 2:222 that instructs Muslims to "keep aloof from the women during the menstrual discharge and do not go near them until they have become clean; then when they have cleansed themselves, go in to them as Allah has commanded you",<ref>{{cite quran|2|222|t=s|s=ns}}</ref> language that is taken to clearly imply that sexual relations during menstruation are prohibited.<ref name="Joseph2007">{{cite book |last=Joseph |first=Suad |title=Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures |year=2007 |publisher=Brill |page=531}}</ref> Ibn Kathīr, a [[muhaddith]], narrated a hadith that describes Muhammad's habits with his menstruating wives. This hadith demonstrates that Muhammad gave licence to all forms of spousal intimacy during the period of menstruation with the exception of vaginal intercourse. Women are required to perform ritual cleansing (''ghusl'') before resuming religious duties or sexual relations upon completion of their menstruation.<ref>{{cite web |last=Baugh |first=Carolyn |title=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0965 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908190008/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0965 |archive-date=8 September 2015 }}</ref> |
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⚫ | Islam has strongly emphasized the concept of conservatism, decency and [[Haya (Islam)|modesty]]; besides the lawful sexuality, priority is given to modesty and chastity both inside and outside the marital relationships. The Quran warns against [[fahisha]] or immoral lust,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sardar|first=Ziauddin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqAYCn1O5WwC&q=fahisha&pg=PT307|title=Reading the Qur'an: The Contemporary Relevance of the Sacred Text of Islam|date= 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-991149-3|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ṣallābī|first=ʻAlī Muḥammad Muḥammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rU11lVnBWOwC&q=fahishah&pg=PA309|title=The Noble Life of the Prophet|publisher=Darussalam|year=2005|isbn=978-9960-9678-7-5|location=Riyadh, Saudu Arabia|pages=309, 310|language=en}}</ref> and the [[hadith|hadith literature]], modesty has been described as "a part of faith".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://40hadithnawawi.com/index.php/the-hadiths/hadith-20 | title=Hadith 20 :: Modesty is from Faith | publisher=40hadithnawawi.com | access-date=27 July 2015 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810122508/http://40hadithnawawi.com/index.php/the-hadiths/hadith-20 | archive-date=10 August 2015 }}</ref> Islam strictly discourages nudity and public nakedness,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahmed |first1=Akbar S. |title=Postmodernism and Islam: Predicament and Promise |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-92417-2 |page=89 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ARFh_D9pzEC&q=nudity+in+Islam&pg=PA89 |access-date=12 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Muhammad Aftab |title=Sex & Sexuality in Islam |date=2006 |publisher=Nashriyat |isbn=978-969-8983-04-8 |pages=312, 320, 414 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRTYAAAAMAAJ&q=nakedness+in+Islam |access-date=12 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> and it is also forbidden for spouses to spread the secrets of what happens between them in their private marital life.<ref name="Marital privacy">{{cite web | url=http://www.quran.mu/marital-privacy-in-islam.html | title=Marital privacy in Islam | access-date=1 December 2015 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208211244/http://www.quran.mu/marital-privacy-in-islam.html | archive-date=8 December 2015 }}</ref> |
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==Legal sexual behaviour== |
==Legal sexual behaviour== |
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===Legal relationships=== |
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In Islam, there are two types of permitted sexual relationship: [[marriage]] and [[concubinage]]. |
In Islam, there are two types of permitted sexual relationship: [[marriage]] and [[concubinage]]. |
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===Marriage=== |
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[[File:Icon Iakovos Moskos.jpg|thumb|300px|An icon depicting the treaty signing between [[Muhammad]] and [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] allowing interfaith marriage between Muslims and Christians, as discussed in the [[Ashtiname of Muhammad]] |
[[File:Icon Iakovos Moskos.jpg|thumb|300px|An icon depicting the treaty signing between [[Muhammad]] and [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] allowing interfaith marriage between Muslims and Christians, as discussed in the [[Ashtiname of Muhammad]]<ref name="Ahmed2013"/>]] |
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{{main|Marriage in Islam|Islamic marital jurisprudence|Mahram|Interfaith marriage in Islam}} |
{{main|Marriage in Islam|Islamic marital jurisprudence|Mahram|Interfaith marriage in Islam}} |
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In [[Islam]], marriage is a legal [[Islamic marriage contract|contract]] between two people. Both the groom and the bride are to consent to the marriage of their own free wills. Marriage is an act of [[Islam]] and is strongly recommended.<ref name="marriage1"/ |
In [[Islam]], marriage is a legal [[Islamic marriage contract|contract]] between two people. Both the groom and the bride are to consent to the marriage of their own free wills. Marriage is an act of [[Islam]] and is strongly recommended.<ref name="marriage1"/> In Islamic jurisprudence, the primary purpose of sex between marriage and concubinage is [[procreation]]. Islam recognizes the strong sexual urge and desire for reproduction and supports a [[natalism|pro-natalist]] view of procreation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Simon |first1=Rita James |last2=Brooks |first2=Alison |title=Gay and Lesbian Communities the World Over |date=2009 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7391-4364-3 |page=46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AGlGTAXlAcsC&q=homosexuality+islam&pg=PA17 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> |
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In [[Sharia|Islamic law]] (''sharia''), [[marriage]] (''nikāḥ'' نکاح) is a legal and social [[contract]] between two individuals that outlines the rights and responsibilities of the groom and bride.<ref name="marriage1">{{cite web | url=http://www.al-islam.org/islamic-marriage-syed-athar-husain-sh-rizvi/importance-marriage-islam | title=Importance of Marriage in Islam | date=22 October 2012 | publisher=al-islam.org | access-date=10 June 2015}}</ref> [[Polygny in Islam|Polygyny is permitted in Islam]] under some conditions, but [[polyandry]] is forbidden.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article308231.ece |title=Women in polygamous marriages suffering psychological torture - Arab News |access-date=2011-03-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311202547/http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article308231.ece |archive-date=2011-03-11 }}</ref> [[Divorce in Islam]] can take a variety of forms, some executed by a husband personally and some executed by a religious court on behalf of a plaintiff wife who is successful in her legal divorce petition for valid cause.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nikah101.com/getting_married.html |title=Getting Married |access-date=2018-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004225955/https://nikah101.com/getting_married.html |archive-date=2018-10-04 |url-status=live |
In [[Sharia|Islamic law]] (''sharia''), [[marriage]] (''nikāḥ'' نکاح) is a legal and social [[contract]] between two individuals that outlines the rights and responsibilities of the groom and bride.<ref name="marriage1">{{cite web | url=http://www.al-islam.org/islamic-marriage-syed-athar-husain-sh-rizvi/importance-marriage-islam | title=Importance of Marriage in Islam | date=22 October 2012 | publisher=al-islam.org | access-date=10 June 2015}}</ref> [[Polygny in Islam|Polygyny is permitted in Islam]] under some conditions, but [[polyandry]] is forbidden.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article308231.ece |title=Women in polygamous marriages suffering psychological torture - Arab News |access-date=2011-03-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311202547/http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article308231.ece |archive-date=2011-03-11 }}</ref> [[Divorce in Islam]] can take a variety of forms, some executed by a husband personally and some executed by a religious court on behalf of a plaintiff wife who is successful in her legal divorce petition for valid cause.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nikah101.com/getting_married.html |title=Getting Married |access-date=2018-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004225955/https://nikah101.com/getting_married.html |archive-date=2018-10-04 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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In addition to ''nikah'', there is a different fixed-term marriage known as {{transliteration|ar|[[Nikah mut'ah|zawāj al-mut'ah]]}} ("temporary marriage")<ref>Wehr, Hans. [http://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=1058,ll=2783,ls=38,la=4127,sg=968,ha=718,pr=145,vi=350,mgf=779,mr=647,mn=1306,aan=617,kz=2459,ulq=1576,uqa=389,uqw=1523,umr=1012,ums=848,umj=778,uqq=365,bdw=829,amr=594,asb=911,auh=1501,dhq=525,mht=842,msb=221,tla=92,amj=766,ens=287,mis=2024,br=890 ''Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic: a compact version of the internationally recognized fourth edition'']. Ed. JM Cowan. New York: Spoken Language Services, Inc., 1994. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619052549/http://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=1058,ll=2783,ls=38,la=4127,sg=968,ha=718,pr=145,vi=350,mgf=779,mr=647,mn=1306,aan=617,kz=2459,ulq=1576,uqa=389,uqw=1523,umr=1012,ums=848,umj=778,uqq=365,bdw=829,amr=594,asb=911,auh=1501,dhq=525,mht=842,msb=221,tla=92,amj=766,ens=287,mis=2024,br=890 |date=2017-06-19 }}. Print.</ref>{{rp|page=1045}} permitted only by the [[Twelver]] branch of [[Shia Islam|Shi'ite]] for a pre-fixed period.<ref name="IslamicOrigins">Berg, H. [https://books.google.com/books?id=SxPyHsFzNMIC&pg=PA165&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TOtbUaCjLMjOrQeZ6IHwAw&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=snippet&q=Mutah%20of%20marriage&f=false "Method and theory in the study of Islamic origins"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509211138/https://books.google.com/books?id=SxPyHsFzNMIC&pg=PA165&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TOtbUaCjLMjOrQeZ6IHwAw&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=snippet&q=Mutah%20of%20marriage&f=false |date=2016-05-09 }} Brill 2003 {{ISBN|9004126023}}, 9789004126022. Accessed at Google Books 15 March 2014.</ref><ref name="IslamDictionary">Hughes, T. [https://books.google.com/books?id=O84eYLVHvB0C&pg=PA424&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TOtbUaCjLMjOrQeZ6IHwAw&ved=0CFkQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Mutah&f=false "A Dictionary of Islam."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423230922/https://books.google.com/books?id=O84eYLVHvB0C&pg=PA424&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TOtbUaCjLMjOrQeZ6IHwAw&ved=0CFkQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Mutah&f=false |date=2016-04-23 }} Asian Educational Services 1 December 1995. Accessed 15 April 2014.</ref>{{rp|page=242}}<ref name="Pohl (2010)">Pohl, F. [https://books.google.com/books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC&pg=PA50&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=l0VdUeCnM4ajiAfXnoCgCQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=Mutah&f=false "Muslim world: modern Muslim societies"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624115230/https://books.google.com/books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC&pg=PA50&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=l0VdUeCnM4ajiAfXnoCgCQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=Mutah&f=false |date=2016-06-24 }} Marshall Cavendish, 2010. {{ISBN|0761479279}}, 1780761479277. pp. 47–53.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last = İlkkaracan |first = Pınar |title = Deconstructing sexuality in the Middle East: challenges and discourses |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pnGwP9-FhxYC&pg=PA36 |publisher = Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year = 2008 |page = 36 |isbn = 978-0-7546-7235-7 |url-status = live |
In addition to ''nikah'', there is a different fixed-term marriage known as {{transliteration|ar|[[Nikah mut'ah|zawāj al-mut'ah]]}} ("temporary marriage")<ref>Wehr, Hans. [http://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=1058,ll=2783,ls=38,la=4127,sg=968,ha=718,pr=145,vi=350,mgf=779,mr=647,mn=1306,aan=617,kz=2459,ulq=1576,uqa=389,uqw=1523,umr=1012,ums=848,umj=778,uqq=365,bdw=829,amr=594,asb=911,auh=1501,dhq=525,mht=842,msb=221,tla=92,amj=766,ens=287,mis=2024,br=890 ''Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic: a compact version of the internationally recognized fourth edition'']. Ed. JM Cowan. New York: Spoken Language Services, Inc., 1994. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619052549/http://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=1058,ll=2783,ls=38,la=4127,sg=968,ha=718,pr=145,vi=350,mgf=779,mr=647,mn=1306,aan=617,kz=2459,ulq=1576,uqa=389,uqw=1523,umr=1012,ums=848,umj=778,uqq=365,bdw=829,amr=594,asb=911,auh=1501,dhq=525,mht=842,msb=221,tla=92,amj=766,ens=287,mis=2024,br=890 |date=2017-06-19 }}. Print.</ref>{{rp|page=1045}} permitted only by the [[Twelver]] branch of [[Shia Islam|Shi'ite]] for a pre-fixed period.<ref name="IslamicOrigins">Berg, H. [https://books.google.com/books?id=SxPyHsFzNMIC&pg=PA165&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TOtbUaCjLMjOrQeZ6IHwAw&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=snippet&q=Mutah%20of%20marriage&f=false "Method and theory in the study of Islamic origins"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509211138/https://books.google.com/books?id=SxPyHsFzNMIC&pg=PA165&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TOtbUaCjLMjOrQeZ6IHwAw&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=snippet&q=Mutah%20of%20marriage&f=false |date=2016-05-09 }} Brill 2003 {{ISBN|9004126023}}, 9789004126022. Accessed at Google Books 15 March 2014.</ref><ref name="IslamDictionary">Hughes, T. [https://books.google.com/books?id=O84eYLVHvB0C&pg=PA424&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TOtbUaCjLMjOrQeZ6IHwAw&ved=0CFkQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Mutah&f=false "A Dictionary of Islam."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423230922/https://books.google.com/books?id=O84eYLVHvB0C&pg=PA424&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TOtbUaCjLMjOrQeZ6IHwAw&ved=0CFkQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Mutah&f=false |date=2016-04-23 }} Asian Educational Services 1 December 1995. Accessed 15 April 2014.</ref>{{rp|page=242}}<ref name="Pohl (2010)">Pohl, F. [https://books.google.com/books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC&pg=PA50&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=l0VdUeCnM4ajiAfXnoCgCQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=Mutah&f=false "Muslim world: modern Muslim societies"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624115230/https://books.google.com/books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC&pg=PA50&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=l0VdUeCnM4ajiAfXnoCgCQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=Mutah&f=false |date=2016-06-24 }} Marshall Cavendish, 2010. {{ISBN|0761479279}}, 1780761479277. pp. 47–53.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last = İlkkaracan |first = Pınar |title = Deconstructing sexuality in the Middle East: challenges and discourses |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pnGwP9-FhxYC&pg=PA36 |publisher = Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year = 2008 |page = 36 |isbn = 978-0-7546-7235-7 |url-status = live |
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|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151030194344/https://books.google.com/books?id=pnGwP9-FhxYC&pg=PA36&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false |archive-date = 30 October 2015 |
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151030194344/https://books.google.com/books?id=pnGwP9-FhxYC&pg=PA36&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false |archive-date = 30 October 2015}} |
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</ref> There is also [[Nikah Misyar]], a non-temporary marriage with the removal of some conditions such as living together, permitted by some Sunni scholars.<ref>{{cite web|quote=In a misyar marriage the woman waives some of the rights she would enjoy in a normal marriage. Most misyar brides don't change their residences but pursue marriage on a visitation basis. |url=http://www.arabnews.com/saudi-arabia/news/642991 |title=Misyar now a widespread reality |work=Arab News |date=12 October 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218025556/http://www.arabnews.com/saudi-arabia/news/642991 |archive-date=2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first= Elie |last= Elhadj|title=The Islamic Shield: Arab Resistance to Democratic and Religious Reforms| year=2006|publisher=Universal Publishers|isbn=978-1599424118| page=51}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Al-Raida |issue=92–99|page=58|title=Misyar Marriage|publisher=Beirut University College, Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World |year=2001}}</ref> |
</ref> There is also [[Nikah Misyar]], a non-temporary marriage with the removal of some conditions such as living together, permitted by some Sunni scholars.<ref>{{cite web|quote=In a misyar marriage the woman waives some of the rights she would enjoy in a normal marriage. Most misyar brides don't change their residences but pursue marriage on a visitation basis. |url=http://www.arabnews.com/saudi-arabia/news/642991 |title=Misyar now a widespread reality |work=Arab News |date=12 October 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218025556/http://www.arabnews.com/saudi-arabia/news/642991 |archive-date=2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first= Elie |last= Elhadj|title=The Islamic Shield: Arab Resistance to Democratic and Religious Reforms| year=2006|publisher=Universal Publishers|isbn=978-1599424118| page=51}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Al-Raida |issue=92–99|page=58|title=Misyar Marriage|publisher=Beirut University College, Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World |year=2001}}</ref> |
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[[Interfaith marriage]]s are recognized between Muslims and Non-Muslim "[[People of the Book]]" (usually [[Jews]], [[Christians]], and [[Sabians]]).<ref name=ODI>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Ahl al-Kitab|editor=John L. Esposito|encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2014|url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada|df=dmy-all|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001|isbn=9780195125580}}</ref> According to the traditional interpretation of |
[[Interfaith marriage]]s are recognized between Muslims and Non-Muslim "[[People of the Book]]" (usually [[Jews]], [[Christians]], and [[Sabians]]).<ref name=ODI>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Ahl al-Kitab|editor=John L. Esposito|encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2014|url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada|df=dmy-all|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001|isbn=9780195125580}}</ref> According to the traditional interpretation of Islamic law (''sharīʿa''), a Muslim man is allowed to marry a Christian or Jewish woman but this ruling does not apply to women who belong to [[Islam and other religions|other Non-Muslim religious groups]],{{sfn|Leeman|2009|p=755}} whereas a Muslim woman is not allowed to marry a Non-Muslim man of any Non-Muslim religious group.{{sfn|Leeman|2009|p=755}}<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Elmali-Karakaya |author-first=Ayse |year=2020 |chapter=Being Married to a Non-Muslim Husband: Religious Identity in Muslim Women's Interfaith Marriages |editor1-last=Hood |editor1-first=Ralph W. |editor2-last=Cheruvallil-Contractor |editor2-first=Sariya |title=Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion: A Diversity of Paradigms |volume=31 |pages=388–410 |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |doi=10.1163/9789004443969_020 |isbn=978-90-04-44348-8 |s2cid=234539750 |issn=1046-8064}}</ref> However, marriage with an [[idolatress]] or [[Idolatry|idolater]] is forbidden,<ref name="go.galegroup.com">{{cite web |last=Kassam |first=Zayn |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3403500164&v=2.1&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=3 May 2013}}</ref> |
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In the case of a Muslim-Christian marriage, which is to be contracted only after permission from the Christian party, the Christian spouse is not to be prevented from [[Church service|attending church]] for prayer and worship, according to the [[Ashtiname of Muhammad]], a treaty between Muslims and Christians recorded between [[Muhammad]] and [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]].<ref name="Ahmed2013">{{cite book |last1=Ahmed |first1=Akbar S. |title=Postmodernism and Islam: Predicament and Promise |date=11 January 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-92417-2 |page=62 |language=en |quote=The Quran speaks favourably of the people of the Book. For example, Surah 3, verse 199, carries a universal message of goodwill and hope to all those who believe, the people of the Book irrespective of their religious label--Christian, Jew or Muslim. Muslims can marry with the people of the Book,}}</ref><ref name="TimaniAshton2019">{{cite book |last1=Timani |first1=Hussam S. |last2=Ashton |first2=Loye Sekihata |title=Post-Christian Interreligious Liberation Theology |date=29 November 2019 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-27308-8 |page=196 |language=en}}</ref> |
In the case of a Muslim-Christian marriage, which is to be contracted only after permission from the Christian party, the Christian spouse is not to be prevented from [[Church service|attending church]] for prayer and worship, according to the [[Ashtiname of Muhammad]], a treaty between Muslims and Christians recorded between [[Muhammad]] and [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]].<ref name="Ahmed2013">{{cite book |last1=Ahmed |first1=Akbar S. |title=Postmodernism and Islam: Predicament and Promise |date=11 January 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-92417-2 |page=62 |language=en |quote=The Quran speaks favourably of the people of the Book. For example, Surah 3, verse 199, carries a universal message of goodwill and hope to all those who believe, the people of the Book irrespective of their religious label--Christian, Jew or Muslim. Muslims can marry with the people of the Book,}}</ref><ref name="TimaniAshton2019">{{cite book |last1=Timani |first1=Hussam S. |last2=Ashton |first2=Loye Sekihata |title=Post-Christian Interreligious Liberation Theology |date=29 November 2019 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-27308-8 |page=196 |language=en}}</ref> |
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Marriage is not allowed between most relatives with whom relations would typically considered incestuous, including a man marrying his mother, daughter, sister, aunt, niece or mother-in-law. Other prohibited marriages include step-daughters born of women with whom one has had conjugal relations, two or more sisters from the same family.<ref name="go.galegroup.com"/> |
Marriage is not allowed between most relatives with whom relations would typically considered incestuous, including a man marrying his mother, daughter, sister, aunt, niece or mother-in-law. Other prohibited marriages include step-daughters born of women with whom one has had conjugal relations, two or more sisters from the same family.<ref name="go.galegroup.com"/> |
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⚫ | In Islam, the husband should have intercourse with his wife according to what satisfies her, so long as that does not harm him physically or keep him from earning a living. The husband is obliged to treat his wife in a kind and reasonable manner. Part of that kind and reasonable treatment is intercourse, with tradition stipulating that couples should not forego intercourse for longer than four months.<ref name="Pmc">{{cite book |last1=Busaq |first1=Muhammad Al-Madani |last2=Ahmed |first2=Zubair |title=perspectives on modern criminal policy & islamic sharia |date=2005 |publisher=Naif Arab University |location=Riyadh, Saudi Arabiya |isbn=978-9960-853-17-8 |page=117 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LD8yVhn_WB4C&q=omar+hafsa+husband+wife+four+month&pg=PA117 |access-date=30 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> According to other scholars, there is no time limit.<ref>Ibn Qudaamah, Malik, [[Al-Mughni]], 7/30, Al-Jassaas, Ahkaam al-Qur’aan, 1/374, Shaykh al-Islam, Al-Ikhtiyaaraat al-Fiqhiyyah, p. 246.</ref> However, most scholars say that, it is obligatory on women alike not to refuse their husbands if they call them, so long as the woman who is called is not menstruating or sick in such a way that intercourse will be harmful to her, or observing an obligatory fast. If she refuses with no excuse, then she is cursed.<ref>al-Fataawa al-Islamiyyah, 3/145, 146, Kashf al-Qinaa’, 5/189, [[Al-Muhalla]], 10/40, Kashf al-Qinaa’, 5/189</ref> |
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[[File:Slaves Zadib Yemen 13th century BNF Paris.jpg|thumb|200px|A depiction of a 13th-century slave market in Yemen, where concubines might be bought]] |
[[File:Slaves Zadib Yemen 13th century BNF Paris.jpg|thumb|200px|A depiction of a 13th-century slave market in Yemen, where concubines might be bought]] |
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{{main|Islamic views on concubinage|History of concubinage in the Muslim world|Ma malakat aymanukum}} |
{{main|Islamic views on concubinage|History of concubinage in the Muslim world|Ma malakat aymanukum}} |
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Islamic jurisprudence sets limits on the master's right to sexual intercourse with his female slave. A man's ownership of his unmarried slave-girl gave him an exclusive right to have sex with her under the condition that he could not sell her to others (in order to prevent prostitution of slaves) and neither harm her.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Asy-Syafi'i R. A., Al-Imam.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/950516509|title=Al-Umm = Kitab induk|date=1989|publisher=Victory Agencie|others=Sh-Ma Ismail Yakub.|isbn=983-9581-50-3|location=Kuala Lumpur|oclc=950516509}}</ref> A man could own a limitless number of concubines that he could afford and maintain their upkeep, but could not have access to the slave-girls owned by his wife. Marriage between the master and his concubine was only possible if she was granted free status first. To avoid pregnancies, the master had the right to practice [[coitus interruptus]]. The birth of progeny would change the legal status of the concubine to that of ''umm al-walad'' ("mother of the child"); as such, the concubine could not then be sold and her child would be seen as legitimate and free. On the (lawful) death of her master, she would automatically acquire free status.<ref name="Joseph 2006"/> |
Islamic jurisprudence sets limits on the master's right to sexual intercourse with his female slave. A man's ownership of his unmarried slave-girl gave him an exclusive right to have sex with her under the condition that he could not sell her to others (in order to prevent prostitution of slaves) and neither harm her.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Asy-Syafi'i R. A., Al-Imam.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/950516509|title=Al-Umm = Kitab induk|date=1989|publisher=Victory Agencie|others=Sh-Ma Ismail Yakub.|isbn=983-9581-50-3|location=Kuala Lumpur|oclc=950516509}}</ref> A man could own a limitless number of concubines that he could afford and maintain their upkeep, but could not have access to the slave-girls owned by his wife. Marriage between the master and his concubine was only possible if she was granted free status first. To avoid pregnancies, the master had the right to practice [[coitus interruptus]]. The birth of progeny would change the legal status of the concubine to that of ''umm al-walad'' ("mother of the child"); as such, the concubine could not then be sold and her child would be seen as legitimate and free. On the (lawful) death of her master, she would automatically acquire free status.<ref name="Joseph 2006"/> |
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=== Sexual techniques === |
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⚫ | Islam has strongly emphasized the concept of conservatism, decency and [[Haya (Islam)|modesty]]; besides the lawful sexuality, priority is given to modesty and chastity both inside and outside the marital relationships. The Quran warns against [[fahisha]] or immoral lust,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sardar|first=Ziauddin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqAYCn1O5WwC&q=fahisha&pg=PT307|title=Reading the Qur'an: The Contemporary Relevance of the Sacred Text of Islam|date= 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-991149-3|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ṣallābī|first=ʻAlī Muḥammad Muḥammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rU11lVnBWOwC&q=fahishah&pg=PA309|title=The Noble Life of the Prophet|publisher=Darussalam|year=2005|isbn=978-9960-9678-7-5|location=Riyadh, Saudu Arabia|pages=309, 310|language=en}}</ref> and the [[hadith|hadith literature]], modesty has been described as "a part of faith".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://40hadithnawawi.com/index.php/the-hadiths/hadith-20 | title=Hadith 20 :: Modesty is from Faith | publisher=40hadithnawawi.com | access-date=27 July 2015 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810122508/http://40hadithnawawi.com/index.php/the-hadiths/hadith-20 | archive-date=10 August 2015 }}</ref> Islam strictly discourages nudity and public nakedness,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahmed |first1=Akbar S. |title=Postmodernism and Islam: Predicament and Promise |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-92417-2 |page=89 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ARFh_D9pzEC&q=nudity+in+Islam&pg=PA89 |access-date=12 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Muhammad Aftab |title=Sex & Sexuality in Islam |date=2006 |publisher=Nashriyat |isbn=978-969-8983-04-8 |pages=312, 320, 414 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRTYAAAAMAAJ&q=nakedness+in+Islam |access-date=12 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> and it is also forbidden for spouses to spread the secrets of what happens between them in their private marital life.<ref name="Marital privacy">{{cite web | url=http://www.quran.mu/marital-privacy-in-islam.html | title=Marital privacy in Islam | access-date=1 December 2015 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208211244/http://www.quran.mu/marital-privacy-in-islam.html | archive-date=8 December 2015 }}</ref> |
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⚫ | </ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kissing and Foreplay |url=https://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/kissf.htm |website=central-mosque.com |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923201749/http://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/kissf.htm |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Rules of Nikah: Bedroom Etiquettes in Islam|url=http://www.authentictauheed.com/2011/07/112-bedroom-etiquettes-in-islam.html |website=authentictauheed.com |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619113009/http://www.authentictauheed.com/2011/07/112-bedroom-etiquettes-in-islam.html |archive-date=19 June 2018 |url-status=live }} |
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⚫ | In Islam, the husband should have intercourse with his wife according to what satisfies her, so long as that does not harm him physically or keep him from earning a living. The husband is obliged to treat his wife in a kind and reasonable manner. Part of that kind and reasonable treatment is intercourse, |
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⚫ | Sexual intercourse is also prohibited during menstruation,<ref name="Joseph2007"/> for forty days after childbirth ([[puerperium]]), during the daylight hours of the month of [[Ramadan]] (i.e. while fasting) |
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=== Purification and hygiene === |
=== Purification and hygiene === |
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==Ambiguous sexual behaviour== |
==Ambiguous sexual behaviour== |
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⚫ | Almost all of what is practised under Islamic law concerning the act of sexual intercourse come from ''hadith'', which are not restrictive in nature, but followed by a mutual etiquette known as foreplay.<ref>{{cite web |title=Turning Sex Into Sadaqa An excerpt from 'The Muslim Marriage Guide.' |url=http://www.beliefnet.com/faiths/islam/2001/04/turning-sex-into-sadaqa.aspx |website=beliefnet.com |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619113055/http://www.beliefnet.com/faiths/islam/2001/04/turning-sex-into-sadaqa.aspx |archive-date=19 June 2018 |url-status=live }} |
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⚫ | </ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kissing and Foreplay |url=https://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/kissf.htm |website=central-mosque.com |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923201749/http://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/kissf.htm |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Rules of Nikah: Bedroom Etiquettes in Islam|url=http://www.authentictauheed.com/2011/07/112-bedroom-etiquettes-in-islam.html |website=authentictauheed.com |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619113009/http://www.authentictauheed.com/2011/07/112-bedroom-etiquettes-in-islam.html |archive-date=19 June 2018 |url-status=live }} |
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⚫ | In [[Sunni Islam]], [[oral sex]] between a husband and wife is considered "Makruh Tahrimi"<ref>{{cite web|title=Ask The Scholar: What is meant by makruh?|url=http://askthescholar.com/question-details.aspx?qstID=1750|work=Shaik Ahmad Kutty|publisher=Ahmad Kutty|access-date=7 July 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20120709204156/http://askthescholar.com/question-details.aspx?qstID=1750|archive-date=9 July 2012}}</ref> or highly undesirable by some Islamic jurists when the act is defined as mouth and tongue coming in contact with the genitals.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oral Sex in Islam|url=http://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/OralSexInIslam.htm|work=The Majlis|publisher=JamiatKZN, Central-Mosque.com|access-date=7 July 2012|location=Vol. 6 No. 8|date=14 June 2003|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614230937/http://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/OralSexInIslam.htm|archive-date=14 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="Moulana Ismail Desai">{{cite web|title=Are partners allowed to lick each other's private parts?|url=http://www.askimam.org/public/question_detail/21483#_ftnref1|work=Mawlana Saeed Ahmed Golaub|publisher=Moulana Ismail Desai|access-date=9 October 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004191016/http://askimam.org/public/question_detail/21483#_ftnref1|archive-date=4 October 2012}}</ref> The reason behind considering this act as not recommended is manifold, the foremost being the issue of modesty, purification ([[Ritual purity in Islam|Taharat]]) and cleanliness.<ref>{{cite web|title=Questions On Sexuality, Oral sex|url=http://www.livingislam.org/fiqhi/fiqha_e92.html#2|work=Living Islam|publisher=GF Haddad|access-date=7 July 2012|author=Hajj Gibril|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620140054/http://www.livingislam.org/fiqhi/fiqha_e92.html#2|archive-date=20 June 2012}}</ref> In [[Twelver]] [[Shia Islam]], oral sex is permitted as long as [[Najis|najasah]] (impurity) is not consumed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Is oral sex between married couples allowed according to Shia teachings? If so, what is the evidence for it from the teachings of the Prophet (s) and the Imams (s)? |url=https://www.al-islam.org/ask/is-oral-sex-between-married-couples-allowed-according-to-shia-teachings-if-so-what-is-the-evidence-for-it-from-the-teachings-of-the-prophet-s-and-the-imams-s |website=Al-Islam.org|date=17 May 2020 }}</ref> |
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⚫ | The most common argument states<ref name="Moulana Ismail Desai"/> that the mouth and tongue are used for recitation of the Quran and for the remembrance of Allah ([[Dhikr]]).<ref name="rem allah 1">{{cite web|title=Remembrance of Allaah|url=http://www.islaam.net/main/display.php?id=391&category=134|work=Islamic Network.|publisher=Islamic Network.|access-date=7 July 2012|author='Alî Abd-ur-Rahmân al-Hudhaifî|date=4 May 2001|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415032643/http://www.islaam.net/main/display.php?id=391&category=134|archive-date=15 April 2012}}</ref> The status of contact between genitals and mouth and genital secretions is also debated among the [[four Sunni schools]], some scholars viewing them as impure and others not. |
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=== Masturbation === |
=== Masturbation === |
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In [[Shia Islam|Shia]] jurisprudence, masturbation is generally considered prohibited, though there has always been a view to permit masturbation as the lesser of two evils (so as to ward off falling into fornication).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Inhorn |first=Marcia |title=Masturbation, Semen Collection and Men's IVF Experiences: Anxieties in |journal=Body & Society |year=2007 |volume=13 |issue=37|pages=37–53 |doi=10.1177/1357034X07082251 |s2cid=72428852 }}</ref> Those jurists who permit masturbation in different cases distinguish between those who masturbate out of necessity and those who have these means yet still masturbate to gratify their lust.<ref name="oxfordislamicstudies.com"/> [[Ja'far as-Sadiq]] also cited the Quran'ic verses on guarding one's chastity and private parts.<ref>Hoseini, S.S., 2017. Masturbation: Scientific evidence and Islam's view. Journal of religion and health, 56(6), pp.2078.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Risāla ilā aḥad fuqahāʾ al-muslimīn|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1877-8054_cmr_com_25094|access-date=2021-04-04|website=Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History|doi=10.1163/1877-8054_cmr_com_25094}}</ref> The modern Iranian jurist [[Ali al-Sistani]] has stated that masturbation, while emphasising that it is haram in all other circumstances, is permissible in case of medical necessity, provided there was no lawful means to achieve ejaculation.<ref>{{cite web|last=Al-Sistani|first=Ali|title=Masturbation|url=https://www.sistani.org/english/qa/01244/|website=Sistani.org|access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=20 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210320083410/https://www.sistani.org/english/qa/01244/|url-status=live}}</ref> |
In [[Shia Islam|Shia]] jurisprudence, masturbation is generally considered prohibited, though there has always been a view to permit masturbation as the lesser of two evils (so as to ward off falling into fornication).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Inhorn |first=Marcia |title=Masturbation, Semen Collection and Men's IVF Experiences: Anxieties in |journal=Body & Society |year=2007 |volume=13 |issue=37|pages=37–53 |doi=10.1177/1357034X07082251 |s2cid=72428852 }}</ref> Those jurists who permit masturbation in different cases distinguish between those who masturbate out of necessity and those who have these means yet still masturbate to gratify their lust.<ref name="oxfordislamicstudies.com"/> [[Ja'far as-Sadiq]] also cited the Quran'ic verses on guarding one's chastity and private parts.<ref>Hoseini, S.S., 2017. Masturbation: Scientific evidence and Islam's view. Journal of religion and health, 56(6), pp.2078.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Risāla ilā aḥad fuqahāʾ al-muslimīn|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1877-8054_cmr_com_25094|access-date=2021-04-04|website=Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History|doi=10.1163/1877-8054_cmr_com_25094}}</ref> The modern Iranian jurist [[Ali al-Sistani]] has stated that masturbation, while emphasising that it is haram in all other circumstances, is permissible in case of medical necessity, provided there was no lawful means to achieve ejaculation.<ref>{{cite web|last=Al-Sistani|first=Ali|title=Masturbation|url=https://www.sistani.org/english/qa/01244/|website=Sistani.org|access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=20 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210320083410/https://www.sistani.org/english/qa/01244/|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ | In Islam, [[oral sex]] between a husband and wife is considered "Makruh Tahrimi"<ref>{{cite web|title=Ask The Scholar: What is meant by makruh?|url=http://askthescholar.com/question-details.aspx?qstID=1750|work=Shaik Ahmad Kutty|publisher=Ahmad Kutty|access-date=7 July 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20120709204156/http://askthescholar.com/question-details.aspx?qstID=1750|archive-date=9 July 2012}}</ref> or highly undesirable by some Islamic jurists when the act is defined as mouth and tongue coming in contact with the genitals.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oral Sex in Islam|url=http://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/OralSexInIslam.htm|work=The Majlis|publisher=JamiatKZN, Central-Mosque.com|access-date=7 July 2012|location=Vol. 6 No. 8|date=14 June 2003|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614230937/http://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/OralSexInIslam.htm|archive-date=14 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="Moulana Ismail Desai">{{cite web|title=Are partners allowed to lick each other's private parts?|url=http://www.askimam.org/public/question_detail/21483#_ftnref1|work=Mawlana Saeed Ahmed Golaub|publisher=Moulana Ismail Desai|access-date=9 October 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004191016/http://askimam.org/public/question_detail/21483#_ftnref1|archive-date=4 October 2012}}</ref> The reason behind considering this act as not recommended is manifold, the foremost being the issue of modesty, purification ([[Ritual purity in Islam|Taharat]]) and cleanliness.<ref>{{cite web|title=Questions On Sexuality, Oral sex|url=http://www.livingislam.org/fiqhi/fiqha_e92.html#2|work=Living Islam|publisher=GF Haddad|access-date=7 July 2012|author=Hajj Gibril|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620140054/http://www.livingislam.org/fiqhi/fiqha_e92.html#2|archive-date=20 June 2012}}</ref> |
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⚫ | The most common argument states<ref name="Moulana Ismail Desai"/> that the mouth and tongue are used for recitation of the Quran and for the remembrance of Allah ([[Dhikr]]).<ref name="rem allah 1">{{cite web|title=Remembrance of Allaah|url=http://www.islaam.net/main/display.php?id=391&category=134|work=Islamic Network.|publisher=Islamic Network.|access-date=7 July 2012|author='Alî Abd-ur-Rahmân al-Hudhaifî|date=4 May 2001|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415032643/http://www.islaam.net/main/display.php?id=391&category=134|archive-date=15 April 2012}}</ref> The status of contact between genitals and mouth and genital secretions is also debated among the [[four Sunni schools]], some scholars viewing them as impure and others not. |
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== Illegal sexual behaviour == |
== Illegal sexual behaviour == |
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{{main|Zina}} |
{{main|Zina}} |
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What distinguished a prototypical act of zināʾ from an act of rape, for the jurists, was that in the prototypical case, both parties act out of their own volition, while in an act of rape, only one of the parties does so. Jurists admitted a wide array of situations as being "coercive" in nature, including the application of physical force, the presence of duress, or the threat of future harm either to oneself or those close to oneself; they also included in their definition of "coercion" the inability to give valid consent, as in the case of minors, or mentally ill or unconscious persons. Muslim jurists from the earliest period of Islamic law agreed that perpetrators of coercive ''zināʾ'' should receive the ''ḥadd'' punishment normally applicable to their personal status and sexual status, but that the ḥadd punishment should not be applied to victims of coercive or nonconsensual ''zināʾ'' due to their reduced capacity.<ref name="Kassam"/> |
What distinguished a prototypical act of zināʾ from an act of rape, for the jurists, was that in the prototypical case, both parties act out of their own volition, while in an act of rape, only one of the parties does so. Jurists admitted a wide array of situations as being "coercive" in nature, including the application of physical force, the presence of duress, or the threat of future harm either to oneself or those close to oneself; they also included in their definition of "coercion" the inability to give valid consent, as in the case of minors, or mentally ill or unconscious persons. Muslim jurists from the earliest period of Islamic law agreed that perpetrators of coercive ''zināʾ'' should receive the ''ḥadd'' punishment normally applicable to their personal status and sexual status, but that the ḥadd punishment should not be applied to victims of coercive or nonconsensual ''zināʾ'' due to their reduced capacity.<ref name="Kassam"/> |
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According to the Mālikī, Ḥanbalī, and Shāfiʾī schools of law, the rape of a free woman consisted of not one but two violations: a violation against a "right of God" (''ḥaqq Allāh''), provoking the ''ḥadd'' punishment; and a violation against a "human" (interpersonal) right (''ḥaqq ādamī''), requiring a monetary compensation. {{additional citation|date=January 2017}} These jurists saw the free woman, in her proprietorship over her own sexuality (''buḍʾ''), as not unlike the slave-owner who owns the sexuality of his female slave. For them, in the same way that the slave owner was entitled to compensation for sexual misappropriation, the free woman was also entitled to compensation. The amount of this compensation, they reasoned, should be the amount that any man would normally pay for sexual access to the woman in question {{spaced ndash}}that is, the amount of her dower (''ṣadāq'' or ''mahr''){{additional citation needed|date=January 2018}}.<ref name="Kassam"/> As far as abortion in the context of rape, most jurist do not consider rape to be a valid reason: the sanctity of the new life takes precedence over the autonomy of the pregnant women.<ref name="Moosa"/> |
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===Anal sex=== |
===Anal sex=== |
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All Muslim jurists agree that anal sex is haram (prohibited), based on the hadith of Muhammad.<ref name="ifn">{{cite book |last1=Drissner |first1=Gerald |title=Islam for Nerds: 500 Questions and Answers |date=2016 |publisher=pochemuchka (Gerald Drissner) |isbn=978-3-9819848-4-2 |page=679 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odXkDwAAQBAJ&q=anal+islam&pg=PA679 |access-date=6 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> |
All Sunni Muslim jurists agree that anal sex is haram (prohibited), based on the hadith of Muhammad.<ref name="ifn">{{cite book |last1=Drissner |first1=Gerald |title=Islam for Nerds: 500 Questions and Answers |date=2016 |publisher=pochemuchka (Gerald Drissner) |isbn=978-3-9819848-4-2 |page=679 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odXkDwAAQBAJ&q=anal+islam&pg=PA679 |access-date=6 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> In contrast, according to Twelver Shia Muslim jurists, anal sex is considered [[makruh]] (strongly disliked) but is permissible with the consent of the wife.<ref>{{cite web |title=From Marriage to Parenthood The Heavenly Path - Chapter 2: Sexual Etiquette |url=https://www.al-islam.org/marriage-parenthood-heavenly-path/chapter-2-sexual-etiquette |website=Al-Islam.org|date=30 January 2013 }}</ref> |
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Many scholars point to the story of [[Lot in Islam|Lot]] in the Quran as an example of sodomy being an egregious sin. However multiple others hold the view that the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah was not specifically due to the sodomy practiced in those towns, but as a combination of multiple transgressions. The death by stoning for people of Sodom and Gomorrah is similar to the stoning punishment stipulated for illegal heterosexual sex. There is no punishment for a man who sodomizes a woman because it is not tied to procreation. However, other jurists insist that any act of lust in which the result is the injecting of semen into another person constitutes sexual intercourse.<ref name="Joseph 2006"/> |
Many scholars point to the story of [[Lot in Islam|Lot]] in the Quran as an example of sodomy being an egregious sin. However multiple others hold the view that the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah was not specifically due to the sodomy practiced in those towns, but as a combination of multiple transgressions. The death by stoning for people of Sodom and Gomorrah is similar to the stoning punishment stipulated for illegal heterosexual sex. There is no punishment for a man who sodomizes a woman because it is not tied to procreation. However, other jurists insist that any act of lust in which the result is the injecting of semen into another person constitutes sexual intercourse.<ref name="Joseph 2006"/> |
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See, for example, [http://thetruereligion.org/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=45 this website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928015417/http://thetruereligion.org/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=45 |date=28 September 2007 }}</ref> Islam views same-sex desires as an unnatural temptation; and, sexual relations are seen as a transgression of the natural role and aim of sexual activity.<ref>[http://www.alinaam.org.za/library/homos.htm "Homosexuality in the Light of Islam"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317063348/http://www.alinaam.org.za/library/homos.htm |date=17 March 2008 }} , 20 September 2003</ref> There is disagreement over what punishments should be administered according to the above Quranic and prophetic orders.<ref name="Moosa">{{cite web |last=Moosa |first=Ebrahim |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3403500144&v=2.1&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA}}</ref> Early [[caliph]]s were known to have had both of the male partners executed in various ways.<ref name="Rowson">{{cite web |last=Rowson |first=Everett |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3403500196&v=2.1&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=1 May 2013}}</ref> Some other jurists believe that there is no punishment that will serve as an effective purgative for this act, and therefore its immorality precludes an earthly punishment.<ref name="Moosa"/> Some jurists are so morally offended by homosexuality that just the discussion around it is cause for excommunication and anathematizing.<ref name="Moosa"/> |
See, for example, [http://thetruereligion.org/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=45 this website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928015417/http://thetruereligion.org/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=45 |date=28 September 2007 }}</ref> Islam views same-sex desires as an unnatural temptation; and, sexual relations are seen as a transgression of the natural role and aim of sexual activity.<ref>[http://www.alinaam.org.za/library/homos.htm "Homosexuality in the Light of Islam"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317063348/http://www.alinaam.org.za/library/homos.htm |date=17 March 2008 }} , 20 September 2003</ref> There is disagreement over what punishments should be administered according to the above Quranic and prophetic orders.<ref name="Moosa">{{cite web |last=Moosa |first=Ebrahim |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3403500144&v=2.1&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA}}</ref> Early [[caliph]]s were known to have had both of the male partners executed in various ways.<ref name="Rowson">{{cite web |last=Rowson |first=Everett |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3403500196&v=2.1&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=1 May 2013}}</ref> Some other jurists believe that there is no punishment that will serve as an effective purgative for this act, and therefore its immorality precludes an earthly punishment.<ref name="Moosa"/> Some jurists are so morally offended by homosexuality that just the discussion around it is cause for excommunication and anathematizing.<ref name="Moosa"/> |
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The discourse on homosexuality in Islam is primarily concerned with activities between men. There are, however, a few hadith mentioning homosexual behaviour in women.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author1=Al-Hurr al-Aamili|author-link1=Al-Hurr al-Aamili|title=Wasā'il al-Shīʿa|title-link=Wasā'il al-Shīʿa|script-title=ar: وسائل الشيعة|trans-title=Things of the followers|language=ar|at=Hadith number 34467-34481}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Atighetchi|first1=Dariusch|title=Islamic bioethics problems and perspectives|date=2007|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|location=New York|isbn=978-1402049620|page=149|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tdm9V89lW3IC&pg=PA149|access-date=13 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331225354/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tdm9V89lW3IC&pg=PA149|archive-date=31 March 2018}}</ref> Although punishment for lesbianism is rarely mentioned in the histories, [[al-Tabari]] records an example of the casual execution of a pair of lesbian slavegirls in the [[Harem (household)|harem]] of [[al-Hadi]], in a collection of highly critical anecdotes pertaining to that |
The discourse on homosexuality in Islam is primarily concerned with activities between men. There are, however, a few hadith mentioning homosexual behaviour in women.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author1=Al-Hurr al-Aamili|author-link1=Al-Hurr al-Aamili|title=Wasā'il al-Shīʿa|title-link=Wasā'il al-Shīʿa|script-title=ar: وسائل الشيعة|trans-title=Things of the followers|language=ar|at=Hadith number 34467-34481}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Atighetchi|first1=Dariusch|title=Islamic bioethics problems and perspectives|date=2007|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|location=New York|isbn=978-1402049620|page=149|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tdm9V89lW3IC&pg=PA149|access-date=13 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331225354/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tdm9V89lW3IC&pg=PA149|archive-date=31 March 2018}}</ref> Although punishment for lesbianism is rarely mentioned in the histories, [[al-Tabari]] records an example of the casual execution of a pair of lesbian slavegirls in the [[Harem (household)|harem]] of [[al-Hadi]], in a collection of highly critical anecdotes pertaining to that Caliph's actions as ruler.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bosworth|first=C.E.|title=The History of al-Tabari Vol. 30: The 'Abbasid Caliphate in Equilibrium: The Caliphates of Musa al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid A.D. 785-809/A.H. 169-193|year=1989|publisher=SUNY Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wqf1gwM9O58C&q=Tabari+lesbian+Caliph+al-Hadi&pg=PA73|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924163939/https://books.google.com/books?id=wqf1gwM9O58C&pg=PA73&lpg=PA73&dq=Tabari+lesbian+Caliph+al-Hadi&source=bl&ots=BEsfAzmpXj&sig=euUAWk4eDKk4Q0pxtRgx5Uo-ZMo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=nooiUr7BGcTxhQff9oGQBQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Tabari%20lesbian%20Caliph%20al-Hadi&f=false|archive-date=24 September 2015|isbn=978-0887065644}}</ref> Some jurists viewed sexual intercourse as possible only for an individual who possesses a [[phallus]];<ref name="Omar">{{cite web |last=Omar |first=Sara |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Law |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t349/e0010 |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=3 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908183225/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t349/e0010 |archive-date=8 September 2015 }}</ref> hence those definitions of sexual intercourse that rely on the entry of as little of the [[Corona of glans penis|corona of the phallus]] into a partner's orifice.<ref name="Omar"/> Since women do not possess a phallus and cannot have intercourse with one another, they are, in this interpretation, physically incapable of committing [[zina|zinā]].<ref name="Omar"/> |
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===Intersexuality and transsexuality=== |
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⚫ | [[Intersex people and religion#Islam|Intersex persons in Islam]] are referred to as ''Khunthaa'' in the books of Fiqh.<ref name="Ar"/> [[Mukhannathun]] (مخنثون "effeminate ones", "men who resemble women", singular mukhannath) were men who acted in ways interpreted as feminine. As time went on, the ''mukhannathun'' were forced to be castrated.<ref name="Ar">{{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Fran |last2=Jackson |first2=Peter |last3=McLelland |first3=Mark |last4=Yue |first4=Audrey |title=AsiaPacifiQueer: Rethinking Genders and Sexualities |date=2010 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-09181-0 |page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PssO1pfKDtwC&q=sex+change+islam&pg=PA91 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> There has been significant mention of "mukhannathun" in ahadith and by scholars of Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Geissinger |first1=Aisha |title=Gender and Muslim Constructions of Exegetical Authority: A Rereading of the Classical Genre of Qurʾān Commentary |date=2015 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-29444-8 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7lPFCQAAQBAJ&q=mukhannath&pg=PA31 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> The word refers to a person who behaves like a woman in gentleness, speech, appearance, movements and so on. The mukhannath or effeminate man is one who is male presenting, which may be unlike the khuntha (intersex).<ref name="Ar"/> It is generally prohibited for a person to undergo sex changes operations within Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Junius P. |title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery |date=1997 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-87436-885-7 |page=261 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&q=castration+in+islam&pg=RA1-PA261 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Favazza |first1=Armando R. |title=Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry |date=1996 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-5300-5 |page=182 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwQT9fdZNdgC&q=castration+in+islam&pg=PA182 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> |
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== Family planning == |
== Family planning == |
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=== Abortion === |
=== Abortion === |
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{{main|Islam and abortion}} |
{{main|Islam and abortion}} |
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Islamic schools of law have differing opinions on abortion, though it is prohibited or discouraged by most.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sachedina |first=Zulie |title=Islam, Procreation and the Law |journal=International Family Planning Perspectives |year=1990 |volume=16 |issue=3 |page=111}}</ref> However, abortion is allowed under certain circumstances, such as if the mother's health is threatened. If the abortion is necessary to save the woman's life, Muslims universally agree that her life takes precedence over the life of the fetus.<ref>{{cite book |first=Donna Lee |last=Bowen |chapter=Contemporary Muslim Ethics of Abortion |editor-first=Jonathan E. |editor-last=Brockopp |title=Islamic ethics of life: abortion, war, and euthanasia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agqtUUoOgQoC |year=2003 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001185028/https://books.google.com/books?id=agqtUUoOgQoC&PA=88 |archive-date=1 October 2015 |isbn=978-1570034718 }}</ref> |
Islamic schools of law have differing opinions on abortion, though it is prohibited or discouraged by most.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sachedina |first=Zulie |title=Islam, Procreation and the Law |journal=International Family Planning Perspectives |year=1990 |volume=16 |issue=3 |page=111}}</ref> However, abortion is allowed under certain circumstances, such as if the mother's health is threatened. If the abortion is necessary to save the woman's life, Muslims universally agree that her life takes precedence over the life of the fetus.<ref>{{cite book |first=Donna Lee |last=Bowen |chapter=Contemporary Muslim Ethics of Abortion |editor-first=Jonathan E. |editor-last=Brockopp |title=Islamic ethics of life: abortion, war, and euthanasia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agqtUUoOgQoC |year=2003 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001185028/https://books.google.com/books?id=agqtUUoOgQoC&PA=88 |archive-date=1 October 2015 |isbn=978-1570034718 }}</ref> |
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Abortions of pregnancies that are merely unplanned or unwanted are generally ''haram'' (forbidden).{{cn|date=May 2022}} |
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Muslim views on abortion are also shaped by the [[Hadith]] as well as by the opinions of legal and religious scholars and commentators. In Islam, the fetus is believed to become a living soul after four months of gestation,<ref>"''(The matter of the Creation of) a human being is put together in the womb of the mother in forty days, and then he becomes a clot of thick blood for a similar period, and then a piece of flesh for a similar period. Then Allah sends an angel who is ordered to write four things...then the soul is breathed into him''"<br />{{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|4|54|430}}</ref> and abortion after that point is generally viewed as impermissible. Many Islamic thinkers recognize exceptions to this rule for certain circumstances; indeed, [[Azizah Y. al-Hibri]] notes that "the majority of Muslim scholars permit abortion, although they differ on the stage of fetal development beyond which it becomes prohibited."<ref name="USAToday">{{Cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/2006-08-13-forum-abortion_x.htm |work=[[USA Today]] |title=Where does God stand on abortion? |first=Tom |last=Ehrich |date=13 August 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120627035106/http://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/2006-08-13-forum-abortion_x.htm |archive-date=27 June 2012 }}</ref> |
Muslim views on abortion are also shaped by the [[Hadith]] as well as by the opinions of legal and religious scholars and commentators. In Islam, the fetus is believed to become a living soul after four months of gestation,<ref>"''(The matter of the Creation of) a human being is put together in the womb of the mother in forty days, and then he becomes a clot of thick blood for a similar period, and then a piece of flesh for a similar period. Then Allah sends an angel who is ordered to write four things...then the soul is breathed into him''"<br />{{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|4|54|430}}</ref> and abortion after that point is generally viewed as impermissible. Many Islamic thinkers recognize exceptions to this rule for certain circumstances; indeed, [[Azizah Y. al-Hibri]] notes that "the majority of Muslim scholars permit abortion, although they differ on the stage of fetal development beyond which it becomes prohibited."<ref name="USAToday">{{Cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/2006-08-13-forum-abortion_x.htm |work=[[USA Today]] |title=Where does God stand on abortion? |first=Tom |last=Ehrich |date=13 August 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120627035106/http://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/2006-08-13-forum-abortion_x.htm |archive-date=27 June 2012 }}</ref> |
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Some Muslim scholars hold that the child of rape is a legitimate human being and therefore subject to the normal laws of abortion, that it is permitted only if the fetus is less than four months old, or if it endangers the life of its mother.<ref name="VRC"/> Certain contemporary fatwas have also laid out the position that permit abortion if the newborn might suffer from a congenital condition that would make its care exceptionally difficult for the parents.<ref name="VRC">{{cite book |first=Vardit |last=Rispler-Chaim |chapter=The Right Not To Be Born: Abortion of the Disadvantaged Fetus in Contemporary Fatwas |editor-first=Jonathan E. |editor-last=Brockopp |title=Islamic ethics of life: abortion, war, and euthanasia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agqtUUoOgQoC |year=2003 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |pages=87–88 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001185028/https://books.google.com/books?id=agqtUUoOgQoC&PA=88 |archive-date=1 October 2015 |isbn=978-1570034718 }}</ref> |
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===Sex education=== |
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⚫ | Islam has a long tradition of pragmatism with respect to sex education, with sex being readily discussed and not subject or taboo as long as the topics under discussion were Islamically permissible. A [[hadith]] attributed to Muhammad's wife [[Aisha]] states that the [[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]] women in particular were not shy about asking questions regarding sexual matters as long as they are halal.<ref>Bukhari, Book 3, Number 0649</ref> From as early as the 14th-century, entire manuscripts devoted to Islamic sexual education were being written in Arabic in Baghdad, which at that time was a great literary centre within the Muslim world.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Women and Men in al-Suyūṭī's Guides to Sex and Marriage |last=Myrne |first=Pernilla |date=2018 |publisher=The Middle East Documentation Center (MEDOC) at the University of Chicago |issn=1947-2404 |doi=10.25846/26hn-gp87 |pages=47–67 |journal=Mamlūk Studies Review |volume=XXI |url=https://knowledge.uchicago.edu/record/1253?ln=en}}</ref> |
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⚫ | [[Intersex people and religion#Islam|Intersex persons in Islam]] are referred to as ''Khunthaa'' in the books of Fiqh.<ref name="Ar"/> [[Mukhannathun]] (مخنثون "effeminate ones", "men who resemble women", singular mukhannath) were men who acted in ways interpreted as feminine. As time went on, the ''mukhannathun'' were forced to be castrated.<ref name="Ar">{{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Fran |last2=Jackson |first2=Peter |last3=McLelland |first3=Mark |last4=Yue |first4=Audrey |title=AsiaPacifiQueer: Rethinking Genders and Sexualities |date=2010 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-09181-0 |page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PssO1pfKDtwC&q=sex+change+islam&pg=PA91 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> There has been significant mention of "mukhannathun" in ahadith and by scholars of Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Geissinger |first1=Aisha |title=Gender and Muslim Constructions of Exegetical Authority: A Rereading of the Classical Genre of Qurʾān Commentary |date=2015 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-29444-8 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7lPFCQAAQBAJ&q=mukhannath&pg=PA31 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> The word refers to a person who behaves like a woman in gentleness, speech, appearance, movements and so on. The mukhannath or effeminate man is one who is male presenting, which may be unlike the khuntha (intersex).<ref name="Ar"/> It is generally prohibited for a person to undergo sex changes operations within Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Junius P. |title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery |date=1997 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-87436-885-7 |page=261 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&q=castration+in+islam&pg=RA1-PA261 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Favazza |first1=Armando R. |title=Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry |date=1996 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-5300-5 |page=182 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwQT9fdZNdgC&q=castration+in+islam&pg=PA182 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> |
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⚫ | In modern practice, sex education is not recommended until the approach of puberty, children are expected to be taught the signs of this and the characteristics which distinguish men from women.<ref name=CEII>{{cite book |last1=Alwan |first1=Abdullah Nasih |last2=Ghali |first2=Mahmoud |last3=Ghani |first3=Kamal Abdul |last4=Elkhatib |first4=Shafiq |last5=Shaban |first5=Ali Ahmad |last6=Al-Gindi |first6=Ash-Shahhat |last7=Zeid |first7=Khalifa Ezzat |first8=Selma |last8=Cook |title=Child Education in Islam |date=2004 |publisher=Dar-Us Salam |location=Cairo |isbn=977-342-000-0 |pages=186–214 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lk685SYzgOIC&q=child+education+in+islam&pg=PA14 |access-date=19 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref> Islamic tradition also encourages that sexual education be entwined with morality, explaining Islamic rules involving the covering the intimate parts of the body, [[Intimate parts in Islam|‘''awrah'']], and the Islamic positions on modesty, chastity and avoiding [[promiscuity]].<ref name=CEII/> |
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⚫ | ''Khitan'' or ''Khatna'' ({{lang-ar|ختان}}, {{lang-ar|ختنة}}) is the term for male [[circumcision]] carried out as a [[Islamic culture|cultural rite]] by Muslims and is considered a sign of belonging to the wider [[Islam]]ic community.<ref name="bbc">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |title=Circumcision of boys |access-date=29 July 2008 |work=Religion & ethics – Islam |publisher=BBC |date=24 March 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080305204605/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |archive-date=5 March 2008 }}</ref> Whether or not it should be carried out after [[converting to Islam]] is debated among Islamic scholars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://convertingtoislam.com/circum.html |title=Male circumcision – the Islamic View |publisher=www.convertingtoislam.com |access-date=4 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151217175325/http://convertingtoislam.com/circum.html |archive-date=17 December 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicinvitationcentre.com/FAQ/converts/FAQ_converts.html#Anchor-34662circumcision|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227151507/http://islamicinvitationcentre.com/FAQ/converts/FAQ_converts.html#Anchor-34662circumcision|archive-date=27 December 2010 |title=Is Circumcision obligatory after conversion? |publisher=Islamicinvitationcentre.com |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> The Quran does not mention circumcision, either explicitly or implicitly, in any verse, while some [[hadith]]s mention circumcision in a list of practices known as ''[[fitra]]'' (acts considered to be of a refined person). However, different hadiths contradict on whether circumcision is part of fitra or not. According to some traditions Muhammad was born without a [[foreskin]] ([[Aposthia|aposthetic]]), while others maintain that his grandfather [[Abdul-Muttalib]] circumcised him when he was seven days old.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |title=Religions – Islam: Circumcision of boys |publisher=BBC |date=13 August 2009 |access-date=26 February 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120629074142/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |archive-date=29 June 2012 }}</ref><ref>Al-Halabi, Ali Ibn-Burhan-al-Din. Alsirah al-halabiyyah. Vol.1 Beirut: Al-maktabah al-islamiyyah. (n.d.): 54-5</ref> Islamic sources that advocate for circumcision also do not fix a particular time for circumcision, which can depend on family, region and country. The preferred age is usually seven although some Muslims are circumcised as early as the seventh day after birth and as late as the commencement of [[puberty]].<ref name="bbc" /> |
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⚫ | For example, in issues pertaining to [[Marriage in Islam|marriage]], ''baligh'' is related to the [[Arabic]] legal expression, ''hatta tutiqa'l-rijal'', which means that a wedding may not take place until the girl is physically fit to engage in [[sexual intercourse]]. In comparison, ''baligh'' or ''balaghat'' concerns the reaching of [[sexual maturity]] which becomes manifest by the [[menses]]. The age related to these two concepts can, but need not necessarily, coincide. Only after a separate condition called ''rushd'', or intellectual maturity to handle one's own property, is reached can a girl receive her [[bridewealth]].<ref>Masud, ''Islamic Legal Interpretation, Muftis and Their Fatwas'', [[Harvard University]] Press, 1996</ref> |
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⚫ | Nocturnal emission is not a sin in Islam. Moreover, whereas a person fasting (in [[Ramadan]] or otherwise) would normally be considered to have broken their fast by ejaculating on purpose (during either masturbation or intercourse), nocturnal emission is not such a cause. They are still required to bathe prior to undergoing some rituals in the religion. Muslim scholars consider ejaculation something that makes one temporarily ritually impure, a condition known as [[junub]]; meaning that a [[Muslim]] who has had an orgasm or ejaculated must have a ''[[ghusl]].''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith-Hefner |first1=Nancy J. |title=Islamizing Intimacies: Youth, Sexuality, and Gender in Contemporary Indonesia |date=2019 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |location= |isbn=978-0-8248-7811-5 |page=128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVnGDwAAQBAJ&q=nocturnal+emission+islam&pg=PA128 |access-date=26 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref> |
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⚫ | The Qur'an makes specific mention of menstruation in Verse 2:222 that instructs Muslims to "keep aloof from the women during the menstrual discharge and do not go near them until they have become clean; then when they have cleansed themselves, go in to them as Allah has commanded you",<ref>{{cite quran|2|222|t=s|s=ns}}</ref> language that is taken to clearly imply that sexual relations during menstruation are prohibited.<ref name="Joseph2007">{{cite book |last=Joseph |first=Suad |title=Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures |year=2007 |publisher=Brill |page=531}}</ref> Ibn Kathīr, a [[muhaddith]], narrated a hadith that describes Muhammad's habits with his menstruating wives. This hadith demonstrates that Muhammad gave licence to all forms of spousal intimacy during the period of menstruation with the exception of vaginal intercourse. Women are required to perform ritual cleansing (''ghusl'') before resuming religious duties or sexual relations upon completion of their menstruation.<ref>{{cite web |last=Baugh |first=Carolyn |title=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0965 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908190008/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0965 |archive-date=8 September 2015 }}</ref> |
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⚫ | Sexual intercourse is also prohibited during menstruation,<ref name="Joseph2007"/> for forty days after childbirth ([[puerperium]]), during the daylight hours of the month of [[Ramadan]] (i.e. while fasting) and on pilgrimage. While in the sanctuary (in Ahram) at Mecca, pilgrims are not allowed to have intercourse, and marriages performed during the pilgrimage are invalid.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wheeler |first=Brannon |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3403500093&v=2.1&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=3 May 2013}}</ref> |
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==Intercourse with jinn== |
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Islamic belief includes the existence of [[jinn]] or genies, and among are said to be those that have [[sexual intercourse]] with humans.<ref name=Hidden>{{cite book |last1=Hanegraaff |first1=Wouter J. |last2=Kripal |first2=Jeffrey |title=Hidden intercourse : eros and sexuality in the history of Western esotericism |date=2008 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-474-4358-2 |pages=53–56, 58 |url=https://www.pdfdrive.com/download.pdf?id=156631497&h=01723481c66b5fb7d9f36753045fe0f5&u=cache&ext=pdf |access-date=1 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref> There are some ''[[Hadith|hadiths]]'', considered [[Mawḍūʻ|fabricated]] (''maudhu'') by some Sunni [[Muhaddith|hadith scholars]] (''muhaddith''), in support of this view.<ref name=Hidden/> Lory states that, in Islamic belief, love is one of the most frequent causes of relationships between humans and jinn, according to Sylvaine Camelin, in her study of exorcism in the Yemeni province of Hadramawt.{{efn|Love seems to be the most frequent occasion of contact between men and jinn. A jinni meets a woman and falls in love with her, or vice versa... This possession is manifest notably when the jinni has sexual intercourse with the person he/she possesses. In that case, the individual behaves with gestures and words as if they were having sexual intercourse, although he/she is apparently alone in the room. Besides, this person seems to suddenly lose all interest for his/her environment."<ref name=Hidden/>}} Some scholars say that, while marriage is permissible between a jinn and a human, it is undesirable (''[[makruh]]'') while others strongly forbid it.<ref name=Hidden/> |
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== See also == |
== See also == |
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{{Commons category|Sexuality in Islam}} |
{{Commons category|Sexuality in Islam}} |
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{{Wikiquote|Islam and sexuality}} |
{{Wikiquote|Islam and sexuality}} |
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* [http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2139?_hi=1&_pos=2 Article on Sexuality in Oxford Islamic Studies Online] |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051201010701/http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/muslim/mus-index.html FSE Project section on Muslim Sexual Ethics] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051201010701/http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/muslim/mus-index.html FSE Project section on Muslim Sexual Ethics] |
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