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{{Short description|Queen of Castile (1474 to |
{{Short description|Queen of Castile (1474 to 1503) and Queen consort of Aragon}} |
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{{Redirect|Isabella I}} |
{{Redirect|Isabella I}} |
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{{Redirect|Isabel la Católica|the Mexico City Metro station|Isabel la Católica metro station}} |
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{{EngvarB|date=May 2014}} |
{{EngvarB|date=May 2014}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}} |
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}} |
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{{AFI}} |
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{{Infobox royalty |
{{Infobox royalty |
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| name = Isabella I |
| name = Isabella I |
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| succession = [[Queen of Castile]] and [[List of Leonese monarchs|León]] |
| succession = [[Queen of Castile]] and [[List of Leonese monarchs|León]] |
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| reign = 11 December 1474 – {{nowrap|26 November 1504}} |
| reign = 11 December 1474 – {{nowrap|26 November 1504}} |
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| coronation = 13 December 1474<ref>{{cite book | title=Game of Queens: The Women Who Made Sixteenth-Century Europe | author=Gristwood, Sarah | year=2016 | publisher=Basic Books |
| coronation = 13 December 1474<ref>{{cite book | title=Game of Queens: The Women Who Made Sixteenth-Century Europe | author=Gristwood, Sarah | year=2016 | publisher=[[Basic Books]]| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TSnXCwAAQBAJ | page=30| isbn=9780465096794 }}</ref> |
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| predecessor = [[Henry IV of Castile|Henry IV]] |
| predecessor = [[Henry IV of Castile|Henry IV]] |
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| successor = [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna]] |
| successor = [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna]] |
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| religion = [[Catholic Church in Spain|Roman Catholicism]] |
| religion = [[Catholic Church in Spain|Roman Catholicism]] |
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}} |
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'''Isabella I''' ({{lang-es|Isabel I}}, 22 April 1451 – 26 November 1504)<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 March 2019|title=To seize power in Spain, Queen Isabella had to play it smart|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2019/03-04/queen-isabellas-rise-to-spanish-throne/|access-date=8 February 2021|website=History Magazine|language=en}}</ref> was [[Queen of Castile]] from 1474 until |
'''Isabella I''' ({{lang-es|Isabel I}}, 22 April 1451 – 26 November 1504)<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 March 2019|title=To seize power in Spain, Queen Isabella had to play it smart|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2019/03-04/queen-isabellas-rise-to-spanish-throne/|access-date=8 February 2021|website=History Magazine|language=en}}</ref> was [[Queen of Castile]] from 1474 until her death in 1504, reigning over a [[Dynastic union|dynastically unified]] [[Spain]] together with her husband, King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]]. She was [[List of Aragonese royal consorts|Queen of Aragon]] after Ferdinand II ascended to that throne in 1479. Together, Isabella and Ferdinand are known as the [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Catholic Monarchs]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Watson|first=Fiona Flores|date=26 July 2013|title=History – The Catholic Monarchs|url=https://www.andalucia.com/history/catholic-monarchs|access-date=8 February 2021|website=Andalucia.com|language=en}}</ref> |
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After a struggle to claim the throne, Isabella reorganized the governmental system, brought the crime rate to the lowest it had been in years,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Isabella I of Castile (Queen of Castile)|url=https://www.onthisday.com/people/isabella-i-of-castile|access-date=8 February 2021|website=OnThisDay.com|language=en}}</ref> and unburdened the kingdom of the enormous debt her half-brother [[Henry IV of Castile|King Henry IV]] had left behind. Isabella's marriage to Ferdinand in 1469 created the basis of the ''de facto'' unification of Spain. Her reforms and those she made with her husband had an influence that extended well beyond the borders of their united kingdoms. |
After a struggle to claim the throne, Isabella reorganized the governmental system, brought the crime rate to the lowest it had been in years,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Isabella I of Castile (Queen of Castile)|url=https://www.onthisday.com/people/isabella-i-of-castile|access-date=8 February 2021|website=OnThisDay.com|language=en}}</ref> and unburdened the kingdom of the enormous debt her half-brother [[Henry IV of Castile|King Henry IV]] had left behind. Isabella's marriage to Ferdinand in 1469 created the basis of the ''de facto'' unification of Spain. Her reforms and those she made with her husband had an influence that extended well beyond the borders of their united kingdoms. |
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Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon are known for being the first monarchs to be referred to as "Queen of Spain" and "King of Spain" respectively, for completing the [[Reconquista]], for issuing the [[Alhambra Decree]] which ordered the [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|mass expulsion of Jews]] and [[Expulsion of the Moriscos|Muslims]] from Spain, for establishing the [[Spanish Inquisition]], for supporting and financing [[Christopher Columbus]]'s [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus#First voyage|1492 voyage]] that led to the discovery of the [[New World]] by Europeans and established the [[Spanish empire]], for making Spain a major power in Europe and much of the world, and for ushering in the [[Spanish Golden Age]].<ref name="NGHistory">{{cite news |
Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon are known for being the first monarchs to be referred to as "Queen of Spain" and "King of Spain" respectively, labeled such for completing the [[Reconquista]], for issuing the [[Alhambra Decree]] which ordered the [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|mass expulsion of Jews]] and [[Expulsion of the Moriscos|Muslims]] from Spain, for establishing the [[Spanish Inquisition]], for supporting and financing [[Christopher Columbus]]'s [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus#First voyage|1492 voyage]] that led to the discovery of the [[New World]] by Europeans and established the [[Spanish empire]], for making Spain a major power in Europe and much of the world, and for ushering in the [[Spanish Golden Age]].<ref name="NGHistory">{{cite news|last1=Palos|first1=Joan-Lluís|date=28 March 2019|title=To seize power in Spain, Queen Isabella had to play it smart: Bold, strategic, and steady, Isabella of Castile navigated an unlikely rise to the throne and ushered in a golden age for Spain|publisher=National Geographic History Magazine|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2019/march-april/queen-isabellas-rise-to-spanish-throne/|url-status=dead|access-date=20 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330183046/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2019/march-april/queen-isabellas-rise-to-spanish-throne/|archive-date=30 March 2019}}</ref> Isabella was granted, together with her husband, the title of "Catholic monarch" by [[Pope Alexander VI]], and was recognized in 1974 as a [[servant of God]] by the [[Catholic Church]]. |
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==Life== |
==Life== |
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=== Early years === |
=== Early years === |
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Isabella was born in [[Madrigal de las Altas Torres]], [[Ávila (province)|Ávila]], to [[John II of Castile]] and his second wife, [[Isabella of Portugal, Queen of Castile|Isabella of Portugal]], on 22 April 1451.<ref>Cristina Guardiola-Griffiths. (2018). Isabel I, Queen of Castile. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0395.xml/.</ref> |
Isabella was born in [[Madrigal de las Altas Torres]], [[Ávila (province)|Ávila]], to [[John II of Castile]] and his second wife, [[Isabella of Portugal, Queen of Castile|Isabella of Portugal]], on 22 April 1451.<ref>Cristina Guardiola-Griffiths. (2018). Isabel I, Queen of Castile. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0395.xml/.</ref> At the time of Isabella's birth, she was second in line to the throne after her older half-brother [[Henry IV of Castile]].<ref name="NGHistory"/> Henry was 26 at that time and married, but childless. Isabella's younger brother [[Alfonso of Castile, Prince of Asturias|Alfonso of Castile]] was born two years later on 17 November 1453, lowering her position to third in line.<ref>Weissberger, Barbara, "Queen Isabel I of Castile Power, Patronage, Persona." Tamesis, Woodbridge, 2008, pp. 20–21</ref> When her father died in 1454, her half-brother ascended to the throne as King Henry IV of Castile. Isabella and her brother Alfonso were left in King Henry's care.<ref name="Prescott, William 1860, p. 28">Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' J.B Lippincott & Co., 1860, p. 28</ref> Isabella, her mother, and Alfonso then moved to [[Arévalo]].<ref name="NGHistory"/><ref name="Prescott, William 1860, p. 83">Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' J.B Lippincott & Co., 1860, p. 83</ref> |
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These were times of turmoil for Isabella. The living conditions at their castle in Arévalo were poor, and they suffered from a shortage of money. Although her father arranged in his will for his children to be financially well taken care of, King Henry did not comply with their father's wishes, either from a desire to keep his half-siblings restricted or from ineptitude.<ref name="Prescott, William 1860, p. 28"/> Even though living conditions were difficult |
These were times of turmoil for Isabella. The living conditions at their castle in Arévalo were poor, and they suffered from a shortage of money. Although her father arranged in his will for his children to be financially well taken care of, King Henry did not comply with their father's wishes, either from a desire to keep his half-siblings restricted or from ineptitude.<ref name="Prescott, William 1860, p. 28"/> Even though her living conditions were difficult, Isabella was instructed in lessons of practical piety and in a deep reverence for religion under the supervision of her mother.<ref name="Prescott, William 1860, p. 83"/> |
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When the King's wife, [[Joan of Portugal]], was about to give birth to their daughter [[Joanna la Beltraneja|Joanna]], Isabella and her brother Alfonso were summoned to court in [[Segovia]] to come under the direct supervision of the King and to finish their education.<ref name="NGHistory"/> Alfonso was placed in the care of a tutor while Isabella became part of the Queen's household.<ref>Plunkett, Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 52</ref> |
When the King's wife, [[Joan of Portugal]], was about to give birth to their daughter [[Joanna la Beltraneja|Joanna]], Isabella and her brother Alfonso were summoned to court in [[Segovia]] to come under the direct supervision of the King and to finish their education.<ref name="NGHistory"/> Alfonso was placed in the care of a tutor while Isabella became part of the Queen's household.<ref>Plunkett, Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 52</ref> |
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[[File:Isabel de castilla.jpg|thumb|upright|Isabella in the ''Rimado de la Conquista de Granada'', from 1482, by Pedro Marcuello]] |
[[File:Isabel de castilla.jpg|thumb|upright|Isabella in the ''Rimado de la Conquista de Granada'', from 1482, by Pedro Marcuello]] |
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Some of Isabella's living conditions improved in Segovia. She always had food and clothing and lived in a castle that was adorned with gold and silver. Isabella's basic education consisted of reading, spelling, writing, grammar, history, mathematics, art, [[chess]], dancing, embroidery, music, and religious instruction. She and her ladies-in-waiting entertained themselves with art, embroidery, and music. She lived a relaxed lifestyle, but she rarely left Segovia since King Henry forbade this. Her half-brother was keeping her from the political |
Some of Isabella's living conditions improved in Segovia. She always had food and clothing and lived in a castle that was adorned with gold and silver. Isabella's basic education consisted of reading, spelling, writing, grammar, history, mathematics, art, [[chess]], dancing, embroidery, music, and religious instruction. She and her ladies-in-waiting entertained themselves with art, embroidery, and music. She lived a relaxed lifestyle, but she rarely left Segovia since King Henry forbade this. Her half-brother was keeping her from the political turmoil going on in the kingdom, though Isabella had full knowledge of what was going on and of her role in the feuds.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} |
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The noblemen, anxious for power, confronted King Henry, demanding that his younger half-brother |
The noblemen{{Who|date=February 2022}}, anxious for power, confronted King Henry, demanding that his younger half-brother Alfonso be named his successor. They even went so far as to ask Alfonso to seize the throne. The nobles, now in control of Alfonso and claiming that he was the true heir, clashed with King Henry's forces at the [[Second Battle of Olmedo]] in 1467. The battle was a draw. King Henry agreed to recognize Alfonso as his heir presumptive, provided that he would marry his daughter, Princess Joanna la Beltraneja.<ref name="NGHistory"/><ref>Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' J.B Lippincott & Co., 1860, pp. 85–87</ref> Soon after he was named [[Prince of Asturias]], Isabella's younger brother Alfonso died in July 1468, likely of the plague{{Clarification needed|reason=what is "the plague"?|date=February 2022}}. The nobles who had supported him suspected poisoning. As she had been named in her brother's will as his successor, the nobles asked Isabella to take his place as champion of the rebellion.<ref name="NGHistory"/> However, support for the rebels had begun to wane, and Isabella preferred a negotiated settlement to continuing the war.<ref>Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' J.B Lippincott & Co., 1860, pp. 93–94</ref> She met with her elder half-brother Henry at [[Toros de Guisando]] and they reached a compromise: the war would stop, King Henry would name Isabella his heir-presumptive instead of his daughter Joanna, and Isabella would not marry without her half-brother's consent, but he would not be able to force her to marry against her will.<ref name="NGHistory"/><ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 68">Plunkett, Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 68</ref> Isabella's side came out with most of what the nobles desired, though they did not go so far as to officially depose King Henry; they were not powerful enough to do so, and Isabella did not want to jeopardize the principle of fair inherited succession, since it was upon this idea that she had based her argument for legitimacy as heir-presumptive. |
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===Marriage=== |
===Marriage=== |
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The question of Isabella's marriage was not a new one. She had |
The question of Isabella's marriage was not a new one. She had, at the age of six, a betrothal to [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]], the younger son of [[John II of Navarre]] (whose family was a cadet branch of the [[House of Trastámara]]). At that time, the two kings, Henry and John, were eager to show their mutual love and confidence and they believed that this alliance would make their eternal friendship obvious to the world.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 35</ref> This arrangement, however, did not last long. |
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[[File:Fernando e Isabel.jpg|thumb|left|The wedding portrait of Ferdinand and Isabella, {{circa}} 1469.]] |
[[File:Fernando e Isabel.jpg|thumb|left|The wedding portrait of Ferdinand and Isabella, {{circa}} 1469.]] |
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Ferdinand's uncle [[Alfonso V of Aragon]] died in 1458. All of Alfonso's Spanish territories, as well as the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, were left to his brother John II. John now had a stronger position than ever before and no longer needed the security of Henry's friendship. Henry was now in need of a new alliance. He saw the chance for this much-needed new friendship in [[Charles of Viana]], John's elder son.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 36–39</ref> Charles was constantly at odds with his father, and because of this, he secretly entered into an alliance with Henry IV of Castile. A major part of the alliance was that a marriage was to be arranged between Charles and Isabella. When John II learned of this arranged marriage he was outraged. Isabella had been intended for his favourite younger son, Ferdinand, and in his eyes, this alliance was still valid. John II had his son Charles thrown in prison on charges of plotting against his father's life |
Ferdinand's uncle [[Alfonso V of Aragon]] died in 1458. All of Alfonso's Spanish territories, as well as the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, were left to his brother John II. John now had a stronger position than ever before and no longer needed the security of Henry's friendship. Henry was now in need of a new alliance. He saw the chance for this much-needed new friendship in [[Charles of Viana]], John's elder son.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 36–39</ref> Charles was constantly at odds with his father, and because of this, he secretly entered into an alliance with Henry IV of Castile. A major part of the alliance was that a marriage was to be arranged between Charles and Isabella. When John II learned of this arranged marriage, he was outraged. Isabella had been intended for his favourite younger son, Ferdinand, and in his eyes, this alliance was still valid. John II had his son Charles thrown in prison on charges of plotting against his father's life. Charles died in 1461.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 39–40</ref> |
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In 1465, an attempt was made to marry Isabella to [[Afonso V of Portugal]], Henry's brother-in-law.<ref name="NGHistory"/> Through the medium of the Queen and Count of Ledesma, a Portuguese alliance was made.<ref name=BlckWell2000>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 5</ref> Isabella, however, was wary of the marriage and refused to consent.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 53</ref> |
In 1465, an attempt was made to marry Isabella to [[Afonso V of Portugal]], Henry's brother-in-law.<ref name="NGHistory"/> Through the medium of the Queen and Count of Ledesma, a Portuguese alliance was made.<ref name=BlckWell2000>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 5</ref> Isabella, however, was wary of the marriage and refused to consent.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 53</ref> |
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A civil war broke out in Castile over King Henry's inability to act as sovereign. Henry now needed a quick way to please the rebels of the kingdom. As part of an agreement to restore peace, Isabella was to be betrothed to [[Pedro Girón Acuña Pacheco]], Master of the [[Order of Calatrava]] and brother to the King's favourite, [[Juan Pacheco]].<ref name=BlckWell2000/> In return, Don Pedro would pay into the |
A civil war broke out in Castile over King Henry's inability to act as sovereign. Henry now needed a quick way to please the rebels of the kingdom. As part of an agreement to restore peace, Isabella was then to be betrothed to [[Pedro Girón Acuña Pacheco]], Master of the [[Order of Calatrava]] and brother to the King's favourite, [[Juan Pacheco]].<ref name=BlckWell2000/> In return, Don Pedro would pay into the royal treasury an enormous sum of money. Seeing no alternative, Henry agreed to the marriage. Isabella was aghast and prayed to God that the marriage would not come to pass. Her prayers were answered when Don Pedro suddenly fell ill and died while on his way to meet his fiancée.<ref name=BlckWell2000/><ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 62–63</ref> |
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When Henry had |
When Henry had recognized Isabella as his heir-presumptive on 19 September 1468, he had also promised that his half-sister should not be compelled to marry against her will, while she in return had agreed to obtain his consent.<ref name="NGHistory"/><ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 68"/> It seemed that the years of failed attempts at political marriages were finally over. There was talk of a marriage to [[Edward IV of England]] or to one of his brothers, probably [[Richard III of England|Richard, Duke of Gloucester]],<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 9</ref> but this alliance was never seriously considered.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 68"/> Once again in 1468, a marriage proposal arrived from Afonso V of Portugal. Going against his promises made in September{{Which|date=February 2022}}, Henry tried to make the marriage a reality. If Isabella married Afonso, Henry's daughter Joanna would marry Afonso's son [[John II of Portugal|John II]] and thus, after the death of the old king, John and Joanna could inherit Portugal and Castile.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 70–71</ref> Isabella refused and made a secret promise to marry her cousin and very first betrothed, Ferdinand of Aragon.<ref name="NGHistory"/> |
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[[File:IsabellaofCastile05.jpg|thumb|upright|Ferdinand and Isabella]] |
[[File:IsabellaofCastile05.jpg|thumb|upright|Ferdinand and Isabella]] |
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After this failed attempt, Henry once again went against his promises and tried to marry Isabella to [[Louis XI]]'s brother [[Charles de Valois, Duc de Berry|Charles, Duke of Berry]].<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 72</ref> In Henry's eyes, this alliance would cement the friendship of Castile and France as well as remove Isabella from Castilian affairs. Isabella once again refused the proposal. Meanwhile, John II of Aragon negotiated in secret with Isabella a wedding to his son Ferdinand.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 10, 13–14</ref> |
After this failed attempt, Henry once again went against his promises and tried to marry Isabella to [[Louis XI]]'s brother [[Charles de Valois, Duc de Berry|Charles, Duke of Berry]].<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 72</ref> In Henry's eyes, this alliance would cement the friendship of Castile and France as well as remove Isabella from Castilian affairs. However, Isabella once again refused the proposal. Meanwhile, John II of Aragon negotiated in secret with Isabella a wedding to his son Ferdinand.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 10, 13–14</ref> |
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On 18 October 1469, the formal betrothal took place.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 78">Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 78</ref> Because Isabella and Ferdinand were second cousins, they stood within the prohibited degrees of [[consanguinity]] and the marriage would not be legal unless a dispensation from the Pope was obtained.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 11, 13</ref> With the help of the Valencian Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia (later [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]]), Isabella and Ferdinand were presented with a supposed papal bull by [[Pope Pius II|Pius II]] (who had died in 1464), authorising Ferdinand to marry within the third degree of consanguinity, making their marriage legal.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 78"/> Afraid of opposition, Isabella eloped from the court of Henry with the excuse of visiting her brother Alfonso's tomb in [[Ávila, Spain|Ávila]]. Ferdinand, on the other hand, crossed Castile in secret disguised as a servant.<ref name="NGHistory"/> They |
On 18 October 1469, the formal betrothal took place.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 78">Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 78</ref> Because Isabella and Ferdinand were second cousins, they stood within the prohibited degrees of [[consanguinity]] and the marriage would not be legal unless a dispensation from the Pope was obtained.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 11, 13</ref> With the help of the Valencian Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia (later [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]]), Isabella and Ferdinand were presented with a supposed papal bull by [[Pope Pius II|Pius II]] (who had actually died in 1464), authorising Ferdinand to marry within the third degree of consanguinity, making their marriage legal.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 78"/> Afraid of opposition, Isabella eloped from the court of Henry with the excuse of visiting her brother Alfonso's tomb in [[Ávila, Spain|Ávila]]. Ferdinand, on the other hand, crossed Castile in secret disguised as a servant.<ref name="NGHistory"/> They married immediately upon reuniting on 19 October 1469 in the [[Royal Audiencia and Chancillería of Valladolid|Palacio de los Vivero]] in the city of [[Valladolid]].<ref name="Gerli219">Gerli, p. 219</ref> |
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===War with Portugal=== |
===War with Portugal=== |
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{{See also|Battle of Toro|Battle of Guinea|War of the Castilian Succession}} |
{{See also|Battle of Toro|Battle of Guinea|War of the Castilian Succession}} |
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On 12 December 1474, news of King Henry IV's death in [[Madrid]] reached [[Segovia]] |
On 12 December 1474, news of King Henry IV's death in [[Madrid]] (which had happened on 11 December<ref>{{Cite web|title=Henry IV {{!}} king of Castile {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-IV-king-of-Castile|access-date=2022-02-22|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=February 2022}}) reached [[Segovia]]. This prompted Isabella to take refuge within the walls of the [[Alcázar of Segovia]], where she received the support of Andres de Cabrera and Segovia's council. The next day, Isabella was proclaimed Queen of Castile and León. |
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Isabella's reign got off to a rocky start. King Henry IV had named Isabella as his successor, so when she ascended to the throne in 1474, there were already several plots against her. [[Diego Lopez de Pacheco, 2nd Duke of Escalona|Diego Pacheco]], the Marquis of Villena, and his followers maintained that [[Joanna la Beltraneja]], Henry's daughter, was the rightful queen.<ref>Plunkett, Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 93</ref> Shortly after the Marquis made his claim, a longtime supporter of Isabella, the [[Alfonso Carillo de Acuña|Archbishop of Toledo]], left court to plot with his great-nephew the Marquis. The Archbishop and Marquis made plans to have Joanna marry her uncle King [[Afonso V of Portugal]] and invade Castile to claim the throne for themselves.<ref>Plunkett, p. 96</ref> |
Isabella's reign got off to a rocky start. King Henry IV had named Isabella as his successor, so when she ascended to the throne in 1474, there were already several plots against her. [[Diego Lopez de Pacheco, 2nd Duke of Escalona|Diego Pacheco]], the Marquis of Villena, and his followers maintained that [[Joanna la Beltraneja]], Henry's daughter, was the rightful queen.<ref>Plunkett, Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 93</ref> Shortly after the Marquis made his claim, a longtime supporter of Isabella, the [[Alfonso Carillo de Acuña|Archbishop of Toledo]], left court to plot with his great-nephew the Marquis. The Archbishop and Marquis made plans to have Joanna marry her uncle King [[Afonso V of Portugal]] and invade Castile to claim the throne for themselves.<ref>Plunkett, p. 96</ref> |
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In May 1475, King Afonso and his army crossed into Spain and advanced to [[Plasencia]]. Here he married the young Joanna.<ref>Plunkett, p. 98</ref> A long and bloody war for the Castilian succession then took place. The war went back and forth for almost a year, until the [[Battle of Toro]] on 1 March 1476, in which both sides claimed |
In May 1475, King Afonso and his army crossed into Spain and advanced to [[Plasencia]]. Here he married the young Joanna{{Who|date=February 2022}}.<ref>Plunkett, p. 98</ref> A long and bloody war for the Castilian succession then took place. The war went back and forth for almost a year, until the [[Battle of Toro]] on 1 March 1476, in which both sides claimed<ref name="Spanish historian Ana Carrasco Manchado (21)">[[#Manchado|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Spanish historian Ana Carrasco Manchado: ''"...The battle [of Toro] was fierce and uncertain, and because of that both sides attributed themselves the victory. John, the son of Afonso of Portugal, sent letters to the Portuguese cities declaring victory. And Ferdinand of Aragon did the same. Both wanted to take advantage of the victory's propaganda."'' In [https://books.google.com/books?id=qADOoHct1MwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Isabel+I+de+Castilla+y+la+sombra+de+la+ilegitimidad.+Propaganda+y+representación+en+el+conflicto+sucesorio+%281474–1482%29&source=bl&ots=sxnzroys_j&sig=aM79jFNVQ3dl8c47tP2FGbR ''Isabel I de Castilla y la sombra de la ilegitimidad: propaganda y representación en el conflicto sucesorio (1474–1482)''], 2006, pp. 195, 196.</ref><ref name="Spanish historian Cesáreo Fernández Duro (22)">[[#Duro|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Spanish historian Cesáreo Fernández Duro: ''"...For those who ignore the background of these circumstances it will certainly seem strange that while the Catholic Monarchs raised a temple in Toledo in honour of the victory that God granted them on that occasion, the same fact [the Battle of Toro] was festively celebrated with solemn processions on its anniversary in Portugal" '' in [http://descargas.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/hist/09255096579869640757857/023863.pdf?incr=1 ''La batalla de Toro (1476). Datos y documentos para su monografía histórica''], in Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, tome 38, Madrid, 1901,p. 250.</ref> and celebrated<ref name="Spanish historian Cesáreo Fernández Duro (22)"/><ref name="Manchado (23)">[[#Manchado|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Manchado, [https://books.google.com/books?id=qADOoHct1MwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Isabel+I+de+Castilla+y+la+sombra+de+la+ilegitimidad.+Propaganda+y+representaci%C3%B3n+en+el+conflicto+sucesorio+%281474%E2%80%931482%29&source=bl&ots=sxnzroys_j&sig=aM79jFNVQ3dl8c47tP2FGbR#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Isabel I de Castilla y la sombra de la ilegitimidad: propaganda y representación en el conflicto sucesorio (1474–1482)''], 2006, p. 199 (foot note nr.141).</ref> victory: the troops of King Afonso V were beaten<ref name="Pulgar (24)">[[#Pulgar|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Pulgar, [http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/cronica-de-los-senores-reyes-catolicos-don-fernando-y-dona-isabel-de-castilla-y-de-aragon--2/ ''Crónica de los Señores Reyes Católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de Aragón''], chapter XLV.</ref><ref name="Garcia de Resende (25)">[[#Resende|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Garcia de Resende- [[:wikisource:pt:Vida e Feitos D' El-Rey Dom João Segundo/XIII|''Vida e feitos d'El Rei D.João II'']], chapter XIII.</ref> by the Castilian centre-left commanded by the Duke of Alba and [[Cardinal Mendoza]] while the forces led by John of Portugal defeated<ref name="Chronicler Pulgar (Castilian) (26)">[[#Pulgar|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] chronicler [[Hernando del Pulgar]] (Castilian): ''"...promptly, those 6 Castilian captains, which we already told were at the right side of the royal battle, and were invested by the prince of Portugal and the bishop of Évora, turned their backs and put themselves on the run."'' in [http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/cronica-de-los-senores-reyes-catolicos-don-fernando-y-dona-isabel-de-castilla-y-de-aragon--2/ ''Crónica de los Señores Reyes Católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de Aragón''], chapter XLV.</ref><ref name="chronicler Garcia de Resende (Portuguese)(27)">[[#Resende|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] chronicler [[Garcia de Resende]] (Portuguese): ''"... And being the battles of both sides ordered that way and prepared to attack by nearly sunshine, the King ordered the prince to attack the enemy with his and God's blessing, which he obeyed (...). (...) and after the sound of the trumpets and screaming all for S. George invested so bravely the enemy battles, and in spite of their enormous size, they could not stand the hard fight and were rapidly beaten and put on the run with great losses."'' In [[:wikisource:pt:Vida e Feitos D' El-Rey Dom João Segundo/XIII|''Vida e feitos d'El Rei D.João II'']], chapter XIII.</ref><ref name="chronicler Juan de Mariana (Castilian) (28)">[[#Mariana|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] chronicler [[Juan de Mariana]] (Castilian): ''"(...) the ''<nowiki>[Castilian]</nowiki>'' horsemen (...) moved forward(...).They were received by prince D. John... which charge... they couldn't stand but instead were defeated and ran away "'' in |
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[https://books.google.com/books?id=OvUA8yjTEoMC&pg=PA296&dq=Mariana+%22Historia+general+de+España%22&as_brr=3&hl=pt-PT&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Historia General de España''], tome V, book XXIV, chapter X, pp. 299–300.</ref><ref name="chronicler Damião de Góis (Portuguese) (29)">[[#Góis|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] chronicler [[Damião de Góis]] (Portuguese): ''"(...) these Castilians who were on the right of the Castilian Royal battle, received ''<nowiki>[the charge of]</nowiki>'' the Prince's men as brave knights invoking Santiago but they couldn't resist them and began to flee, and ''<nowiki>[so]</nowiki>'' our men killed and arrested many of them, and among those who escaped some took refuge (...) in their Royal battle that was on left of these six ''<nowiki>[Castilian]</nowiki>'' divisions. "'' in [http://purl.pt/286/3/ ''Chronica do Principe D. Joam''], chapter LXXVIII.</ref> the Castilian right wing and remained in possession<ref name="chronicler Juan de Mariana (Castilian) (30)">[[#Mariana|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] chronicler [[Juan de Mariana]] (Castilian): ''"...the enemy led by prince D. John of Portugal, who without suffering defeat, stood on a hill with his forces in good order until very late (...). Thus, both forces ''<nowiki>[Castilian and Portuguese]</nowiki>'' remained face to face for some hours; and the Portuguese kept their position during more time (...)"'' in [https://books.google.com/books?id=OvUA8yjTEoMC&pg=PA296&dq=Mariana+%22Historia+general+de+España%22&as_brr=3&hl=pt-PT&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Historia General de España''], tome V, book XXIV, chapter X, pp. 299–300.</ref><ref name="chronicler Rui de Pina (Portuguese) (31)">[[#Pina|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] chronicler [[Rui de Pina]] (Portuguese): ''"And being the two enemy battles face to face, the Castilian battle was deeply agitated and showing clear signs of defeat if attacked as it was without King and dubious of the outcome.(...) And without discipline and with great disorder they went to Zamora. So being the Prince alone on the field without suffering defeat but inflicting it on the adversary he became heir and master of his own victory"'' in [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/24508/24508-h/24508-h.htm ''Chronica de El- rei D.Affonso V...''] 3rd book, chapter CXCI.</ref> of the battlefield. |
[https://books.google.com/books?id=OvUA8yjTEoMC&pg=PA296&dq=Mariana+%22Historia+general+de+España%22&as_brr=3&hl=pt-PT&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Historia General de España''], tome V, book XXIV, chapter X, pp. 299–300.</ref><ref name="chronicler Damião de Góis (Portuguese) (29)">[[#Góis|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] chronicler [[Damião de Góis]] (Portuguese): ''"(...) these Castilians who were on the right of the Castilian Royal battle, received ''<nowiki>[the charge of]</nowiki>'' the Prince's men as brave knights invoking Santiago but they couldn't resist them and began to flee, and ''<nowiki>[so]</nowiki>'' our men killed and arrested many of them, and among those who escaped some took refuge (...) in their Royal battle that was on left of these six ''<nowiki>[Castilian]</nowiki>'' divisions. "'' in [http://purl.pt/286/3/ ''Chronica do Principe D. Joam''], chapter LXXVIII.</ref> the Castilian right wing and remained in possession<ref name="chronicler Juan de Mariana (Castilian) (30)">[[#Mariana|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] chronicler [[Juan de Mariana]] (Castilian): ''"...the enemy led by prince D. John of Portugal, who without suffering defeat, stood on a hill with his forces in good order until very late (...). Thus, both forces ''<nowiki>[Castilian and Portuguese]</nowiki>'' remained face to face for some hours; and the Portuguese kept their position during more time (...)"'' in [https://books.google.com/books?id=OvUA8yjTEoMC&pg=PA296&dq=Mariana+%22Historia+general+de+España%22&as_brr=3&hl=pt-PT&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Historia General de España''], tome V, book XXIV, chapter X, pp. 299–300.</ref><ref name="chronicler Rui de Pina (Portuguese) (31)">[[#Pina|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] chronicler [[Rui de Pina]] (Portuguese): ''"And being the two enemy battles face to face, the Castilian battle was deeply agitated and showing clear signs of defeat if attacked as it was without King and dubious of the outcome.(...) And without discipline and with great disorder they went to Zamora. So being the Prince alone on the field without suffering defeat but inflicting it on the adversary he became heir and master of his own victory"'' in [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/24508/24508-h/24508-h.htm ''Chronica de El- rei D.Affonso V...''] 3rd book, chapter CXCI.</ref> of the battlefield. |
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With great political vision, Isabella took advantage of the moment and convoked courts at Madrigal-Segovia (April–October 1476)<ref name="Historian Marvin">[[#Lunenfeld|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Historian Marvin Lunenfeld: "In 1476, immediately after the indecisive battle of Peleagonzalo ''<nowiki>[near Toro]</nowiki>'', Ferdinand and Isabella hailed the result as a great victory and called a cortes at Madrigal. The newly created prestige was used to gain municipal support from their allies (...)" in [https://books.google.com/books?ei=h-Q1T83PEoK2hAfisv2RAg&ct=book-thumbnail&hl=pt-PT&id=QoFBAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22The+council+of+the+Santa+hermandad%3A+a+study+of+the+pacification+forces+of+Ferdinand+and+Isabella%2C+Marvin+Lunenfeld%22&q=%22indecisive+battle+of+Peleagonzalo%22 ''The council of the Santa Hermandad: a study of the pacification forces of Ferdinand and Isabella''], University of Miami Press, 1970, p. 27.</ref> where her eldest child and daughter [[Isabella of Aragon and Castile|Isabella]] was first sworn as heiress to Castile's crown. That was equivalent to legitimising Isabella's own throne. |
With great political vision, Isabella took advantage of the moment and convoked courts at Madrigal-Segovia (April–October 1476)<ref name="Historian Marvin">[[#Lunenfeld|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Historian Marvin Lunenfeld: "In 1476, immediately after the indecisive battle of Peleagonzalo ''<nowiki>[near Toro]</nowiki>'', Ferdinand and Isabella hailed the result as a great victory and called a cortes at Madrigal. The newly created prestige was used to gain municipal support from their allies (...)" in [https://books.google.com/books?ei=h-Q1T83PEoK2hAfisv2RAg&ct=book-thumbnail&hl=pt-PT&id=QoFBAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22The+council+of+the+Santa+hermandad%3A+a+study+of+the+pacification+forces+of+Ferdinand+and+Isabella%2C+Marvin+Lunenfeld%22&q=%22indecisive+battle+of+Peleagonzalo%22 ''The council of the Santa Hermandad: a study of the pacification forces of Ferdinand and Isabella''], University of Miami Press, 1970, p. 27.</ref> where her eldest child and daughter [[Isabella of Aragon and Castile|Isabella]] was first sworn as heiress to Castile's crown. That was equivalent to legitimising Isabella's own throne. |
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In August of the same year, Isabella proved her abilities as a powerful ruler on her own. A rebellion broke out in Segovia, and Isabella rode out to suppress it, as her husband Ferdinand was off fighting at the time. Going against the advice of her male advisors, Isabella rode by herself into the city to negotiate with the rebels. She was successful and the rebellion was quickly brought to an end.<ref>Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1860, pp. 184–185</ref> Two years later, Isabella further secured her place as ruler with the birth of her son [[John, Prince of Asturias]], on 30 June 1478. To many, the presence of a male heir legitimised her place as ruler. |
In August of the same year, Isabella proved her abilities as a powerful ruler on her own. A rebellion broke out in Segovia, and Isabella rode out to suppress it, as her husband Ferdinand was off fighting at the time. Going against the advice of her male advisors, Isabella rode by herself into the city to negotiate with the rebels. She was successful and the rebellion was quickly brought to an end.<ref>Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' [[J.B. Lippincott & Co.]], 1860, pp. 184–185</ref> Two years later, Isabella further secured her place as ruler with the birth of her son [[John, Prince of Asturias]], on 30 June 1478. To many, the presence of a male heir legitimised her place as ruler. |
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Meanwhile, the Castilian and Portuguese fleets fought for hegemony in the Atlantic Ocean and for the wealth of Guinea (gold and slaves), where the decisive naval [[Battle of Guinea]] was fought.<ref name="Battle of Guinea (40)">[[Battle of Guinea]]: [[#Palencia|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Alonso de Palencia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&source=bl&ots=kdDs0IZIC2&sig=1GhLLlK7uT95iMhwkS2KqoLeBJQ&hl=pt-PT&ei=zGpZTbrYFIKAhQf-9YyDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved Década IV], Book XXXIII, Chapter V (''"Disaster among those sent to the mines of gold ''<nowiki>[Guinea]</nowiki>''. Charges against the King..."''), pp. 91–94. This was a decisive battle because after it, in spite of the Catholic Monarchs' attempts, they were unable to send new fleets to Guinea, Canary or to any part of the Portuguese empire until the end of the war. The [[John II of Portugal|''Perfect Prince'']] sent an order to drown any Castilian crew captured in Guinea waters. Even the Castilian navies which left Guinea before the signature of the peace treaty had to pay the tax ("quinto") to the Portuguese crown when they returned to Castile after the peace treaty. Isabella had to ask permission of Afonso V so that this tax could be paid in Castilian harbours. Naturally all this caused a grudge against the Catholic Monarchs in Andalusia.</ref><ref name="Historian Malyn Newitt">[[#Newitt|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Historian Malyn Newitt: ''"However, in 1478 the Portuguese surprised thirty-five Castilian ships returning from Mina ''<nowiki>[Guinea]</nowiki>'' and seized them and all their gold. Another...Castilian voyage to Mina, that of [[Eustache de la Fosse]], was intercepted ... in 1480. (...) All things considered, it is not surprising that the Portuguese emerged victorious from this '''first maritime colonial war'''. They were far better organised than the Castilians, were able to raise money for the preparation and supply of their fleets, and had clear central direction from ... ''<nowiki>[Prince]</nowiki>'' John."'' In [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22the+Portuguese+emerged+victorious+from+this+first+maritime+colonial+war.%22+&btnG=Pesquisar+livros&tbm=bks&tbo=1&hl=pt-PT ''A history of Portuguese overseas expansion, 1400–1668''] |
Meanwhile, the Castilian and Portuguese fleets fought for hegemony in the Atlantic Ocean and for the wealth of Guinea (gold and slaves), where the decisive naval [[Battle of Guinea]] was fought.<ref name="Battle of Guinea (40)">[[Battle of Guinea]]: [[#Palencia|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Alonso de Palencia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&source=bl&ots=kdDs0IZIC2&sig=1GhLLlK7uT95iMhwkS2KqoLeBJQ&hl=pt-PT&ei=zGpZTbrYFIKAhQf-9YyDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved Década IV], Book XXXIII, Chapter V (''"Disaster among those sent to the mines of gold ''<nowiki>[Guinea]</nowiki>''. Charges against the King..."''), pp. 91–94. This was a decisive battle because after it, in spite of the Catholic Monarchs' attempts, they were unable to send new fleets to Guinea, Canary or to any part of the Portuguese empire until the end of the war. The [[John II of Portugal|''Perfect Prince'']] sent an order to drown any Castilian crew captured in Guinea waters. Even the Castilian navies which left Guinea before the signature of the peace treaty had to pay the tax ("quinto") to the Portuguese crown when they returned to Castile after the peace treaty. Isabella had to ask permission of Afonso V so that this tax could be paid in Castilian harbours. Naturally all this caused a grudge against the Catholic Monarchs in Andalusia.</ref><ref name="Historian Malyn Newitt">[[#Newitt|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Historian Malyn Newitt: ''"However, in 1478 the Portuguese surprised thirty-five Castilian ships returning from Mina ''<nowiki>[Guinea]</nowiki>'' and seized them and all their gold. Another...Castilian voyage to Mina, that of [[Eustache de la Fosse]], was intercepted ... in 1480. (...) All things considered, it is not surprising that the Portuguese emerged victorious from this '''first maritime colonial war'''. They were far better organised than the Castilians, were able to raise money for the preparation and supply of their fleets, and had clear central direction from ... ''<nowiki>[Prince]</nowiki>'' John."'' In [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22the+Portuguese+emerged+victorious+from+this+first+maritime+colonial+war.%22+&btnG=Pesquisar+livros&tbm=bks&tbo=1&hl=pt-PT ''A history of Portuguese overseas expansion, 1400–1668''], New York: [[Routledge]]2005, pp. 39–40.</ref> |
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The war dragged on for another three years<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile'' The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 109–110</ref> and ended with a Castilian victory on land<ref name="Bailey W. Diffie (42)">[[#Diffie|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Bailey W. Diffie and George D. Winius ''"In a war in which the Castilians were victorious on land and the Portuguese at sea, ..."'' in [https://books.google.com/books?id=VsqCelF9OdkC&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=%22foundations+of+the+Portuguese+empire....In+a+war+in+which+the+Castilians+were+victorious+on+land+and+the+Portuguese+on+sea%22&source=bl&ots=_6XiLcq0Ez&sig=MxqBFdBqI-MryupkXAHW3pBa9LU&hl= ''Foundations of the Portuguese empire 1415–1580''], volume I, University of Minnesota Press, 1985, [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22In+a+war+in+which+the+Castilians+were+victorious+on+land+and+the+Portuguese+at+sea%22&btnG=Pesquisar+livros&tbm=bks&tbo=1&hl=pt-PT p. 152].</ref> and a Portuguese victory on the sea.<ref name="Bailey W. Diffie (42)"/> The four separate peace treaties signed at [[Treaty of Alcáçovas|Alcáçovas]] (4 September 1479) reflected that result: Portugal gave up the throne of Castile in favour of Isabella in exchange for a very favourable share of the Atlantic territories disputed with Castile (they all went to Portugal with the exception of the [[Canary Islands]]:<ref>: [[#Palencia|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Alonso de Palencia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&source=bl&ots=kdDs0IZIC2&sig=1GhLLlK7uT95iMhwkS2KqoLeBJQ&hl=pt-PT&ei=zGpZTbrYFIKAhQf-9YyDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved Decada IV], Book XXXI, Chapters VIII and IX (''"preparation of 2 fleets ''<nowiki>[to Guinea and to Canary, respectively]</nowiki>'' so that with them King Ferdinand crush its enemies ''<nowiki>[the Portuguese]</nowiki>...").</ref><ref name="Alonso de Palencia (44)">[[#Palencia|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Alonso de Palencia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&source=bl&ots=kdDs0IZIC2&sig=1GhLLlK7uT95iMhwkS2KqoLeBJQ&hl=pt-PT&ei=zGpZTbrYFIKAhQf-9YyDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved Decada IV], book XXXII, chapter III: in 1478 a Portuguese fleet intercepted the armada of 25 navies sent by Ferdinand to conquer Gran Canary – capturing 5 of its navies plus 200 Castilians – and forced it to fled hastily and definitively from Canary waters. This victory allowed Prince John to use the Canary Islands as an "exchange coin" in the peace treaty of Alcáçovas.</ref> [[gulf of Guinea|Guinea]] with its mines of gold, [[Cape Verde]], [[Madeira]], [[Azores]], and the right of conquest over the [[Kingdom of Fez]]<ref>[[#Pina|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Pina, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/24508/24508-h/24508-h.htm ''Chronica de El-Rei D. Affonso V''], 3rd book, chapter CXCIV (Editorial error: Chapter CXCIV erroneously appears as Chapter CLXIV.Reports the end of the siege of Ceuta by the arrival of the fleet with Afonso V).</ref><ref>[[#Quesada|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Quesada, [http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/ELEM/article/view/ELEM0000110067A/22548 ''Portugueses en la frontera de Granada''], 2000, p. 98. In 1476 Ceuta was simultaneously besieged by the moors and a Castilian army led by the Duke of Medina Sidónia. The Castilians conquered the city from the Portuguese who took refuge in the inner fortress, but a Portuguese fleet arrived ''"in extremis"'' and regained the city. A Ceuta dominated by the Castilians would certainly have forced the right to conquer Fez (Morocco) to be shared between Portugal and Castile instead of the monopoly the Portuguese acquired.</ref>) plus a large war compensation: 106.676 dobles of gold.<ref name="Mendonça (47)">[[#Mendonça|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Mendonça, 2007, pp. 101–103.</ref> The Catholic Monarchs also had to accept that Joanna la Beltraneja remain in Portugal instead of Spain<ref name="Mendonça (47)"/> and to pardon all rebellious subjects who had supported Joanna and King Afonso.<ref name="Edwards 2000, p. 38">Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 38</ref> And the Catholic Monarchs{{snd}}who had proclaimed themselves rulers of Portugal and donated lands to noblemen inside this country<ref>[[#Mendonça|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Mendonça, 2007, p. 53.</ref>{{snd}}had to give up the Portuguese crown. |
The war dragged on for another three years<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile'' The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 109–110</ref> and ended with a Castilian victory on land<ref name="Bailey W. Diffie (42)">[[#Diffie|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Bailey W. Diffie and George D. Winius ''"In a war in which the Castilians were victorious on land and the Portuguese at sea, ..."'' in [https://books.google.com/books?id=VsqCelF9OdkC&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=%22foundations+of+the+Portuguese+empire....In+a+war+in+which+the+Castilians+were+victorious+on+land+and+the+Portuguese+on+sea%22&source=bl&ots=_6XiLcq0Ez&sig=MxqBFdBqI-MryupkXAHW3pBa9LU&hl= ''Foundations of the Portuguese empire 1415–1580''], volume I, University of Minnesota Press, 1985, [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22In+a+war+in+which+the+Castilians+were+victorious+on+land+and+the+Portuguese+at+sea%22&btnG=Pesquisar+livros&tbm=bks&tbo=1&hl=pt-PT p. 152].</ref> and a Portuguese victory on the sea.<ref name="Bailey W. Diffie (42)"/> The four separate peace treaties signed at [[Treaty of Alcáçovas|Alcáçovas]] (4 September 1479) reflected that result: Portugal gave up the throne of Castile in favour of Isabella in exchange for a very favourable share of the Atlantic territories disputed with Castile (they all went to Portugal with the exception of the [[Canary Islands]]:<ref>: [[#Palencia|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Alonso de Palencia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&source=bl&ots=kdDs0IZIC2&sig=1GhLLlK7uT95iMhwkS2KqoLeBJQ&hl=pt-PT&ei=zGpZTbrYFIKAhQf-9YyDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved Decada IV], Book XXXI, Chapters VIII and IX (''"preparation of 2 fleets ''<nowiki>[to Guinea and to Canary, respectively]</nowiki>'' so that with them King Ferdinand crush its enemies ''<nowiki>[the Portuguese]</nowiki>...").</ref><ref name="Alonso de Palencia (44)">[[#Palencia|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Alonso de Palencia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&source=bl&ots=kdDs0IZIC2&sig=1GhLLlK7uT95iMhwkS2KqoLeBJQ&hl=pt-PT&ei=zGpZTbrYFIKAhQf-9YyDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved Decada IV], book XXXII, chapter III: in 1478 a Portuguese fleet intercepted the armada of 25 navies sent by Ferdinand to conquer Gran Canary – capturing 5 of its navies plus 200 Castilians – and forced it to fled hastily and definitively from Canary waters. This victory allowed Prince John to use the Canary Islands as an "exchange coin" in the peace treaty of Alcáçovas.</ref> [[gulf of Guinea|Guinea]] with its mines of gold, [[Cape Verde]], [[Madeira]], [[Azores]], and the right of conquest over the [[Kingdom of Fez]]<ref>[[#Pina|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Pina, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/24508/24508-h/24508-h.htm ''Chronica de El-Rei D. Affonso V''], 3rd book, chapter CXCIV (Editorial error: Chapter CXCIV erroneously appears as Chapter CLXIV.Reports the end of the siege of Ceuta by the arrival of the fleet with Afonso V).</ref><ref>[[#Quesada|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Quesada, [http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/ELEM/article/view/ELEM0000110067A/22548 ''Portugueses en la frontera de Granada''], 2000, p. 98. In 1476 Ceuta was simultaneously besieged by the moors and a Castilian army led by the Duke of Medina Sidónia. The Castilians conquered the city from the Portuguese who took refuge in the inner fortress, but a Portuguese fleet arrived ''"in extremis"'' and regained the city. A Ceuta dominated by the Castilians would certainly have forced the right to conquer Fez (Morocco) to be shared between Portugal and Castile instead of the monopoly the Portuguese acquired.</ref>) plus a large war compensation: 106.676 dobles of gold.<ref name="Mendonça (47)">[[#Mendonça|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Mendonça, 2007, pp. 101–103.</ref> The Catholic Monarchs also had to accept that Joanna la Beltraneja remain in Portugal instead of Spain<ref name="Mendonça (47)"/> and to pardon all rebellious subjects who had supported Joanna and King Afonso.<ref name="Edwards 2000, p. 38">Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 38</ref> And the Catholic Monarchs{{snd}}who had proclaimed themselves rulers of Portugal and donated lands to noblemen inside this country<ref>[[#Mendonça|<sub><big>↓</big></sub>]] Mendonça, 2007, p. 53.</ref>{{snd}}had to give up the Portuguese crown. |
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====Regulation of crime==== |
====Regulation of crime==== |
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When Isabella came to the throne in 1474, Castile was in a state of despair due to her brother Henry's reign. It was |
When Isabella came to the throne in 1474, Castile was in a state of despair due to her brother Henry's reign. It was known that Henry IV was a big spender and did little to enforce the laws of his kingdom. It was even said by one Castilian denizen of the time that murder, rape, and robbery happened without punishment.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 121</ref> Because of this, Isabella needed desperately to find a way to reform her kingdom. Due to the measures she imposed, historians during her lifetime saw her to be more inclined to justice than to mercy, and indeed far more rigorous and unforgiving than her husband Ferdinand.<ref>Boruchoff, David A. "Historiography with License: Isabel, the Catholic Monarch, and the Kingdom of God." ''Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays''. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, pp. 242–247.</ref> |
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====La Santa Hermandad==== |
====La Santa Hermandad==== |
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{{main|Hermandad}} |
{{main|Hermandad}} |
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Isabella's first major reform came during the cortes of Madrigal in 1476 in the form of a police force, La Santa Hermandad (the Holy Brotherhood). |
Isabella's first major reform came during the cortes of Madrigal in 1476 in the form of a police force, La Santa Hermandad (the Holy Brotherhood). Although 1476 was not the first time that Castile had seen the Hermandad, it was the first time that the police force was used by the crown.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 125</ref> During the late medieval period, the expression ''hermandad'' had been used to describe groups of men who came together of their own accord to regulate law and order by patrolling the roads and countryside and punishing malefactors.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 42</ref> These brotherhoods had usually been suppressed by the monarch, however. |
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Furthermore, before 1476, the justice system in most parts of the country was effectively under the control of dissident members of the nobility rather than royal officials.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 48–49</ref> To fix this problem, during 1476, a general Hermandad was established for Castile, [[León (historical region)|Leon]], and [[Asturias]]. The police force was to be made up of locals who were to regulate the crime occurring in the kingdom. It was to be paid for by a tax of 1800 [[maravedí]]s on every one hundred households.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 125–126</ref> In 1477, Isabella visited [[Extremadura]] and Andalusia to introduce this more efficient police force there as well.<ref>Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' J.B Lippincott & C., 1860, p. 186</ref> |
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====Other criminal reforms==== |
====Other criminal reforms==== |
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Keeping with her reformation of the regulation of laws, in 1481 Isabella charged two officials with restoring peace in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]. This turbulent province had been the prey of tyrant nobles since the days of Isabella's father, John II.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 123</ref> Robbers infested the highways and oppressed the smaller towns and villages. |
Keeping with her reformation of the regulation of laws, in 1481 Isabella charged two officials with restoring peace in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]. This turbulent province had been the prey of tyrant nobles since the days of Isabella's father, John II.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 123</ref> Robbers had infested the highways and oppressed the smaller towns and villages. The officials Isabella charged set off with the Herculean task of restoring peace for the province and were ultimately successful. Indeed, they drove over 1,500 robbers from Galicia.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 133</ref> |
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====Finances==== |
====Finances==== |
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From the very beginning of her reign, Isabella fully grasped the importance of restoring the Crown's finances. The reign of Henry IV had left the kingdom of Castile in great debt. Upon examination, it was found that the chief cause of the nation's poverty was the wholesale alienation of royal estates during Henry's reign.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 150">Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 150</ref> To make money, Henry had sold off royal estates at prices well below their value. The Cortes of Toledo of 1480 came to the conclusion that the only hope of lasting financial reform lay in a resumption of these alienated lands and rents. This decision was warmly approved by many leading nobles of the court, but Isabella was reluctant to take such drastic measures. It was decided that the Cardinal of Spain would hold an enquiry into the tenure of estates and rents acquired during Henry IV's reign. Those that had not been granted as a reward for services were to be restored without compensation, while those that had been sold at a price far below their real value were to be bought back at the same sum. While many of the nobility were forced to pay large sums of money for their estates, the royal treasury became even richer. Isabella's one stipulation was that there would be no revocation of gifts made to churches, hospitals, or the poor.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press |
From the very beginning of her reign, Isabella fully grasped the importance of restoring the Crown's finances. The reign of Henry IV had left the kingdom of Castile in great debt. Upon examination, it was found that the chief cause of the nation's poverty was the wholesale alienation of royal estates during Henry's reign.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 150">Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 150</ref> To make money, Henry had sold off royal estates at prices well below their value. The Cortes of Toledo of 1480 came to the conclusion that the only hope of lasting financial reform lay in a resumption of these alienated lands and rents. This decision was warmly approved by many leading nobles of the court, but Isabella was reluctant to take such drastic measures. It was decided that the Cardinal of Spain would hold an enquiry into the tenure of estates and rents acquired during Henry IV's reign. Those that had not been granted as a reward for services were to be restored without compensation, while those that had been sold at a price far below their real value were to be bought back at the same sum. While many of the nobility were forced to pay large sums of money for their estates, the royal treasury became even richer. Isabella's one stipulation was that there would be no revocation of gifts made to churches, hospitals, or the poor.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. (1915) ''Isabel of Castile''. [[The Knickerbocker Press]], pp. 152–155</ref> |
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Another issue of money was the overproduction of coinage and the abundance of mints in the kingdom. During Henry's reign, the number of mints regularly producing money had increased from just five to 150.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 150"/> Much of the coinage produced in these mints was nearly worthless. During the first year of her reign, Isabella established a monopoly over the royal mints and fixed a legal standard to which the coinage had to approximate{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}. By shutting down many of the mints and taking royal control over the production of money, Isabella restored the confidence of the public in the Crown's ability to handle the kingdom's finances. |
Another issue of money was the overproduction of coinage and the abundance of mints in the kingdom. During Henry's reign, the number of mints regularly producing money had increased from just five to 150.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 150"/> Much of the coinage produced in these mints was nearly worthless. During the first year of her reign, Isabella established a monopoly over the royal mints and fixed a legal standard to which the coinage had to approximate{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}. By shutting down many of the mints and taking royal control over the production of money, Isabella restored the confidence of the public in the Crown's ability to handle the kingdom's finances. |
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====Government==== |
====Government==== |
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Both Isabella and Ferdinand established very few new governmental and administrative institutions in their respective kingdoms. Especially in Castile, |
Both Isabella and Ferdinand established very few new governmental and administrative institutions in their respective kingdoms. Especially in Castile, their main achievement was to use more effectively the institutions that had existed during the reigns of John II and Henry IV.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 28</ref> Historically, the center of the Castilian government had been the royal household, together with its surrounding court. The household was traditionally divided into two overlapping bodies. The first body was made up of household officials, mainly people of the nobility, who carried out governmental and political functions for which they received special payment. The second body was made up of some 200 permanent servants or ''continos'' who performed a wide range of confidential functions on behalf of the rulers.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 29</ref> By the 1470s, when Isabella began to take a firm grip on the royal administration, the senior offices of the royal household were simply honorary titles and held strictly by the nobility. The positions of a more secretarial nature were often held by senior churchmen. Substantial revenues were attached to such offices and were therefore enjoyed greatly, on an effectively hereditary basis, by the great Castilian houses of nobility. While the nobles held the titles, individuals of lesser breeding did the real work.<ref>Edwards, John. (2005)''Ferdinand and Isabella''. [[Pearson Education Limited]], pp. 29–32</ref> |
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[[File:Losreyescatolicos.jpg|thumb|left|Ferdinand and Isabella with their subjects]] |
[[File:Losreyescatolicos.jpg|thumb|left|Ferdinand and Isabella with their subjects]] |
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Isabella began to rely more on the professional administrators than ever before. These men were mostly of the [[bourgeoisie]] or lesser nobility. The council was also rearranged and it was officially settled that one bishop, three ''[[knight|caballeros]]'', and eight or nine lawyers would serve on the council at a time. While the nobles were no longer directly involved in the matters of state, they were welcome to attend the meetings. Isabella hoped by forcing the nobility to choose whether to participate or not would weed out those who were not dedicated to the state and its cause.<ref>Plunkett, Ierne. ''Isabella of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 142</ref> |
Isabella began to rely more on the professional administrators than ever before. These men were mostly of the [[bourgeoisie]] or lesser nobility. The council was also rearranged and it was officially settled that one bishop, three ''[[knight|caballeros]]'', and eight or nine lawyers would serve on the council at a time. While the nobles were no longer directly involved in the matters of state, they were welcome to attend the meetings. Isabella hoped by forcing the nobility to choose whether to participate or not would weed out those who were not dedicated to the state and its cause.<ref>Plunkett, Ierne. ''Isabella of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 142</ref> |
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Isabella also saw the need to provide a personal relationship between herself as the monarch and her subjects. Therefore, Isabella and Ferdinand set aside a time every Friday during which they themselves would sit and allow people to come to them with complaints. This was a new form of personal justice that Castile had not seen before. The Council of State was reformed and presided over by the King and Queen. This department of public affairs dealt mainly with foreign negotiations, hearing embassies, and transacting business with the Court of Rome. In addition to these departments, there was also a Supreme Court of the Santa Hermandad, a Council of Finance, and a Council for settling purely Aragonese matters.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 143</ref> Although Isabella made many reforms that seem to have made the Cortes stronger, in actuality the Cortes lost political power during the reigns of Isabella and Ferdinand. Isabella and her husband moved in the direction of a non-parliamentary government and the Cortes became an almost passive advisory body, giving automatic assent to legislation which had been drafted by the royal administration.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc |
Isabella also saw the need to provide a personal relationship between herself as the monarch and her subjects. Therefore, Isabella and Ferdinand set aside a time every Friday during which they themselves would sit and allow people to come to them with complaints. This was a new form of personal justice that Castile had not seen before. The Council of State was reformed and presided over by the King and Queen. This department of public affairs dealt mainly with foreign negotiations, hearing embassies, and transacting business with the Court of Rome. In addition to these departments, there was also a Supreme Court of the Santa Hermandad, a Council of Finance, and a Council for settling purely Aragonese matters.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 143</ref> Although Isabella made many reforms that seem to have made the Cortes stronger, in actuality the Cortes lost political power during the reigns of Isabella and Ferdinand. Isabella and her husband moved in the direction of a non-parliamentary government and the Cortes became an almost passive advisory body, giving automatic assent to legislation which had been drafted by the royal administration.<ref>Edwards, John. (2000) ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. [[Blackwell Publishers Inc.]], p. 49</ref> |
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After the reforms of the Cortes of Toledo, the Queen ordered a noted jurist, Alfonso Diaz de Montalvo, to undertake the task of clearing away legal rubbish and compiling what remained into a comprehensive code. Within four years the work stood completed in eight bulky volumes and the Ordenanzas Reales took their place on legal bookshelves.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press |
After the reforms of the Cortes of Toledo, the Queen ordered a noted jurist, Alfonso Diaz de Montalvo, to undertake the task of clearing away legal rubbish and compiling what remained into a comprehensive code. Within four years the work stood completed in eight bulky volumes and the Ordenanzas Reales took their place on legal bookshelves.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. (1915) ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, p. 146</ref> |
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===Events of 1492=== |
===Events of 1492=== |
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At the end of the [[Reconquista]], only Granada was left for Isabella and Ferdinand to conquer. The [[Emirate of Granada]] had been held by the Muslim [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrid]] dynasty since the mid-13th century.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 48</ref> Protected by natural barriers and fortified towns, it had withstood the long process of the [[reconquista]]. On 1 February 1482, the king and queen reached [[Medina del Campo]] and this is generally considered the beginning of the war for Granada. While Isabella's and Ferdinand's involvement in the war was apparent from the start, Granada's leadership was divided and never able to present a united front.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, pp. 48–49</ref> It still took ten years to conquer Granada, however, culminating in 1492. |
At the end of the [[Reconquista]], only Granada was left for Isabella and Ferdinand to conquer. The [[Emirate of Granada]] had been held by the Muslim [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrid]] dynasty since the mid-13th century.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 48</ref> Protected by natural barriers and fortified towns, it had withstood the long process of the [[reconquista]]. On 1 February 1482, the king and queen reached [[Medina del Campo]] and this is generally considered the beginning of the war for Granada. While Isabella's and Ferdinand's involvement in the war was apparent from the start, Granada's leadership was divided and never able to present a united front.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, pp. 48–49</ref> It still took ten years to conquer Granada, however, culminating in 1492. |
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The Spanish monarchs recruited soldiers from many European countries and improved their artillery with the latest and best cannon.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 104–106</ref> Systematically, they proceeded to take the kingdom piece by piece. In 1485 they laid siege to [[Ronda]], which surrendered after only a fortnight due to extensive bombardment.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 111</ref> The following year, [[Loja, Granada|Loja]] was taken, and again [[Muhammad XII of Granada|Muhammad XII]] was captured and released. One year later, with the fall of [[Málaga]], the western part of the Muslim [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrid]] kingdom had fallen into Spanish hands. The eastern province succumbed after the fall of [[Baza, Granada|Baza]] in 1489. The siege of Granada began in the spring of 1491 and at the end of the year |
The Spanish monarchs recruited soldiers from many European countries and improved their artillery with the latest and best cannon.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 104–106</ref> Systematically, they proceeded to take the kingdom piece by piece. In 1485 they laid siege to [[Ronda]], which surrendered after only a fortnight due to extensive bombardment.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 111</ref> The following year, [[Loja, Granada|Loja]] was taken, and again [[Muhammad XII of Granada|Muhammad XII]] was captured and released. One year later, with the fall of [[Málaga]], the western part of the Muslim [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrid]] kingdom had fallen into Spanish hands. The eastern province succumbed after the fall of [[Baza, Granada|Baza]] in 1489. The siege of Granada began in the spring of 1491 and Muhammad XII finally surrendered at the end of the year. On 2 January 1492, Isabella and Ferdinand entered Granada to receive the keys of the city and the principal [[Great Mosque of Cordoba|mosque]] was reconsecrated as a church.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 112–130</ref> The [[Treaty of Granada]] was signed later that year; in it, Ferdinand and Isabella gave their word to allow the Muslims and Jews of Granada to live in peace. |
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During the war, Isabella noted the abilities and energy of [[Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba]] and made him one of the two commissioners for the negotiations. Under her patronage, De Córdoba went on to an extraordinary military career that revolutionised the organisation and tactics of the emerging Spanish military, changing the nature of warfare and altering the European balance of power. |
During the war, Isabella noted the abilities and energy of [[Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba]] and made him one of the two commissioners for the negotiations. Under her patronage, De Córdoba went on to an extraordinary military career that revolutionised the organisation and tactics of the emerging Spanish military, changing the nature of warfare and altering the European balance of power. |
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====Columbus and Portuguese relations==== |
====Columbus and Portuguese relations==== |
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[[File:WC Delacroix,Eugene The Return of Christopher Columbus.jpg|thumb|The return of Christopher Columbus; his audience before King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella.]] |
[[File:WC Delacroix,Eugene The Return of Christopher Columbus.jpg|thumb|The return of Christopher Columbus; his audience before King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella.]] |
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Just three months after entering Granada, Queen Isabella agreed to sponsor [[Christopher Columbus]] on an expedition to reach the [[East Indies]] by sailing west (2000 miles, according to Columbus).<ref>Liss,Peggy. "Isabel the Queen," Oxford University Press, 1992. p. 316</ref> The crown agreed to pay a sum of money as a concession from monarch to subject.<ref name="Edwards, John 2005, p. 120">Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 120</ref> |
Just three months after entering Granada, Queen Isabella agreed to sponsor [[Christopher Columbus]] on an expedition to reach the [[East Indies]] by sailing west (for a distance of 2000 miles, according to Columbus).<ref>Liss,Peggy. "Isabel the Queen," Oxford University Press, 1992. p. 316</ref> The crown agreed to pay a sum of money as a concession from monarch to subject.<ref name="Edwards, John 2005, p. 120">Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 120</ref> |
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Columbus's expedition departed on 3 August 1492, and arrived in the [[New World]] on 12 October.<ref name="Edwards, John 2005, p. 120"/> He returned the next year and presented his findings to the monarchs, bringing natives and gold under a hero's welcome. Although Columbus was sponsored by the Castilian queen, treasury accounts show no royal payments to him until 1493, after his first voyage was complete.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 119</ref> Spain entered a [[Golden Age (metaphor)|Golden Age]] of [[Age of Discovery|exploration]] and [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonisation]], the period of the [[Spanish Empire]]. In 1494, by the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], Isabella and Ferdinand agreed to divide the Earth, outside of Europe, with King [[John II of Portugal|John II]] of [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]]. The Portuguese did not recognise that South America belonged to the Spanish because it was in Portugal's sphere of influence, and King John II threatened to send an army to claim the land for the Portuguese. |
Columbus's expedition departed on 3 August 1492, and arrived in the [[New World]] on 12 October.<ref name="Edwards, John 2005, p. 120"/> He returned the next year and presented his findings to the monarchs, bringing natives and gold under a hero's welcome. Although Columbus was sponsored by the Castilian queen, treasury accounts show no royal payments to him until 1493, after his first voyage was complete.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 119</ref> Spain then entered a [[Golden Age (metaphor)|Golden Age]] of [[Age of Discovery|exploration]] and [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonisation]], the period of the [[Spanish Empire]]. In 1494, by the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], Isabella and Ferdinand agreed to divide the Earth, outside of Europe, with King [[John II of Portugal|John II]] of [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]]. The Portuguese did not recognise that South America belonged to the Spanish because it was in Portugal's sphere of influence, and King John II threatened to send an army to claim the land for the Portuguese. |
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====Position on slavery==== |
====Position on slavery==== |
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Isabella was not in favour of enslaving the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|American natives]] and established the royal position on how the indigenous people should be treated. She followed the recent policies of the [[Canary Islands|Canaries]], which had a small amount of native inhabitants, in her policy for the "New World", stating that all peoples were subjects of the Castilian Crown and could not be enslaved in most situations.<ref name="Tame08">[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIXh4xsCfUAC&pg=PA27 F. Weissberger, Barbara ''Queen Isabel I of Castile: Power, Patronage, Persona''], Tamesis Books, 2008, p. 27, accessed 9 July 2012</ref> By that time there were some circumstances in which a person could be enslaved, including being taken [[Prisoner of war|captive in war]], and practicing [[cannibalism]] or [[sodomy]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fernández-Armesto|first=Felipe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j9khjlWQPWUC&pg=PA54|title=Amerigo: The Man Who Gave His Name to America|publisher=Random House|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4000-6281-2|location=New York|pages=54–55|language=en|author-link=Felipe Fernández-Armesto}}</ref> |
Isabella was not in favour of enslaving the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|American natives]] and established the royal position on how the indigenous people should be treated. She followed the recent policies of the [[Canary Islands|Canaries]], which had a small amount of native inhabitants, in her policy for the "New World", stating that all peoples were subjects of the Castilian Crown and could not be enslaved in most situations.<ref name="Tame08">[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIXh4xsCfUAC&pg=PA27 F. Weissberger, Barbara ''Queen Isabel I of Castile: Power, Patronage, Persona''], Tamesis Books, 2008, p. 27, accessed 9 July 2012</ref> By that time, there were some circumstances in which a person could be enslaved, including being taken [[Prisoner of war|captive in war]], and practicing [[cannibalism]] or [[sodomy]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fernández-Armesto|first=Felipe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j9khjlWQPWUC&pg=PA54|title=Amerigo: The Man Who Gave His Name to America|publisher=Random House|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4000-6281-2|location=New York|pages=54–55|language=en|author-link=Felipe Fernández-Armesto}}</ref> |
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After an episode in which Columbus captured 1,200 men, Isabella ordered their return and the arrest of Columbus, who was insulted in the streets of [[Granada]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} Isabella realized that she could not trust all the conquest and evangelization to take place through one man, so she opened the range for other expeditions led by [[Alonso de Hojeda]], [[Juan de la Cosa]], [[Vicente Yáñez Pinzón]], {{interlanguage link|Diego de Lepe|lt=Diego de Lepe|es|Diego de Lepe|WD=Diego de Lepe}}or [[Pedro Alonso Niño]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.es/historia/abci-batallo-isabel-catolica-indios-fueran-tratados-bien-y-carino-202006172253_noticia.html#vca=rrss-inducido&vmc=abc-es&vso=tw&vli=noticia-foto|title = Así batalló Isabel la Católica por que los indios fueran tratados "muy bien y con cariño"|date = 17 June 2020}}</ref> |
After an episode in which Columbus captured 1,200 men, Isabella ordered their return and the arrest of Columbus, who was insulted in the streets of [[Granada]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} Isabella realized that she could not trust all the conquest and evangelization to take place through one man, so she opened the range for other expeditions led by [[Alonso de Hojeda]], [[Juan de la Cosa]], [[Vicente Yáñez Pinzón]], {{interlanguage link|Diego de Lepe|lt=Diego de Lepe|es|Diego de Lepe|WD=Diego de Lepe}}or [[Pedro Alonso Niño]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.es/historia/abci-batallo-isabel-catolica-indios-fueran-tratados-bien-y-carino-202006172253_noticia.html#vca=rrss-inducido&vmc=abc-es&vso=tw&vli=noticia-foto|title = Así batalló Isabel la Católica por que los indios fueran tratados "muy bien y con cariño"|date = 17 June 2020}}</ref> |
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To prevent her efforts from being reversed in the future, in her [[last will]] |
To prevent her efforts from being reversed in the future, Isabella instructed her descendants in her [[last will]] as follows: "do not give rise to or allow the Indians [indigenous Americans] to receive any wrong in their persons and property, but rather that they be treated well and fairly, and if they have received any wrong, remedy it."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Testamento de Isabel la Católica - Wikisource|url=https://es.wikisource.org/wiki/Testamento_de_Isabel_la_Cat%C3%B3lica|access-date=2022-02-22|website=es.wikisource.org|language=es}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=February 2022}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 March 2013|title=Lo que la Leyenda Negra contra España no cuenta de las Leyes de Indias|url=https://www.abc.es/sociedad/20130303/abci-leyes-indias-derechos-humanos-201303012122.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303121910/https://www.abc.es/sociedad/20130303/abci-leyes-indias-derechos-humanos-201303012122.html|archive-date=3 March 2013|access-date=22 February 2022|website=www.abc.es|language=es}}</ref> |
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====Expulsion of the Jews==== |
====Expulsion of the Jews==== |
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{{main| Alhambra Decree| Spanish Inquisition}} |
{{main| Alhambra Decree| Spanish Inquisition}} |
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With the institution of the Roman Catholic Inquisition in Spain, and with the [[Dominican friar]] [[Tomás de Torquemada]] as the first Inquisitor General, the Catholic Monarchs pursued a policy of religious and national unity. Though Isabella opposed taking harsh measures against Jews on economic grounds, Torquemada was able to convince Ferdinand.{{Citation needed|date=April 2013}} On 31 March 1492, the [[Alhambra decree]] for the expulsion of the Jews was issued.<ref name="Liss 1992. p. 298">Liss,Peggy. "Isabel the Queen," Oxford University Press, 1992. p. 298</ref> The Jews had until the end of July, four months, to leave the country and they were not to take with them gold, silver, money, arms, or horses.<ref name="Liss 1992. p. 298"/> Traditionally, it had been claimed that as many as 200,000 Jews left Spain, but recent historians have shown that such figures are exaggerated: [[Henry Kamen]] has shown that out of a total population of 80,000 Jews, a maximum of 40,000 left and the rest converted.<ref>Henry Kamen |
With the institution of the Roman Catholic Inquisition in Spain, and with the [[Dominican friar]] [[Tomás de Torquemada]] as the first Inquisitor General, the Catholic Monarchs pursued a policy of religious and national unity. Though Isabella opposed taking harsh measures against Jews on economic grounds, Torquemada was able to convince Ferdinand.{{Citation needed|date=April 2013}} On 31 March 1492, the [[Alhambra decree]] for the expulsion of the Jews was issued.<ref name="Liss 1992. p. 298">Liss,Peggy. "Isabel the Queen," Oxford University Press, 1992. p. 298</ref> The Jews had until the end of July, four months, to leave the country and they were not to take with them gold, silver, money, arms, or horses.<ref name="Liss 1992. p. 298"/> Traditionally, it had been claimed that as many as 200,000 Jews left Spain, but recent historians have shown that such figures are exaggerated: [[Henry Kamen]] has shown that out of a total population of 80,000 Jews, a maximum of 40,000 left and the rest converted.<ref>Henry Kamen (1997) ''The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision''. [[Yale University Press[[, pp. 29–31).</ref> Hundreds of those that remained came under the Inquisition's investigations into relapsed ''conversos'' ([[Marranos]]) and the Judaizers who had been abetting them.<ref>Liss,Peggy. "Isabel the Queen," Oxford University Press, 1992. p. 308</ref> |
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===Later years=== |
===Later years=== |
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Isabella was given the title of [[Catholic Monarchs|Catholic Monarch]] by [[Pope Alexander VI]], whose behavior and involvement in matters Isabella did not approve of.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} Along with the physical unification of Spain, Isabella and Ferdinand embarked on a process of spiritual unification, trying to bring the country under one faith ([[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]). As part of this process, the Inquisition became institutionalised. After a Muslim uprising in 1499, and further troubles thereafter, the [[Treaty of Granada]] was broken in 1502, and Muslims were ordered to either become Christians or to leave. Isabella's confessor, [[Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros|Cisneros]], was named Archbishop of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]].<ref>Hunt, Jocelyn. ''Spain 1474–1598''. Routledge, 2001, p. 20</ref> He was instrumental in a program of rehabilitation of the religious institutions of Spain, laying the groundwork for the later [[Counter-Reformation]]. As Chancellor, he exerted more and more power. |
Isabella was given the title of [[Catholic Monarchs|Catholic Monarch]] by [[Pope Alexander VI]], whose behavior and involvement in matters Isabella did not approve of.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} Along with the physical unification of Spain, Isabella and Ferdinand embarked on a process of spiritual unification, trying to bring the country under one faith ([[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]). As part of this process, the Inquisition became institutionalised. After a Muslim uprising in 1499, and further troubles thereafter, the [[Treaty of Granada]] was broken in 1502, and Muslims were ordered to either become Christians or to leave. Isabella's confessor, [[Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros|Cisneros]], was named Archbishop of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]].<ref>Hunt, Jocelyn. ''Spain 1474–1598''. Routledge, 2001, p. 20</ref> He was instrumental in a program of rehabilitation of the religious institutions of Spain, laying the groundwork for the later [[Counter-Reformation]]. As Chancellor, he exerted more and more power. |
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Isabella and her husband had created [[Spanish Empire|an empire]] and in later years were consumed with administration and politics; they were concerned with the succession and worked to link the Spanish crown to the other rulers in Europe. By early 1497, all the pieces seemed to be in place: The son and heir [[John, Prince of Asturias]], married a Habsburg princess, [[Archduchess Margaret of Austria|Margaret of Austria]], establishing the connection to the [[Habsburg]]s. The eldest daughter, [[Isabella, Princess of Asturias (1470–1498)|Isabella of Aragon]], married [[Manuel I of Portugal|King Manuel I of Portugal]], and the younger daughter, [[Joanna of Castile]], was married to a Habsburg prince, [[Philip I of Castile|Philip I of Habsburg]]. In 1500, Isabella granted all non-rebellious natives in the colonies citizenship and full legal freedom by decree.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford History of Mexico|isbn = 9780199731985|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4eMVDAAAQBAJ&q=queen+isabella+indians+citizens&pg=PA16|last1 = Beezley|first1 = William H.|last2 = Beezley|first2 = William|last3 = Meyer|first3 = Michael|date = 3 August 2010}}</ref> |
Isabella and her husband had created [[Spanish Empire|an empire]] and in later years were consumed with administration and politics; they were concerned with the succession and worked to link the Spanish crown to the other rulers in Europe. By early 1497, all the pieces seemed to be in place: The son and heir [[John, Prince of Asturias]], married a Habsburg princess, [[Archduchess Margaret of Austria|Margaret of Austria]], establishing the connection to the [[Habsburg]]s. The eldest daughter, [[Isabella, Princess of Asturias (1470–1498)|Isabella of Aragon]], married [[Manuel I of Portugal|King Manuel I of Portugal]], and the younger daughter, [[Joanna of Castile]], was married to a Habsburg prince, [[Philip I of Castile|Philip I of Habsburg]]. In 1500, Isabella granted all non-rebellious natives in the colonies citizenship and full legal freedom by decree.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford History of Mexico|isbn = 9780199731985|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4eMVDAAAQBAJ&q=queen+isabella+indians+citizens&pg=PA16|last1 = Beezley|first1 = William H.|last2 = Beezley|first2 = William|last3 = Meyer|first3 = Michael|date = 3 August 2010 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref> |
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However, Isabella's plans for her eldest two children did not work out. Her only son, John of Asturias, died shortly after his marriage. Her daughter, Isabella of Aragon, died during the birth of her son, [[Miguel da Paz, Prince of Asturias|Miguel da Paz]], who died shortly after, at the age of two. Queen Isabella I's crowns passed to her third child, Joanna, and her son-in-law, Philip I.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 241–260</ref> |
However, Isabella's plans for her eldest two children did not work out. Her only son, John of Asturias, died shortly after his marriage. Her daughter, Isabella of Aragon, died during the birth of her son, [[Miguel da Paz, Prince of Asturias|Miguel da Paz]], who died shortly after, at the age of two. Queen Isabella I's crowns passed to her third child, Joanna, and her son-in-law, Philip I.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 241–260</ref> |
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[[File:Reinaisabeldecastilla.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Isabella depicted with darker hair, {{circa}} 1485]] |
[[File:Reinaisabeldecastilla.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Isabella depicted with darker hair, {{circa}} 1485]] |
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Isabella was short but of strong stocky build, of a very fair complexion, and had a [[hair color]] that was between strawberry-blonde and [[auburn hair|auburn]]. Other descriptions however |
Isabella was short but of strong stocky build, of a very fair complexion, and had a [[hair color]] that was between strawberry-blonde and [[auburn hair|auburn]]. Other descriptions, however, describe her hair as golden (blonde), and period illuminations show her several times with golden or strawberry blond hair. |
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Some portraits |
Some portraits show her as a brunette.<ref name="NGHistory"/> That is due to a phenomenon occurring in old portraits, which often causes hair pigments to go dark brown. Many portraits from the 15th and 16th centuries are a victim of it. However, the statue of her in Granada Cathedral, by Burgundian sculptor Philippe de Vigarny (born in Langres, in what is now France), also shows her as a dark-haired brunette. |
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Her daughters, Joanna and Catherine, were thought to resemble her the most in looks. Isabella maintained an austere, temperate lifestyle, and her religious spirit influenced her the most in life. In spite of her hostility towards the Muslims in [[Andalusia]], Isabella developed a taste for Moorish decor and style. |
Her daughters, Joanna and Catherine, were thought to resemble her the most in looks. |
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Isabella maintained an austere, temperate lifestyle, and her religious spirit influenced her the most in life. In spite of her hostility towards the Muslims in [[Andalusia]], Isabella developed a taste for Moorish decor and style. |
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Isabella's contemporaries described her as follows: |
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* [[Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés]]: "To see her speak was divine."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/review/show/972046277|title=Katherine's Reviews > Isabel: Jewel of Castilla, Spain, 1466|last=Bakersfield|first=Katherine|website=Good Reads|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Isabel: Jewel of Castilla|last=Meyer|first=Carolyn|publisher=Scholastic|year=2000|isbn=9780439078054|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isabeljewelofcas00meye_0}}</ref> |
* [[Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés]]: "To see her speak was divine."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/review/show/972046277|title=Katherine's Reviews > Isabel: Jewel of Castilla, Spain, 1466|last=Bakersfield|first=Katherine|website=Good Reads|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Isabel: Jewel of Castilla|last=Meyer|first=Carolyn|publisher=Scholastic|year=2000|isbn=9780439078054|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isabeljewelofcas00meye_0}}</ref> |
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==Family== |
==Family== |
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{{unreferenced section|date=October 2017}} |
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{{See also|Descendants of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile}} |
{{See also|Descendants of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile}} |
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{{More citations needed|section|date=February 2022}} |
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[[File:Los Reyes Católicos y la infanta doña Juana.jpg|thumb|upright|Isabella and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] with their daughter, [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna]], {{circa}} 1482.]] |
[[File:Los Reyes Católicos y la infanta doña Juana.jpg|thumb|upright|Isabella and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] with their daughter, [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna]], {{circa}} 1482.]] |
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Isabella and Ferdinand had seven children, five of whom survived to adulthood: |
Isabella and Ferdinand had seven children, five of whom survived to adulthood: <ref>{{Cite web|title=Biography of Isabella I, Queen of Spain|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/queen-isabella-i-of-spain-biography-3525250|access-date=2022-02-21|website=ThoughtCo|language=en}}</ref> |
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* [[Isabella of Aragon and Castile|Isabella]] (1470–1498) married firstly to [[Afonso, Prince of Portugal]], no issue. Married secondly to [[Manuel I of Portugal]], had [[Miguel da Paz, Prince of Portugal|Miguel da Paz]], who died before his second birthday. |
* [[Isabella of Aragon and Castile|Isabella]] (1470–1498)<ref>{{Citation|title=Bibliographie|date=2010-04-07|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3917/dunod.col.2010.01.0527|work=L'emboutissage des aciers|pages=527–533|publisher=Dunod|access-date=2022-02-25}}</ref> married firstly to [[Afonso, Prince of Portugal]], no issue.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rodrigues|first=Elizabeth|last2=Pizzolato|first2=Nelio|last3=Botelho|first3=Guilherme|last4=Oliveira de Souza|first4=Rafael|date=2014|title=A Economicidade dos Centros de Distribuição: O Caso do Varejo|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7177/sg.2014.v9.n4.a10|journal=Sistemas & Gestão|volume=9|issue=4|pages=518–526|doi=10.7177/sg.2014.v9.n4.a10|issn=1980-5160}}</ref> Married secondly to [[Manuel I of Portugal]], had [[Miguel da Paz, Prince of Portugal|Miguel da Paz]], who died before his second birthday. |
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* A son, miscarried on 31 May 1475 in [[Cebreros]] |
* A son, miscarried on 31 May 1475 in [[Cebreros]] |
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* [[Juan, Prince of Asturias|John]] (1478–1497), [[Prince of Asturias]]. Married [[Archduchess Margaret of Austria]], no surviving issue. |
* [[Juan, Prince of Asturias|John]] (1478–1497), [[Prince of Asturias]]. Married [[Archduchess Margaret of Austria]], no surviving issue.<ref>{{Citation|title=LA CREACIÓN Y EL DESARROLLO DEL INSTITUTO ISABEL LA CATÓLICA|date=2019-11-27|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv103xbm2.4|work=El Instituto Femenino Isabel la Católica. Un centro modélico del CSIC|pages=15–58|publisher=Dykinson|access-date=2022-02-25}}</ref> |
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* [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna]] (1479–1555), [[Queen of Castile]]. Married [[Philip I of Castile|Philip the Handsome]], had issue. |
* [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna]] (1479–1555), [[Queen of Castile]]. Married [[Philip I of Castile|Philip the Handsome]], had issue.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vigneron|first=Nicolas|date=2021-10-19|title=Wikisource session|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7557/5.5946|journal=Septentrio Conference Series|issue=3|doi=10.7557/5.5946|issn=2387-3086}}</ref> |
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* [[Maria of Aragon and Castile|Maria]] (1482–1517), married [[Manuel I of Portugal]], her sister's widower, had issue. |
* [[Maria of Aragon and Castile|Maria]] (1482–1517),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Range|first=Matthias|date=2018-12-04|title=Harris, Raising Royalty: 1000 Years of Royal Parenting (Dundurn, 2017)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.21039/rsj.174|journal=Royal Studies Journal|volume=5|issue=2|pages=184|doi=10.21039/rsj.174|issn=2057-6730}}</ref> married [[Manuel I of Portugal]], her sister's widower, had issue. |
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* A daughter, stillborn twin sister of Maria.<ref>Peggy K. Liss, ''Isabel the Queen: Life and Times'', (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), 220.</ref> Born on 1 July 1482 at dawn. |
* A daughter, stillborn twin sister of Maria.<ref>Peggy K. Liss, ''Isabel the Queen: Life and Times'', (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), 220.</ref> Born on 1 July 1482 at dawn. |
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* [[Catherine of Aragon|Catherine]] (1485–1536), married firstly to [[Arthur, Prince of Wales]], no issue. Married his younger brother, [[Henry VIII of England]], had [[Henry, Duke of Cornwall]] and [[Mary I of England]]. |
* [[Catherine of Aragon|Catherine]] (1485–1536), married firstly to [[Arthur, Prince of Wales]], no issue. Married his younger brother, [[Henry VIII of England]], had [[Henry, Duke of Cornwall]] and [[Mary I of England]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Davies|first=C. S. L.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/4891|title=Katherine [Catalina, Catherine, Katherine of Aragon] (1485–1536), queen of England, first consort of Henry VIII|last2=Edwards|first2=John|date=2004-09-23|publisher=Oxford University Press|series=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography}}</ref> |
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Towards the end of her life, family tragedies overwhelmed her, although she met these reverses with grace and fortitude {{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}. The death of her beloved son and heir and the miscarriage of his wife, the death of her daughter Isabella and Isabella's son Miguel (who could have united the kingdoms of the [[Catholic Monarchs]] with that of Portugal), the rebellion and alleged madness of her daughter Joanna and the indifference of Philip the Handsome, and the uncertainty Catherine was in after the death of [[Arthur, Prince of Wales|her husband]] submerged Isabella in profound sadness that made her dress in black for the rest of her lifetime {{Citation needed|reason=Reliable source needed for the whole sentence|date=February 2016}}. Her strong spirituality is well understood from the words she said after hearing of her son's death: "The Lord gave him to me, the Lord hath taken him from me, glory be His holy name."{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} |
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==Cause of beatification and canonization== |
==Cause of beatification and canonization== |
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In 1958, José García Goldaraz, the Bishop of Valladolid where she died in 1504, started the canonical [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] process of the Cause of [[Beatification]] and [[Canonization]] of Isabella. 17 experts were appointed to investigate more than 100,000 documents in the archives of Spain and the [[Holy See|Vatican]] and the merits of opening a canonical process of canonization. 3,500 of these were chosen to be included in 27 volumes. |
In 1958, José García Goldaraz, the Bishop of Valladolid where she died in 1504, started the canonical [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] process of the Cause of [[Beatification]] and [[Canonization]] of Isabella. 17 experts{{Who|date=February 2022}} were appointed to investigate more than 100,000 documents{{Which|date=February 2022}} in the archives of Spain and the [[Holy See|Vatican]] and the merits of opening a canonical process of canonization. 3,500 of these were chosen to be included in 27 volumes. |
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In 1970, that Commission determined that "A Canonical process for the canonization of Isabella the Catholic could be undertaken with a sense of security since there was not found one single act, public or private, of Queen Isabella that was not inspired by Christian and evangelical criteria; moreover there was a 'reputation of sanctity' uninterrupted for five centuries and as the investigation was progressing, it was more accentuated." |
In 1970, that Commission determined that "A Canonical process for the canonization of Isabella the Catholic could be undertaken with a sense of security since there was not found one single act, public or private, of Queen Isabella that was not inspired by Christian and evangelical criteria; moreover there was a 'reputation of sanctity' uninterrupted for five centuries and as the investigation was progressing, it was more accentuated." |
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In 1972, the Process of Valladolid was officially submitted to the [[Congregation for the Causes of Saints]] in the Vatican. This process was approved and Isabel was given the title "[[Servant of God]]" in March 1974.<ref name="queenisabel.com"> |
In 1972, the Process of Valladolid was officially submitted to the [[Congregation for the Causes of Saints]] in the Vatican. This process was approved and Isabel was given the title "[[Servant of God]]" in March 1974.<ref name="queenisabel.com">{{Cite web|date=2018|title=Cause for Canonization of Servant of God Queen Isabel the Catholic|url=https://www.queenisabel.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220202314/https://www.queenisabel.org/|archive-date=20 February 2022|access-date=22 February 2022|website=www.queenisabel.org}}</ref> The cause was initially stopped in 1991, one year before the commemoration of the fifth centenary of the discovery of the New World, due to her expulsion of the Jews. In April 2020, [[Antonio Cañizares Llovera|Cardinal Cañizares]] confirmed that [[Pope Francis]] had requested that Spanish bishops reopen Isabella's cause for canonization.<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 May 2020|title=Pope Pleads the Cause of Isabelle the Catholic|url=https://fsspx.news/en/news-events/news/pope-pleads-cause-isabelle-catholic-58041|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511154323/https://fsspx.news/en/news-events/news/pope-pleads-cause-isabelle-catholic-58041|archive-date=11 May 2020|access-date=22 February 2022|website=fsspx.news}}</ref> |
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Some authors have claimed that Isabella's reputation for sanctity derives in large measure from an image carefully shaped and disseminated by the queen herself.<ref>Boruchoff, David A. "Instructions for Sainthood and Other Feminine Wiles in the Historiography of Isabel I." ''Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays''. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, pp. 1–23.</ref> |
Some authors have claimed that Isabella's reputation for sanctity derives in large measure from an image carefully shaped and disseminated by the queen herself.<ref>Boruchoff, David A. "Instructions for Sainthood and Other Feminine Wiles in the Historiography of Isabel I." ''Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays''. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, pp. 1–23.</ref> |
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==Arms== |
==Arms== |
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As [[Prince of Asturias|Princess of Asturias]], Isabella bore the [[Undifferenced arms|undifferenced]] royal arms of the Crown of Castile and added the [[Eagle (heraldry)#Eagle of Saint John|Saint John the Evangelist's Eagle]], an [[Eagle (heraldry)|eagle displayed]] as single [[supporter]].<ref name="suarez">{{cite book |title=Isabel la Católica en la Real Academia de la Historia |year=2004 |publisher= Real Academia de la Historia |location=Madrid |page=72|isbn=978-84-95983-54-1 }}</ref><ref>Princess of Isabella's coat of arms with crest: {{cite journal | last1 =García-Menacho Osset | first1 =Eduardo | year =2010 | title =El origen militar de los símbolos de España. El escudo de España|trans-title=Military Origin of Symbols of Spain. The Coat of Arms of Spain| journal =Revista de Historia Militar | issue =Extra |page=387 | language =es | issn = 0482-5748}}</ref> As queen, she [[Quartering (heraldry)|quartered]] the Royal Arms of the Crown of Castile with the Royal Arms of the Crown of Aragon, she and Ferdinand II of Aragon adopted a [[Yoke and arrows|yoke and a bundle of arrows]] as [[heraldic badge]]s. As co-monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand used the motto "[[Tanto monta, monta tanto, Isabel como Fernando|Tanto Monta]]" (''"They amount to the same", or "Equal opposites in balance"''), |
As [[Prince of Asturias|Princess of Asturias]], Isabella bore the [[Undifferenced arms|undifferenced]] royal arms of the Crown of Castile and added the [[Eagle (heraldry)#Eagle of Saint John|Saint John the Evangelist's Eagle]], an [[Eagle (heraldry)|eagle displayed]] as single [[supporter]].<ref name="suarez">{{cite book |title=Isabel la Católica en la Real Academia de la Historia |year=2004 |publisher= Real Academia de la Historia |location=Madrid |page=72|isbn=978-84-95983-54-1 }}</ref><ref>Princess of Isabella's coat of arms with crest: {{cite journal | last1 =García-Menacho Osset | first1 =Eduardo | year =2010 | title =El origen militar de los símbolos de España. El escudo de España|trans-title=Military Origin of Symbols of Spain. The Coat of Arms of Spain| journal =[[Revista de Historia Militar]] | issue =Extra |page=387 | language =es | issn = 0482-5748}}</ref> As queen, she [[Quartering (heraldry)|quartered]] the Royal Arms of the Crown of Castile with the Royal Arms of the Crown of Aragon, she and Ferdinand II of Aragon adopted a [[Yoke and arrows|yoke and a bundle of arrows]] as [[heraldic badge]]s. As co-monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand used the motto "[[Tanto monta, monta tanto, Isabel como Fernando|Tanto Monta]]" (''"They amount to the same", or "Equal opposites in balance"''), which refers to their [[prenuptial]] agreement. The conquest of [[Kingdom of Granada (Crown of Castile)|Granada]] in 1492 was symbolised by the addition enté en point of a quarter{{Clarify|date=February 2022|reason="addition enté un point of a quarter" seems ungrammatical}} with a pomegranate for Granada (in Spanish, ''Granada'' means pomegranate).<ref>Menéndez-Pidal De Navascués, Faustino; ''El escudo''; Menéndez Pidal y Navascués, Faustino; O'Donnell, Hugo; Lolo, Begoña. ''Símbolos de España''. Madrid: Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales, 1999. {{ISBN|84-259-1074-9}}</ref> There was an uncommon variant with the Saint John the Evangelist's eagle and two lions adopted as Castilian royal supporters by [[John II of Castile|John II]], Isabella's father.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Image of the Isabella's coat of arms with lions as supporters, facade of the St. Paul Church inValladolid (Spain) Artehistoria.|url=http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/v2/jpg/COC21698.jpg|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606205309/http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/v2/jpg/COC21698.jpg|archive-date=6 June 2013|access-date=22 February 2022|website=/www.artehistoria.jcyl.es}}</ref> |
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[[File:Columbian_Issue_1893-5c.jpg|thumb|5 cent U.S. postage stamp, Columbus soliciting aid of Isabella]] |
[[File:Columbian_Issue_1893-5c.jpg|thumb|5 cent U.S. postage stamp, Columbus soliciting aid of Isabella]] |
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The $4 stamp is the only stamp of that denomination ever issued and one which collectors prize not only for its rarity (only 30,000 were printed) but its beauty, an exquisite carmine with some copies having a crimson hue. Mint specimens of this commemorative have been sold for more than $20,000.<ref name="Scotts-quantity">Scotts Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps:Quantities Issued</ref> Isabella was also the first named woman to appear on a United States coin, the 1893 [[United States commemorative coins|commemorative]] [[Isabella quarter]], celebrating the 400th anniversary of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]'s first voyage. |
The $4 stamp is the only stamp of that denomination ever issued and one which collectors prize not only for its rarity (only 30,000 were printed) but its beauty, an exquisite carmine with some copies having a crimson hue. Mint specimens of this commemorative have been sold for more than $20,000.<ref name="Scotts-quantity">Scotts Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps:Quantities Issued</ref> |
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Isabella was also the first named woman to appear on a United States coin, the 1893 [[United States commemorative coins|commemorative]] [[Isabella quarter]], celebrating the 400th anniversary of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]'s first voyage. |
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==Ancestry== |
==Ancestry== |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{reflist|30em}} |
{{reflist|30em}} |
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{{Portal|Spain}} |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |