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{{Multiple issues| |
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{{POV|date=June 2013}} |
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{{POV|date=April 2014}} |
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{{Disputed title |alternate title=Anti-Hungarian sentiment |date=June 2016 |section=Title_rename}} |
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{{Discrimination sidebar}} |
{{Discrimination sidebar}} |
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'''Hungarophobia'''<ref>Viktor Karády, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC&pg=PA223 The Jews of Europe in the Modern Era: A Socio-Historical Outline], Central European University Press, 2004, p. 223</ref><ref>András Bán, [https://books.google.com/books?id=V9jPImXVMYYC&pg=PA128 Hungarian-British Diplomacy, 1938-1941: The Attempt to Maintain Relations], Routledge, 2004, p. 128</ref> (also known as '''Anti-Hungarianism''', '''Magyarophobia'''<ref name="Phobob">{{Cite book |title=Culture and Political Crisis in Vienna: Christian Socialism in Power, 1897-1918|last=Boyer |first= John W. |authorlink= |year= 2009|publisher= University of Chicago Press, 1995 |location=|ref= |isbn=9780226069609 |page= |pages= 116 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> or '''Antimagyarism'''<ref name="Roma">{{Cite book |title=National Ideology Under Socialism: |
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Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceauşescu's Romania |last=Verdery |first=Katherine |authorlink= |publisher= University of California Press, 1995|location=|ref= |isbn=9780932088352 |page= |pages= 317 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref>) is dislike, distrust, racism, or [[xenophobia]] directed against the [[Hungarians]]. It can involve hatred, grievance, distrust, intimidation, fear, and hostility towards the Hungarian [[Hungarian diaspora|people]], [[Hungarian language|language]] and [[Culture of Hungary|culture]]. Due to Hungarian background, especially about [[Atilla the Hun]], it is confused with [[Anti-Turkism]] and [[Anti-Mongolianism]]. |
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==History== |
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The term '''Hungarophobia'''<ref>Viktor Karády, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC&pg=PA223&dq=%22Hungarophobia%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8x_MUfmQIIm2hAe9r4DwDw&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Hungarophobia%22&f=false The Jews of Europe in the Modern Era: A Socio-Historical Outline],Central European University Press, 2004, p. 223</ref><ref>András Bán, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V9jPImXVMYYC&pg=PA128&dq=%22Hungarophobia%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=hCLMUeqWEYGQ7Aag4oCQDw&ved=0CD4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22Hungarophobia%22&f=false Hungarian-British Diplomacy, 1938-1941: The Attempt to Maintain Relations], Routledge, 2004, p. 128</ref>, '''Magyarophobia'''<ref name="Phobob">{{Cite book |title=Culture and Political Crisis in Vienna: Christian Socialism in Power, 1897-1918|last=Boyer |first= John W. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2009|publisher= University of Chicago Press, 1995 |location=|ref= |isbn=9780226069609 |page= |pages= 116 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> or '''Antimagyarism''',<ref name="Roma">{{Cite book |title=National Ideology Under Socialism: |
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Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceauşescu's Romania |last=Verdery |first=Katherine |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=|publisher= University of California Press, 1995|location=|ref= |isbn=9780932088352 |page= |pages= 317 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> is a form of [[xenophobia]] which is directed against the [[Hungarians]]. It can involve hatred, grievance, distrust, intimidation, fear, and hostility towards the Hungarian [[Hungarian diaspora|people]], [[Hungarian language|language]] and [[Culture of Hungary|culture]]. |
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==The |
===The beginnings=== |
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During the era of the Habsburg Austro-Hungarian monarchs, the court in [[Vienna]] was influenced by Hungarophobia; though the Hungarian side, the landowner nobles, also showed signs of [[Germanophobia]].<ref>Michael Hochedlinger, [https://books.google.com/books?id=U-LTw-cylfoC&pg=PA25 Austria's Wars of Emergence: War, State and Society in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1683-1797], Pearson Education, 2003, p. 25</ref> In the 18th century, after the end of [[Rákóczi's War of Independence]], many immigrants came to the underpopulated southern parts of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]]: for instance 800 new German villages were established.<ref>Thomas Spira, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=aPGmTpDlLIS38gPi7KGsDw&ct=result&id=mMhnAAAAMAAJ&dq=800+german+villages+1780+Hungary&q=800+#search_anchor German-Hungarian relations and the Swabian problem: from Károlyi to Gömbös, 1919-1936], East European quarterly, 1977, p. 2</ref> The authorities preferred non-Hungarian settlers. The Habsburgs regarded Hungarians as "politically unreliable", and so they were not allowed to settle in the southern territories until the 1740s.<ref name='Kocsis'>Károly Kocsis, Eszter Kocsisné Hodosi, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-zZ_NVM9mNEC&pg=PA13 Ethnic Geography of the Hungarian Minority on the Carpathian Basin], Simon Publications LLC, 1998, pp 140 -141</ref> This organized resettlement was planned by the [[Habsburgs]]. The resettlement policy was characterized as anti-Hungarian,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=jZvuAAAAMAAJ&q=habsburgok+magyarellenes+betelepitesek&dq=habsburgok+magyarellenes+betelepitesek&hl=en&sa=X&ei=BpLNUfKYCoiN7Qb864DQAQ&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAg Hídfő könyvtár, Volume 8], Issue 1, p. 48</ref><ref>Istvàn Sisa, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=BpLNUfKYCoiN7Qb864DQAQ&id=UgQiAQAAIAAJ&dq=habsburgok+magyarellenes+betelepitesek&q=politika#search_anchor Magyarságtükör: nemzet határok nélkül], Püski, 2001, p. 99 Cited: "Magyarellenes betelepítési politika. A felszabadulást követően a Habsburgok olyan betelepítési politikát alkalmaztak, mely még tovább gyengítette a magyarok helyzetét." Translation: "(Section name) Anti-Hungarian resettlement policy. After the liberation, the policy employed by the Habsburgs weakened the situation of Hungarians more."</ref> because, among other reasons, the Habsburgs feared an uprising of Protestant Hungarians.<ref>Tibor Iván Berend, Éva Ring, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=BpLNUfKYCoiN7Qb864DQAQ&id=GM0hAAAAMAAJ&dq=habsburgok+magyarellenes+betelepitesek&q=+f%C3%A9lelm%C3%A9ben#search_anchor Helyünk Európában: nézetek és koncepciók a 20. századi Magyarországon, Volume 1], Magvető, 1986, p. 144 Cited: "A Habsburg-család azonban a kálvinista magyarok lázadásától való félelmében az évszázados török háborúk által elpusztított területen magyarellenes telepítési politikát kezdeményezett" Translation: "The Habsburg family initiated an anti-Hungarian resettlement policy in the destroyed territories (caused by hundreds of years of Turkish wars) because of their fear of an uprising of Calvinist Hungarians"</ref> |
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===Features=== |
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* prejudice against Hungarian people (e.g. [[Székelys]], [[Csangos]], [[Hungarians in Slovakia]], [[Hungarians in Vojvodina]]) {{fact|date=June 2013}} |
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* [[xenophobia|xenophobic]] display (i.e. graffiti on the buildings){{fact|date=June 2013}} |
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* cultural antimagyarism {{fact|date=June 2013}} |
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* discrimination in commerce, defamation, desecration of Magyar relics and/or national symbols {{fact|date=June 2013}} |
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* ethnically-motivated violence, hate crime {{fact|date=June 2013}} |
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* overt cyberbullying, internet hate speech {{fact|date=June 2013}} |
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* stereotype-based racism{{fact|date=June 2013}} |
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The Habsburg Ruler and his advisers skilfully manipulated the Croatian, Serbian and Romanian peasantry, led by priests and officers firmly loyal to the Habsburgs, and induced them to rebel against the Hungarian government.<ref group=Note>This attitude is not unprecedented: the Austrian government used the [[Galician slaughter|Galician uprising]] to decimate Polish insurgent nobles.{{cn}}</ref> Thousands of Hungarians were [[1848–1849 massacres in Transylvania|massacred in Transylvania in 1848-49]] (now part of [[Romania]]) in nine separate incidents during the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848]]. |
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==History== |
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===Modern era=== |
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During the era of Habsburg Hungarian monarchs, the court in [[Vienna]] was infected by Hungarophobia, though the Hungarian side, the landowner nobles, also showed signs of [[Germanophobia]].<ref>Michael Hochedlinger, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U-LTw-cylfoC&pg=PA25&dq=Hungarophobia&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kXrMUcGrJ-6R7AaWo4CQDw&ved=0CF0Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=Hungarophobia&f=false Austria's Wars of Emergence: War, State and Society in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1683-1797], Pearson Education, 2003, p. 25</ref> |
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United Hungarian hatred was used by [[Austrian Empire]] to gain common goal supporters against the Hungarians.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} Anti-Hungarian sentiment has a social, historical basis, and is mostly attested among Hungary's neighboring nations. {{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} |
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===In Czechoslovakia=== |
====In Czechoslovakia==== |
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Minorities in Czechoslovakia during the years 1918-1939 enjoyed personal freedoms and were properly recognized by the state. There were three Hungarian and/or Hungarian-centric political parties: |
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{{incoherent|date=June 2013}} |
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Minorities in Czechoslovakia during the years 1918-1939 enjoyed personal freedoms and were properly recognized by the state. Consequentially, three Hungarian and/or Hungarian-centric political parties were present at the lands of Czechoslovakia. These parties were: |
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* [[Hungarian-German Social Democratic Party]] |
* [[Hungarian-German Social Democratic Party]] |
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* [[Hungarian National Party]] |
* [[Hungarian National Party]] |
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* [[Provincial Christian-Socialist Party]] |
* [[Provincial Christian-Socialist Party]] |
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After |
After World War II, [[History of Czechoslovakia (1948–89)|Czechoslovakia became a communist state]]; during the transition to a communist one-party state, decrees permitting the forced<ref name="Thum">{{cite journal |last1= Thum |first1= Gregor |last2= |first2= |year= 2006–2007 |title= Ethnic Cleansing in Eastern Europe after 1945 |journal= Contemporary European History |volume= 19 |issue=1 |pages= 75–81 |publisher= |doi=10.1017/S0960777309990257 |url= }}</ref> expulsion of German and Hungarian minorities from ethnic enclaves in Czechoslovakia came into effect, and Hungarians were forcibly relocated to [[Sudetenland]], on the borders of Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovak government deported more than 44,129 Hungarians from Slovakia to the Sudetenland for forced labor<ref>Eleonore C. M. Breuning, Dr. Jill Lewis, Gareth Pritchard, [https://books.google.com/books?id=GiLyV2xjGEoC&pg=PA140 Power and the people: a social history of Central European politics, 1945-56], Manchester University Press, 2005, p. 140</ref><ref name="Fenyvesi"/> between 1945 and 1948.<ref name="Fenyvesi">Anna Fenyvesi, [https://books.google.com/books?id=y3JYwHGYn7MC&pg=PA50 Hungarian language contact outside Hungary: studies on Hungarian as a minority language], John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2005, p. 50</ref> To this day, these [[Beneš decrees]] remain legally in effect in the Czech Republic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radio.cz/en/section/talking/the-benes-decrees-a-historians-point-of-view|title=Radio Prague - The "Benes decrees" - a historian's point of view|publisher=|accessdate=25 September 2015}}</ref> |
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===In Slovakia=== |
====In Slovakia==== |
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{{incoherent|date=June 2013}} |
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[[File:Zilina P6112384-selection.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Ján Slota]], the chairman of Slovak National Party [[Slovak National Party|SNS]], according to whom the Hungarian minority of Slovakia ''"is a [[tumour]] in the body of the Slovak nation."''<ref>{{cite web|title=Separatist Movements Seek Inspiration in Kosovo|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,537008-2,00.html|work=[[Der Spiegel]]|date=2008-02-22|accessdate=2008-08-06}}</ref><ref>[http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/europe/090814/slovakia-hungary Slovakia and Hungary just won't get along]</ref><ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,644853,00.html Slovakia and Hungary 'Dangerously Close to Playing with Fire']</ref>]] |
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Social class in pre-WWI Slovakia contributed to this phenomenon as well. In 1910, Slovaks primarily made up occupational fields such as agriculture, forestry, and fishing, putting them in the rural class category whereas Germans, Jews, and Hungarians represented the urban class. The struggling Slovaks in their search for identity utilized this data to overcome the situation hence elements of antimagyarism and [[antisemitism|anti-Semitism]] resurfaced in the early development of Slovak Nationalism.<ref name="magy">{{cite book |title= Jews, Poles, and Slovaks: A Story of Encounters, 1944--1948 |last= Cichopek-Gajraj |first= Anna |authorlink= |last2= |first2= University of Michigan |year=2008 |publisher=ProQuest, 2008|location= |isbn= 0549980822 |page= |pages= 46 |url=}}</ref>Slovakia kept applying various assimilation processes on the Hungarian minority throughout the [[Iron Curtain]] era that was tangled in a repetitious cycle of civil restriction loosening and law tightening with no end. Various villages and communities make good use of bilingual signs and as of today many Hungarian majority have them by "default". Furthermore, females of Hungarian or any non-Slovak background were required to affix the Slovak language feminine marker ''-ová'' at the end of their surname in the past.<ref name="BRND">{{Cite book |title=Minority rights in Central and Eastern Europe |last=Bernd |first= Rechel|authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2009|publisher= Taylor & Francis|location=|ref= |isbn=0415590310|page= |pages= |url= |accessdate=07-02-2009}}</ref> |
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[[File:Zilina P6112384-selection.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Ján Slota]], the chairman of Slovak National Party [[Slovak National Party|SNS]], according to whom the Hungarian minority of Slovakia ''"is a [[tumour]] in the body of the Slovak nation."''<ref>{{cite web|title=Separatist Movements Seek Inspiration in Kosovo|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,537008-2,00.html|work=[[Der Spiegel]]|date=2008-02-22|accessdate=2008-08-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/europe/090814/slovakia-hungary|title=Slovakia and Hungary just won't get along|author=Jan Cienski|work=GlobalPost|accessdate=25 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,644853,00.html|title=The World from Berlin: Slovakia and Hungary 'Dangerously Close to Playing with Fire'|author=SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg, Germany|date=25 August 2009|work=SPIEGEL ONLINE|accessdate=25 September 2015}}</ref>]] |
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Hungarian minority is officially recognized by the Slovak government. Some political parties (such as the [[Slovak National Party]])<ref name="Sharipol"/> fundamentally opposing the government giving the rights to Hungarian people are openly speaking for the complete assimilation of Hungarian minority into the Slovak society, suggesting that Hungarians in Slovakia are actually overprivileged.<ref name="Sharipol">{{Cite book |title=>Politics Without a Past: The Absence of History in Postcommunist Nationalism|last=Cohen |first= Shari J.|authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2009|publisher=Duke University Press, Nov 22, 1999|location=|ref= |isbn=0822323990 |page= |pages= 140 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> |
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[[Social class]] also contributed to this phenomenon in pre-World War I Slovakia. In 1910, Slovaks were primarily employed in rural fields such as agriculture, forestry, and fishing, whereas Germans, Jews, and Hungarians represented the urban class. The struggling Slovaks in their search for identity utilized this data to overcome the situation{{clarify|date=April 2014}} hence elements of antimagyarism and [[antisemitism|anti-Semitism]] resurfaced in the early development of Slovak Nationalism.<ref name="magy">{{cite book |title= Jews, Poles, and Slovaks: A Story of Encounters, 1944--1948 |last= Cichopek-Gajraj |first= Anna |authorlink= |publisher= University of Michigan |year=2008 |via=ProQuest, 2008|location= |isbn= 0549980822 |page= |pages= 46 |url=}}</ref> Slovakia continued to apply pressure on the Hungarian minority to assimilate throughout the [[Iron Curtain]] era, and the level of freedoms accorded to minorities fluctuated. Women, whether Slovak or not, were in the past required to affix the Slovak language feminine marker ''-ová'' at the end of their surname.<ref name="BRND">{{Cite book |title=Minority rights in Central and Eastern Europe |last=Bernd |first= Rechel|authorlink= |year= 2009|publisher= Taylor & Francis|location=|ref= |isbn=0415590310|page= |pages= |url= }}</ref> |
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Today the Hungarian minority is officially recognized by the Slovak government. Some political parties (such as the [[Slovak National Party]])<ref name="Sharipol"/> fundamentally oppose the granting of a special status to the Hungarian minority, and argue for the complete assimilation of the Hungarian minority into Slovak society: they suggest that Hungarians in Slovakia are actually overprivileged.<ref name="Sharipol">{{Cite book |title=Politics Without a Past: The Absence of History in Postcommunist Nationalism|last=Cohen |first= Shari J.|authorlink= |year= 2009|publisher=Duke University Press, Nov 22, 1999|location=|ref= |isbn=0822323990 |page= |pages= 140 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref><ref name=HHRF>[http://www.hhrf.org/hhrf/index_en.php?oldal=182 Hungarian Human Rights Foundation] New Slovak Government Embraces Ultra-Nationalists, Excludes Hungarian Coalition Party</ref> |
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In spite of antimagyar rhetorics coming from prominent Slovak politician figures (most notably Ján Slota)<ref name=HHRF>[http://www.hhrf.org/hhrf/index_en.php?oldal=182 Hungarian Human Rights Foundation] New Slovak Government Embraces Ultra-Nationalists, Excludes Hungarian Coalition Party</ref>. One of the contemporary incidents of a racially-motivated violence against Hungarians in Slovakia is the Hedvig Malina case. [[Hedvig Malina]], a 23-year-old Hungarian student from [[Horné Mýto]], was severely beat and robbed in [[Nitra]] (Nyitra in Slovak) after speaking [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] in public on her cellphone.<ref name=BP>{{cite web|title=Malina case bungled: Prosecutor|publisher=''The Budapest Times''|url=http://www.budapesttimes.hu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=635&Itemid=27|accessdate=2008-03-11}}</ref><ref name = "higherjustice">{{cite web|title=Maligned Hungarian seeks higher justice|publisher=''The Budapest Times'' |url=http://www.budapesttimes.hu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3070&Itemid=26 |date=2007-12-10|accessdate=2008-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.lepetitjournal.com/content/view/8350/956/ | language = French | title = Une étudiante met le feu aux poudres ("A student sets fire to the powder") | publisher = lepetitjournal.com | date = 2006-09-18 | accessdate = 2008-04-01 }}</ref> |
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One recent incident of ethnically motivated violence against Hungarians in Slovakia is the Hedvig Malina case. [[Hedvig Malina]], a 23-year-old Hungarian student from [[Horné Mýto]], was severely beaten and robbed in [[Nitra]] after speaking [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] in public on her cellphone.<ref name=BP>{{cite web|title=Malina case bungled: Prosecutor|publisher=''The Budapest Times''|url=http://www.budapesttimes.hu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=635&Itemid=27|accessdate=2008-03-11}}</ref><ref name = "higherjustice">{{cite web|title=Maligned Hungarian seeks higher justice|publisher=''The Budapest Times'' |url=http://www.budapesttimes.hu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3070&Itemid=26 |date=2007-12-10|accessdate=2008-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.lepetitjournal.com/content/view/8350/956/ | language = French | title = Une étudiante met le feu aux poudres ("A student sets fire to the powder") | publisher = lepetitjournal.com | date = 2006-09-18 | accessdate = 2008-04-01 }}</ref> A football match in [[Dunajská Streda]] also caused tensions between Slovakia and Hungary when Hungarian fans were badly beaten by Slovak police.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spectator.sme.sk/articles/view/33498/2/football_riot_stokes_tension.html |title=Football riot stokes tension |publisher=spectator.sme.sk |accessdate=2014-04-04}}</ref> |
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===In Romania=== |
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Several Hungarians were [[1848–1849 massacres in Transylvania|massacred]] in [[Transylvania]] (now part of Romania) during the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848]]. Such massacres occurred in the following places. |
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{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:600px" |
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|- |
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! Date |
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! Location |
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! Hungarian victims |
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|- |
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| October 12, 1848 |
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| [[Sângătin|Kisenyed]] (''Sângătin'') |
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| 140<ref name=Domokos>Domokos Pál Péter: Rendületlenül, Eötvös Kiadó-Szent Gellért Egyházi Kiadó, 1989, 33.-34. old.</ref> |
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|- |
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| 8–9 January 1849 |
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| [[Nagyenyed]] (''Aiud'') |
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| 600<ref name="patterson">Gerő, Patterson (1995), p. 102</ref> |
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|- |
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| October 1848 |
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| [[Ighiu|Magyarigen]] (''Ighiu'') |
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| 200<ref name=Matyas>Mátyás Vilmos: Utazások Erdélyben, Panoráma, 1977, 56. old.</ref> |
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|- |
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| October 24, 1848 |
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| [[Presaca Ampoiului|Ompolygyepü]]i (''Presaca Ampoiului'') railway station |
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| 700<ref name=Matyas/> |
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|- |
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| January 1849 |
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| [[Ocna Mureş|Marosújvár]] (''Ocna Mureş'') |
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| 90<ref name=Domokos/> |
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|- |
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| 1848 |
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| [[Alba Iulia|Gyulafehérvár]] (''Alba Iulia'') |
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| unknown<ref name=Gracza>Gracza György: Az 1848/49-es magyar szabadságharc története, Budapest, Wodianer F. és Fiai kiadása, 337. és 339. old.</ref> |
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|- |
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| October 1848 |
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| [[Năsăud|Naszód]] (''Năsăud'') |
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| unknown<ref name=Gracza/> |
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|- |
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| October 1848 |
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| [[Zalatna]] (''Zlatna'') |
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| 640<ref name=MagyarNemzet>Magyar Nemzet: [http://www.mno.hu/portal/611317 Fejőszék Százhatvan éve irtották ki Nagyenyedet a román felkelők]</ref> |
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|- |
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| October 1848 |
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| [[Bărăbanţ|Borbánd]] (''Bărăbanţ'') |
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| unknown<ref name=Gracza/> |
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|} |
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====In Romania==== |
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Transylvanian nationalists of Romanian background, citing [[Nicolae Ceaușescu]] as their favorite ideology figure, often propagate views that could be interpreted as antisemitic and anti-Hungarian in general.<ref name="Roma"/>{{Quote needed|date=June 2013}}{{dubious|date=June 2013}} |
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In Romania, the Ceaușescu regime was obsessed with the [[Protochronism|ancient history]] of Transylvania and suffering from Magyarophobia.{{clarify|date=April 2014}}<ref name="Boia"/> Due to the nationalistic [[National Communism in Romania|state ideology]],<ref name="Petrescu"/> the historical personalities of Hungary (such as [[John Hunyadi]] or [[György Dózsa]])<ref name="Petrescu">{{cite web|url=http://www.eurhistxx.de/spip.php%3Farticle78&lang=en.html |title=Rethinking National Identity after National-Communism? The case of Romania (by Cristina Petrescu, University of Bucharest) |publisher=www.eurhistxx.de |accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref><ref>The Hungarian national component of the movement led by Dózsa was de-emphasized, while its strong antifeudal character was highlighted: {{ro icon}} Emanuel Copilaş, [http://www.sferapoliticii.ro/sfera/139/art09-copilas.html "Confiscarea lui Dumnezeu şi mecanismul inevitabilităţii istorice"], ''Sfera Politicii'' 139, September 2009</ref> went through [[Romanianization]] in these years, becoming more central figures in the Romanian history.<ref name="Boia">Lucian Boia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RM6MRPWXxQYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=History+and+Myth+in+Romanian+Consciousness&hl=en&sa=X&ei=hwC3UcrCLMmoO47HgLAG&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=History%20and%20Myth%20in%20Romanian%20Consciousness&f=false History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness], Central European University Press, 2001, p. 222 Citation:"....Thanks to the trios of Gelu, Glad and Menumorut, and Horea, Cloşca and Crişan, the Transylvanian heroes are actually more numerous than those of Wallachia or Moldavia, illustrating the obsession with Transylvania and the Hungarophobia that became accentuated towards the end of the Ceauşescu era."</ref> |
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A reported case of hate crime occurred in [[Cluj-Napoca]] where 12 year-old child was brought to hospital after assaulted in a public park for speaking Hungarian.<ref name="OneRech">{{Cite book |title=Romania: A Case of "Dynastic" Communism (Issue 11 of Perspectives on Freedom) |last=Freedom House (U.S.) |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= the University of Michigan |year= 2009|publisher= Freedom House, 1989 |location=|ref= |isbn=9780932088352 |page= |pages= 109 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> |
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==Derogatory terms== |
==Derogatory terms== |
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===In English=== |
===In English=== |
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* '''[[Bohunk]]''' – combination of "Hungarian" and "Bohemian". An immigrant of East-Central European origin. A Laborer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bohunk|title=Bohunk - Definition of bohunk by Merriam-Webster|publisher=|accessdate=25 September 2015}}</ref><ref>"bohunk" in the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref> |
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* '''[[Honky]]''' – derived from the word Hungarian. ''(dated)''{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} |
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* '''[[Hunky]]''' – derived from the "Bohunk" |
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* '''[[Bohunk]]''' – combination of "Hungarian" and "Bohemian". An immigrant of East-Central European origin. A Laborer.<ref>http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bohunk</ref><ref>“bohunk” in the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref> |
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* '''[[Mongols]]''' – highly linked to [[Attila]]'s invasion to Europe, notably the conquest of Eastern Europe, which belong to Romania, Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Moldova and Slovakia today. |
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===In Romanian=== |
===In Romanian=== |
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* '''Bozgor''' (m), '''Bozgoroaică''' (f), '''Bozgori''' (pl.) – pseudo-Magyar term of possible Romanian/Slav origin. An ethnic slur describing Hungarians.<ref>http://www.rsdb.org/race/hungarians</ref> |
* '''Bozgor''' (m), '''Bozgoroaică''' (f), '''Bozgori''' (pl.) – pseudo-Magyar term of possible Romanian/Slav origin. An ethnic slur describing Hungarians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rsdb.org/race/hungarians|title=The Racial Slur Database|publisher=|accessdate=25 September 2015}}</ref> A view is that it means "homeless","stateless"".<ref>Vilmos Tánczos, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QjSNrRCYFpUC&pg=PA130 Language Use, Attitudes, Strategies. Linguistic Identity and Ethnicity in the Moldavian Csángó Villages], Editura ISPMN, 2012, p. 130</ref> {{ill|hu|Szilágyi N. Sándor}} speculated that the word is a combination of the Hungarian slur ''ba(s)zd meg'' ("fuck you") and the Romanian word for ''Hungarian'', namely ''ungur''<ref>http://adatbank.transindex.ro/html/alcim_pdf457.pdf</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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*[[Gheorghe Funar]] |
*[[Gheorghe Funar]] |
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*[[Nicolae Ceaușescu]] |
*[[Nicolae Ceaușescu]] |
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*[[Romanophobia]] |
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{{col-break}} |
{{col-break}} |
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*[[Edvard Beneš]] |
*[[Edvard Beneš]] |
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*[[Noua Dreaptă]] |
*[[Noua Dreaptă]] |
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*[[Slovakisation]] |
*[[Slovakisation]] |
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*[[Magyarization]] |
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{{col-end}} |
{{col-end}} |
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==Notes and references== |
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==References== |
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'''Notes''' |
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{{reflist}} |
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{{Reflist|group=Note}} |
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'''References''' |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
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==Bibliography== |
==Bibliography== |
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{{cite book |title=Modern Hungarian society in the making: the unfinished experience |last=Gerő |first=András |authorlink= | |
{{cite book |title=Modern Hungarian society in the making: the unfinished experience |last=Gerő |first=András |authorlink= |author2=Patterson, James |year=1995 |publisher=[[Central European University Press]] |location= |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= |ref= }} |
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{{Anti-cultural sentiment}} |
{{Anti-cultural sentiment}} |
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[[Category:Anti-Hungarian sentiment]] |
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[[Category:Anti-Hungarian sentiment| ]] |
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[[Category:Hungarian society]] |
[[Category:Hungarian society]] |
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[[Category:Hungarian diaspora]] |
[[Category:Hungarian diaspora]] |
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[[Category:Anti-national sentiment|Hungarian]] |
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[[hu:Magyarellenesség]] |
Revision as of 08:03, 30 June 2016
Part of a series on |
Discrimination |
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Hungarophobia[1][2] (also known as Anti-Hungarianism, Magyarophobia[3] or Antimagyarism[4]) is dislike, distrust, racism, or xenophobia directed against the Hungarians. It can involve hatred, grievance, distrust, intimidation, fear, and hostility towards the Hungarian people, language and culture. Due to Hungarian background, especially about Atilla the Hun, it is confused with Anti-Turkism and Anti-Mongolianism.
History
The beginnings
During the era of the Habsburg Austro-Hungarian monarchs, the court in Vienna was influenced by Hungarophobia; though the Hungarian side, the landowner nobles, also showed signs of Germanophobia.[5] In the 18th century, after the end of Rákóczi's War of Independence, many immigrants came to the underpopulated southern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary: for instance 800 new German villages were established.[6] The authorities preferred non-Hungarian settlers. The Habsburgs regarded Hungarians as "politically unreliable", and so they were not allowed to settle in the southern territories until the 1740s.[7] This organized resettlement was planned by the Habsburgs. The resettlement policy was characterized as anti-Hungarian,[8][9] because, among other reasons, the Habsburgs feared an uprising of Protestant Hungarians.[10]
The Habsburg Ruler and his advisers skilfully manipulated the Croatian, Serbian and Romanian peasantry, led by priests and officers firmly loyal to the Habsburgs, and induced them to rebel against the Hungarian government.[Note 1] Thousands of Hungarians were massacred in Transylvania in 1848-49 (now part of Romania) in nine separate incidents during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.
Modern era
In Czechoslovakia
Minorities in Czechoslovakia during the years 1918-1939 enjoyed personal freedoms and were properly recognized by the state. There were three Hungarian and/or Hungarian-centric political parties:
- Hungarian-German Social Democratic Party
- Hungarian National Party
- Provincial Christian-Socialist Party
After World War II, Czechoslovakia became a communist state; during the transition to a communist one-party state, decrees permitting the forced[11] expulsion of German and Hungarian minorities from ethnic enclaves in Czechoslovakia came into effect, and Hungarians were forcibly relocated to Sudetenland, on the borders of Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovak government deported more than 44,129 Hungarians from Slovakia to the Sudetenland for forced labor[12][13] between 1945 and 1948.[13] To this day, these Beneš decrees remain legally in effect in the Czech Republic.[14]
In Slovakia
Social class also contributed to this phenomenon in pre-World War I Slovakia. In 1910, Slovaks were primarily employed in rural fields such as agriculture, forestry, and fishing, whereas Germans, Jews, and Hungarians represented the urban class. The struggling Slovaks in their search for identity utilized this data to overcome the situation[clarification needed] hence elements of antimagyarism and anti-Semitism resurfaced in the early development of Slovak Nationalism.[18] Slovakia continued to apply pressure on the Hungarian minority to assimilate throughout the Iron Curtain era, and the level of freedoms accorded to minorities fluctuated. Women, whether Slovak or not, were in the past required to affix the Slovak language feminine marker -ová at the end of their surname.[19]
Today the Hungarian minority is officially recognized by the Slovak government. Some political parties (such as the Slovak National Party)[20] fundamentally oppose the granting of a special status to the Hungarian minority, and argue for the complete assimilation of the Hungarian minority into Slovak society: they suggest that Hungarians in Slovakia are actually overprivileged.[20][21]
One recent incident of ethnically motivated violence against Hungarians in Slovakia is the Hedvig Malina case. Hedvig Malina, a 23-year-old Hungarian student from Horné Mýto, was severely beaten and robbed in Nitra after speaking Hungarian in public on her cellphone.[22][23][24] A football match in Dunajská Streda also caused tensions between Slovakia and Hungary when Hungarian fans were badly beaten by Slovak police.[25]
In Romania
In Romania, the Ceaușescu regime was obsessed with the ancient history of Transylvania and suffering from Magyarophobia.[clarification needed][26] Due to the nationalistic state ideology,[27] the historical personalities of Hungary (such as John Hunyadi or György Dózsa)[27][28] went through Romanianization in these years, becoming more central figures in the Romanian history.[26]
Derogatory terms
In English
- Bohunk – combination of "Hungarian" and "Bohemian". An immigrant of East-Central European origin. A Laborer.[29][30]
- Hunky – derived from the "Bohunk"
- Mongols – highly linked to Attila's invasion to Europe, notably the conquest of Eastern Europe, which belong to Romania, Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Moldova and Slovakia today.
In Romanian
- Bozgor (m), Bozgoroaică (f), Bozgori (pl.) – pseudo-Magyar term of possible Romanian/Slav origin. An ethnic slur describing Hungarians.[31] A view is that it means "homeless","stateless"".[32] hu speculated that the word is a combination of the Hungarian slur ba(s)zd meg ("fuck you") and the Romanian word for Hungarian, namely ungur[33]
See also
|
Notes and references
Notes
- ^ This attitude is not unprecedented: the Austrian government used the Galician uprising to decimate Polish insurgent nobles.[citation needed]
References
- ^ Viktor Karády, The Jews of Europe in the Modern Era: A Socio-Historical Outline, Central European University Press, 2004, p. 223
- ^ András Bán, Hungarian-British Diplomacy, 1938-1941: The Attempt to Maintain Relations, Routledge, 2004, p. 128
- ^ Boyer, John W. (2009). Culture and Political Crisis in Vienna: Christian Socialism in Power, 1897-1918. University of Chicago Press, 1995. p. 116. ISBN 9780226069609.
- ^ Verdery, Katherine. National Ideology Under Socialism: Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceauşescu's Romania. University of California Press, 1995. p. 317. ISBN 9780932088352.
{{cite book}}
: line feed character in|title=
at position 35 (help) - ^ Michael Hochedlinger, Austria's Wars of Emergence: War, State and Society in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1683-1797, Pearson Education, 2003, p. 25
- ^ Thomas Spira, German-Hungarian relations and the Swabian problem: from Károlyi to Gömbös, 1919-1936, East European quarterly, 1977, p. 2
- ^ Károly Kocsis, Eszter Kocsisné Hodosi, Ethnic Geography of the Hungarian Minority on the Carpathian Basin, Simon Publications LLC, 1998, pp 140 -141
- ^ Hídfő könyvtár, Volume 8, Issue 1, p. 48
- ^ Istvàn Sisa, Magyarságtükör: nemzet határok nélkül, Püski, 2001, p. 99 Cited: "Magyarellenes betelepítési politika. A felszabadulást követően a Habsburgok olyan betelepítési politikát alkalmaztak, mely még tovább gyengítette a magyarok helyzetét." Translation: "(Section name) Anti-Hungarian resettlement policy. After the liberation, the policy employed by the Habsburgs weakened the situation of Hungarians more."
- ^ Tibor Iván Berend, Éva Ring, Helyünk Európában: nézetek és koncepciók a 20. századi Magyarországon, Volume 1, Magvető, 1986, p. 144 Cited: "A Habsburg-család azonban a kálvinista magyarok lázadásától való félelmében az évszázados török háborúk által elpusztított területen magyarellenes telepítési politikát kezdeményezett" Translation: "The Habsburg family initiated an anti-Hungarian resettlement policy in the destroyed territories (caused by hundreds of years of Turkish wars) because of their fear of an uprising of Calvinist Hungarians"
- ^ Thum, Gregor (2006–2007). "Ethnic Cleansing in Eastern Europe after 1945". Contemporary European History. 19 (1): 75–81. doi:10.1017/S0960777309990257.
- ^ Eleonore C. M. Breuning, Dr. Jill Lewis, Gareth Pritchard, Power and the people: a social history of Central European politics, 1945-56, Manchester University Press, 2005, p. 140
- ^ a b Anna Fenyvesi, Hungarian language contact outside Hungary: studies on Hungarian as a minority language, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2005, p. 50
- ^ "Radio Prague - The "Benes decrees" - a historian's point of view". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
- ^ "Separatist Movements Seek Inspiration in Kosovo". Der Spiegel. 2008-02-22. Retrieved 2008-08-06.
- ^ Jan Cienski. "Slovakia and Hungary just won't get along". GlobalPost. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
- ^ SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg, Germany (25 August 2009). "The World from Berlin: Slovakia and Hungary 'Dangerously Close to Playing with Fire'". SPIEGEL ONLINE. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna (2008). Jews, Poles, and Slovaks: A Story of Encounters, 1944--1948. University of Michigan. p. 46. ISBN 0549980822 – via ProQuest, 2008.
- ^ Bernd, Rechel (2009). Minority rights in Central and Eastern Europe. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0415590310.
- ^ a b Cohen, Shari J. (2009). Politics Without a Past: The Absence of History in Postcommunist Nationalism. Duke University Press, Nov 22, 1999. p. 140. ISBN 0822323990.
- ^ Hungarian Human Rights Foundation New Slovak Government Embraces Ultra-Nationalists, Excludes Hungarian Coalition Party
- ^ "Malina case bungled: Prosecutor". The Budapest Times. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
{{cite web}}
: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ "Maligned Hungarian seeks higher justice". The Budapest Times. 2007-12-10. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
{{cite web}}
: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ "Une étudiante met le feu aux poudres ("A student sets fire to the powder")" (in French). lepetitjournal.com. 2006-09-18. Retrieved 2008-04-01.
- ^ "Football riot stokes tension". spectator.sme.sk. Retrieved 2014-04-04.
- ^ a b Lucian Boia, History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness, Central European University Press, 2001, p. 222 Citation:"....Thanks to the trios of Gelu, Glad and Menumorut, and Horea, Cloşca and Crişan, the Transylvanian heroes are actually more numerous than those of Wallachia or Moldavia, illustrating the obsession with Transylvania and the Hungarophobia that became accentuated towards the end of the Ceauşescu era."
- ^ a b "Rethinking National Identity after National-Communism? The case of Romania (by Cristina Petrescu, University of Bucharest)". www.eurhistxx.de. Retrieved 2014-04-03.
- ^ The Hungarian national component of the movement led by Dózsa was de-emphasized, while its strong antifeudal character was highlighted: Template:Ro icon Emanuel Copilaş, "Confiscarea lui Dumnezeu şi mecanismul inevitabilităţii istorice", Sfera Politicii 139, September 2009
- ^ "Bohunk - Definition of bohunk by Merriam-Webster". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
- ^ "bohunk" in the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 2004.
- ^ "The Racial Slur Database". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
- ^ Vilmos Tánczos, Language Use, Attitudes, Strategies. Linguistic Identity and Ethnicity in the Moldavian Csángó Villages, Editura ISPMN, 2012, p. 130
- ^ http://adatbank.transindex.ro/html/alcim_pdf457.pdf
Bibliography
Gerő, András; Patterson, James (1995). Modern Hungarian society in the making: the unfinished experience. Central European University Press.